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231631

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Hine

Lewis Hine

Lewis Wickes Hine (September 26, 1874 – November 3, 1940) was an American sociologist and muckraker photographer. His photographs were instrumental in bringing about the passage of the first child labor laws in the United States. Early life Hine was born in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, on September 26, 1874. After his father was killed in an accident, Hine began working and saved his money for a college education. He studied sociology at the University of Chicago, Columbia University and New York University. He became a teacher in New York City at the Ethical Culture School, where he encouraged his students to use photography as an educational medium. Hine led his sociology classes to Ellis Island in New York Harbor, photographing the thousands of immigrants who arrived each day. Between 1904 and 1909, Hine took over 200 plates (photographs) and came to the realization that documentary photography could be employed as a tool for social change and reform. Documentary photography In 1907, Hine became the staff photographer of the Russell Sage Foundation; he photographed life in the steel-making districts and people of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for the influential sociological study called The Pittsburgh Survey. In 1908, Hine became the photographer for the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), leaving his teaching position. Over the next decade, Hine documented child labor, with focus on the use of child labor in the Carolina Piedmont, to aid the NCLC's lobbying efforts to end the practice.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712885?casa_token=OHiNA4snr_YAAAAA%3AwzkXrYQRIPVCU81WBKymdUrEhchSsMLDDQaINXyhlWqCurL5V_Xh2zeODRh_fGOGKo_Syf6kukPqAZTg8yjn0HQXuJe6CwMIeiE7bIpdVVJaQakl9Mk&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents The American Quarterly, 'Lewis Hine: From "Social" to "Interpretive" Photographer, Peter Seixas]</ref> In 1913, he documented child laborers among cotton mill workers with a series of Francis Galton's composite portraits. Hine's work for the NCLC was often dangerous. As a photographer, he was frequently threatened with violence or even death by factory police and foremen. At the time, the immorality of child labor was meant to be hidden from the public. Photography was not only prohibited but also posed a serious threat to the industry. To gain entry to the mills, mines and factories, Hine was forced to assume many guises. At times he was a fire inspector, postcard vendor, bible salesman, or even an industrial photographer making a record of factory machinery. During and after World War I, he photographed American Red Cross relief work in Europe. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Hine made a series of "work portraits," which emphasized the human contribution to modern industry. In 1930, Hine was commissioned to document the construction of the Empire State Building. He photographed the workers in precarious positions while they secured the steel framework of the structure, taking many of the same risks that the workers endured. To obtain the best vantage points, Hine was swung out in a specially-designed basket 1,000 ft above Fifth Avenue. At times, he remembered, he hung above the city with nothing below but "a sheer drop of nearly a quarter-mile." During the Great Depression Hine again worked for the Red Cross, photographing drought relief in the American South, and for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), documenting life in the mountains of eastern Tennessee. He also served as chief photographer for the Works Progress Administration's National Research Project, which studied changes in industry and their effect on employment. Hine was also a faculty member of the Ethical Culture Fieldston School. Later life In 1936, Hine was selected as the photographer for the National Research Project of the Works Projects Administration, but his work there was not completed. The last years of his life were filled with professional struggles by loss of government and corporate patronage. Hine hoped to join the Farm Security Administration photography project, but despite writing repeatedly to Roy Stryker, Stryker always refused. Few people were interested in his work, past or present, and Hine lost his house and applied for welfare. He died on November 3, 1940, at Dobbs Ferry Hospital in Dobbs Ferry, New York, after an operation. He was 66 years old. Legacy Hine's photographs supported the NCLC's lobbying to end child labor, and in 1912 the Children's Bureau was created. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 eventually brought child labour in the US to an end. After Hine's death, his son Corydon donated his prints and negatives to the Photo League, which was dismantled in 1951. The Museum of Modern Art was offered his pictures and did not accept them, but the George Eastman House did. In 2006, author Elizabeth Winthrop Alsop's historical fiction middle-grade novel, Counting on Grace was published by Wendy Lamb Books. The latter chapters center on 12-year-old Grace and her life-changing encounter with Hine, during his 1910 visit to a Vermont cotton mill known to have many child laborers. On the cover is the iconic photo of Grace's real-life counterpart, Addie Card (1897–1993), taken during Hine's undercover visit to the Pownal Cotton Mill. In 2016, Time published colorized versions of several of Hine's photographs of child labor in the US. Collections Hine's work is held in the following public collections: Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL Albin O. Kuhn Library & Gallery of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County – almost five thousand NCLC photographs George Eastman House – nearly ten thousand photographs and negatives Library of Congress – over 5,000 photographs, including examples of Hine's child labor and Red Cross photographs, his work portraits, and his WPA and TVA images. New York Public Library, New York International Photography Hall of Fame, St.Louis, MO Notable photographsChild Labor: Girls in FactoryBreaker Boys (1910)Young Doffers in the Elk Cotton Mills (1910)Steam Fitter (1920)Workers, Empire State Building (1931) Gallery See alsoHouse Calls'' (2006 film), a documentary about physician and photographer Mark Nowaczynski, who was inspired by Hine to photograph elderly patients. References External links Lewis Wickes Hine | University of Illinois Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor | National Archives David Joseph Marcou, 'Lewis Wickes Hine, 1874-1940: A Biographical Essay, with Photographs by Lewis Wickes Hine | University of Missouri 20th-century American photographers American portrait photographers Social documentary photographers American sociologists Child labor in the United States People of the New Deal arts projects Progressive Era in the United States Works Progress Administration workers Columbia University alumni University of Chicago alumni New York University alumni People from Oshkosh, Wisconsin 1874 births 1940 deaths

233935

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe%20bomb

Pipe bomb

A pipe bomb is an improvised explosive device which uses a tightly sealed section of pipe filled with an explosive material. The containment provided by the pipe means that simple low explosives can be used to produce a relatively huge explosion due to the containment causing increased pressure, and the fragmentation of the pipe itself creates potentially lethal shrapnel. Premature detonation is a hazard of attempting to construct any homemade bomb, and the materials and methods used with pipe bombs make unintentional detonation incidents common, usually resulting in serious injury or death to the assembler. In many countries, the manufacture or possession of a pipe bomb is a serious crime, regardless of its intended use. Design The bomb is usually a short section of steel water pipe containing the explosive mixture and closed at both ends with steel or brass caps. A fuse is inserted into the pipe with a lead running out through a hole in the side or capped end of the pipe. The fuse can be electric, with wires leading to a timer and battery, or can be a common fuse. All of the components are easily obtainable. Generally, high explosives such as TNT are not used, because these and the detonators that they require are difficult for non-state users to obtain. Such explosives also do not require the containment of a pipe bomb. Instead, any sort of explosive mixture the builder can find or make is used. Some of the explosive mixtures used, such as gunpowder, match heads, or chlorate mixtures, are very prone to ignition by the friction and static electricity and sparks generated when packing the material inside the tube or attaching the end caps, causing many injuries or deaths amongst builders. Sharp objects such as nails or broken glass are sometimes added to the outer shell, or inside, of the bomb to increase potential injury, damage, and death. Operation Pipe bombs concentrate pressure and release it suddenly, through the failure of the outer casing. Plastic materials can be used, but metals typically have a much higher bursting strength and so will produce more concussive force. For example, common schedule 40 wrought steel pipe has a typical working pressure of , and bursting pressure of , though the pipe sealing method can significantly reduce the burst pressure. The pipe can rupture in different ways, depending on the rate of pressure rise and the ductility of the casing material. If the pressure rise is slow, the metal can deform until the walls become thin and a hole is formed, causing a loud report from the gas release, but no shrapnel. A rapid rate of pressure rise will cause the metal to shatter into fragments, which are pushed outward in all directions by the expanding gases. Modes of failure Pipe bombs can fail to explode if the gas pressure buildup is too slow, resulting in bleed-out through the detonator ignition hole. Insufficiently tight threading can also bleed gas pressure through the threads faster than the chemical reaction pressure can rise. They can also fail if the pipe is fully sealed and the chemical reaction triggered, but the total pressure buildup from the chemicals is insufficient to exceed the casing strength; such a bomb is a dud, but still potentially dangerous if handled, since an external shock could trigger rupture of the statically pressurized casing. Minimum evacuation distances If any type of bomb is suspected, typical recommendations are to keep all people at a minimum evacuation distance until authorized bomb disposal personnel arrive. For a pipe bomb, the US Department of Homeland Security recommends a minimum of , and preferred distance of . Uses Pipe bombs are by nature improvised weapons and typically used by those without access to military devices such as grenades. They were successfully used in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). During World War II, members of the British Home Guard were trained to make and use them. In Northern Ireland, there have been hundreds of pipe bomb attacks since the mid-1990s (towards the end of the "Troubles"). Most of the attacks have been launched by loyalist paramilitaries, especially the Red Hand Defenders, Orange Volunteers and Ulster Defence Association. However, they have also been used by Irish republican paramilitaries and by anti-drugs vigilante group Republican Action Against Drugs. They are also used extensively in the south of Ireland by feuding criminals, including drug dealers, mainly in the capital city of Dublin. As well as users such as criminals, paramilitaries, and militias, they also have a long tradition of recreational use for amusement or mischief with no intention to cause injury to anyone, but due to the dangers of premature ignition and of shrapnel, pipe bombs are much more dangerous than alternatives such as dry ice bombs or potato cannons. Notable incidents On 4 May 1886, a pipe bomb was thrown during a rally at Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It reached a police line and exploded, killing policeman Mathias J. Degan. The bomb was made from gas-pipe filled with dynamite and capped at both ends with wooden blocks. From August 1977 to November 1977 Allan Steen Kristensen planted several bombs across Copenhagen, Denmark injuring 5 but killing no one. In 1985, Palestinian American anti-discrimination activist Alex Odeh was killed in California by a pipe-bomb. Activists from the Jewish Defense League are suspected of being the bombers. On December 16, 1989, Federal Judge Robert Vance was assassinated in his home in Mountain Brook, Alabama when he opened a package that contained a pipe bomb mailed by Walter Leroy Moody in Mountain Brook, Alabama. On 27 July 1996, Eric Rudolph used a pipe bomb in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing during the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It killed two people and injured 111. During the preparation of the Columbine High School Massacre, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold had experimented with pipe bombs. During their testing and experimentation, Eric Harris had posted their results on his website. During the massacre, Harris and Klebold had used their pipe bombs as makeshift hand grenades, alongside various other bombs they had crudely manufactured. On 11 December 2010 a suicide bomber detonated one out of six pipe bombs close to a major shopping district in Stockholm, Sweden, killing himself with no other casualties in what is known as the 2010 Stockholm bombings. In October 2018, pipe bombs without triggering devices were sent to various liberal and political figures in the United States. Recipients included political activist and investor George Soros, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, former President Barack Obama, former CIA Director John Brennan, and former Attorney General Eric Holder. On 6 January 2021, a pipe bomb was found at the headquarters of the Republican National Committee, during the certification of President-elect Joe Biden. An unidentified object was also found at the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, resulting in an evacuation. See also Improvised explosive device TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook References –Apparatus and method for disarming pipe bombs Improvised explosive devices Insurgency weapons

235641

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Bryant

Chris Bryant

Christopher John Bryant (born 11 January 1962) is a British politician and former Anglican priest who served as Deputy Leader of the House of Commons from 2008 to 2009 and Under-Secretary of State for Europe and Asia from 2009 to 2010. He later served in the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Culture Secretary and Shadow Leader of the House of Commons from 2015 to 2016. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Rhondda since 2001. Born in Cardiff, Bryant was privately educated at Cheltenham College before studying English at Mansfield College, Oxford. After graduating with a further degree in theology, he worked as a Church of England priest as well as having roles at the BBC and Common Purpose. He was elected for Rhondda at the 2001 general election, with one of the largest majorities in the country. Early life Chris Bryant was born in Cardiff, Wales, to a Scottish mother and a Welsh father. Bryant grew up in Cardiff (where his father worked for five years), Spain for five years in the 1960s (leading to his speaking fluent Spanish), and Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. He was educated at Cheltenham College, an independent school for boys in Cheltenham, and at Mansfield College, Oxford, where he read English. Although initially a member of the Conservative Party, and an elected office-holder in the Oxford University Conservative Association, he joined the Labour Party in 1986 after leaving Oxford. Priesthood After completing his first degree, Bryant began his training to be a priest in the Church of England at Ripon College Cuddesdon in Oxfordshire. There, he obtained a further degree in theology. He was ordained deacon in 1986 and priest in 1987. He served as a curate at the Church of All Saints, High Wycombe from 1986 to 1989 and then as a Youth Chaplain in Peterborough, as well as travelling in Latin America. In 1991 Bryant left the ordained ministry, after deciding that being gay and being a priest were incompatible. Statements made by Richard Harries, the then-Bishop of Oxford also influenced his decision. Early political career After leaving the priesthood in 1991, Bryant made a radical career move and began work as the election agent to the Holborn and St Pancras Constituency Labour Party, where he helped Frank Dobson hold his seat in the 1992 general election. From 1993 he was Local Government Officer for the Labour Party; he lived in Hackney and was elected to Hackney Borough Council in 1993, representing Leabridge ward and serving until 1998. He became Chairman of the Christian Socialist Movement. From 1994 to 1996 he was London manager of the charity Common Purpose. In 1996, he became a full-time author, writing biographies of Stafford Cripps and Glenda Jackson. He was Labour candidate for Wycombe in the 1997 general election (where he lost by 2,370 votes), and Head of European Affairs for the BBC from 1998. Parliamentary career His selection for the very safe Labour seat of Rhondda in South Wales in 2000 surprised many people given Bryant's background – gay, a former Anglican vicar, and someone who had been a Conservative as a student. He says of his surprise selection, "I fell off the chair, and my opponents certainly did". Fifty-two people applied for the candidature and a local councillor was hot favourite to win. He retained the seat comfortably at the 2001 general election with a 16,047 majority, one of the largest in the country. In 2003 Bryant voted for participation in the Iraq war. He is a member of the Labour Friends of Israel and Labour Friends of Palestine & the Middle East group. From 2004 until 2007 Bryant was chairman of the Labour Movement for Europe, succeeded by Mary Creagh MP. Bryant is a signatory of the Henry Jackson Society principles. On 5 September 2006, with Siôn Simon, he co-ordinated a prominent letter which was signed by 15 Labour backbenchers calling for Tony Blair's immediate resignation. Bryant was the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs Charlie Falconer. In Gordon Brown's autumn 2008 reshuffle, Bryant was promoted from his role as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Harriet Harman to the ministerial position of Deputy Leader of the House of Commons otherwise known as Parliamentary Secretary to the House of Commons. This was followed by another move in the June 2009 reshuffle, when he moved to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office as the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. On 13 October 2009 he was also appointed Minister for Europe. In May 2020, Bryant was elected as the Chair of the Parliamentary Standards Committee. After the attempt by Boris Johnson to overturn the Standards Committee's decision on Owen Paterson he has led the initiative to clean up the issue of MPs' second jobs. Phone hacking scandal On 11 March 2003, as part of an Enquiry into Privacy and Press Intrusion by the Commons Select Committee on Culture, Media and Sport, he asked Rebekah Wade (now Brooks) whether she had ever paid police officers for information. Seated beside Andy Coulson, the editor of the News of the World, she said 'yes'. Bryant had his phone hacked later that year by the News of the World, a fact which became known to the Metropolitan Police when they seized material from the private investigator Glenn Mulcaire. Bryant sought judicial review of the Metropolitan Police along with John Prescott and Brian Paddick, in an attempt to force them to contact all the victims of phone hacking by the News of the World. The Metropolitan Police accepted their liability and he won damages of £30,000 from News International in 2012. Bryant called for and led the parliamentary debates on referring the phone hacking scandal to the Standards and Privileges Committee on 9 September 2010, and the Emergency Debate on whether there should be a judge led enquiry on 6 July 2011 which led to the setting up of the Leveson Inquiry. Expenses claims scandal Bryant claimed over £92,000 in expenses over the five years leading up to the 2009 scandal over MPs' expenses. During that time he flipped his second-home expenses twice. He claimed mortgage interest expenses that started at £7,800 per year before rising (after flipping) to £12,000 per year. He also claimed £6,400 in stamp duty and other fees on his most recent purchase, and £6,000 per year in service charges. In opposition In October 2010, Bryant stood as one of 49 candidates for election to the 19 places in the Shadow Cabinet in the internal Labour Party poll, receiving 77 votes, 29th position on the list. In October 2010, Bryant described the coalition government's housing benefit reforms as poorer people "being socially engineered and sociologically cleansed out of London". The use of the term "cleansing" was criticised by members of the coalition, including deputy prime minister Nick Clegg, who called Bryant's comment "offensive to people who had witnessed ethnic cleansing in other parts of the world". In 2011, in the House of Commons, he criticised Prince Andrew, Duke of York for a number of alleged indiscretions. Bryant won the Stonewall Politician of the Year Award in 2011 for his work to support equality for lesbian, gay and bisexual people. He was given a score of 100% in favour of lesbian, gay and bisexual equality by Stonewall. On 5 February 2013 he voted in favour in the House of Commons Second Reading vote on same-sex marriage in Britain. In December 2014, Bryant was moved from Shadow Minister for Welfare Reform to Shadow Minister for the Arts. In this position, he suggested in January 2015 that too many successful artists such as "James Blunt and their ilk" had been educated at private schools, and that he wanted to see more encouragement for the arts for people from a variety of backgrounds, even though Bryant himself attended a private school. Blunt said that Bryant was a "narrow-minded 'classist gimp' who was motivated by the 'politics of jealousy'"; Bryant responded by claiming that Blunt should not be "so blooming precious" and that he was not "knocking [his] success" but attempting to draw attention to the lack of diversity in the arts. In September 2015, following Jeremy Corbyn's election as Labour Party leader, Bryant was appointed Shadow Leader of the House of Commons. He resigned from this position on 26 June 2016, along with other shadow ministers after the Brexit vote. He supported Owen Smith in the failed attempt to replace Jeremy Corbyn in the 2016 Labour Party leadership election. In January 2017 Bryant, ex-chair of the all-party parliamentary group for Russia, claimed that the Russian government orchestrated a homophobic campaign to remove him from this position, saying that the Russian government has acquired kompromat on high-profile Conservative Party MPs including Boris Johnson, Liam Fox, Alan Duncan and David Davis. On 12 January 2017, Bryant bemused his fellow MPs and Speaker of the House John Bercow, when he wished Bercow happy "kiss a ginger day", during business questions. In November 2017 Bryant called for the arrest of the President of the United States, Donald Trump, if he travels to the United Kingdom, after the President shared a comment on the social media website Twitter from a member of the far-right group Britain First that related to radical Islamic events. Bryant stated: "The Prime Minister should make it absolutely clear that if Donald Trump comes to this country he'll be arrested for inciting religious hatred and therefore he'd be better off not coming at all." On 10 September 2019, Bryant announced that he would stand in the election to be the next Speaker of the House of Commons following the announcement by John Bercow of his intention to resign on 31 October 2019. On 4 November he was the runner-up candidate in the parliamentary vote for Speaker, losing to Lindsay Hoyle by 213 to 325. In December 2020, Bryant became engaged in a row with the Commons speaker, Lindsay Hoyle. The disturbance started with Bryant heckling the Prime Minister while standing near to a door. The Speaker informed Bryant that social distancing rules meant he needed to move and he then instructed Bryant to sit in one of the seats intended for use by MPs. Some of those present thought that Bryant then uttered an offensive expletive back to the Speaker although Bryant denied this. Bryant then exited the chamber of the Commons while the Speaker called for him. Some moments after the Speaker had denounced Bryant's "disgraceful behaviour", Bryant returned to the chamber to engage in what appeared to be a heated discussion with the speaker. Hoyle said: "Mr Bryant, I think we need to have this conversation later" and Bryant left the chamber. In December 2021, Bryant told the BBC in an interview that he felt "less physically safe as a gay man than he did 30 years ago." While denying that Boris Johnson himself was homophobic, he accused those around him of being happy to "stir the pot." As evidence, he cited the government's stance on transgender people and their attitude towards conversion therapy. Personal life Bryant entered into a civil partnership with Jared Cranney on 27 March 2010. The ceremony was the first civil partnership ever held in the Houses of Parliament. They are now married. Bryant lives in Porth in the Rhondda. He was ridiculed by the press in 2003 when he posted a picture of himself wearing only underpants on a gay dating site, Gaydar. Bryant later reflected upon the affair, saying, "It was a wound but it's a rather charming scar now. I had a period when I barely slept and it was horrible, but I'm very lucky in having a supportive set of friends – MP friends and others – and they looked after me." At the time, the media predicted that he would not survive, and there was much talk of his possible deselection. In 2013, he reflected on the incident, saying that the whole affair actually boosted his majority as an MP. On 25 September 2006 The Guardian newspaper ran four spoof diary articles called "Chris Bryant's Manchester Diary". The newspaper later printed a clarification to confirm that these were parodies, and were not written by Bryant. In March 2019, Bryant said that he had undergone surgery for skin cancer. Publications Entitled: A Critical History of the British Aristocracy by Chris Bryant, 2017, Doubleday Parliament: The Biography: Reform (Vol. 2) by Chris Bryant, 2014, Doubleday, Parliament: The Biography: Ancestral Voices (Vol. 1) by Chris Bryant, 2014, Doubleday, Glenda Jackson: The Biography by Chris Bryant, 1999, HarperCollins, Stafford Cripps: The First Modern Chancellor by Chris Bryant, 1997, Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, Possible Dreams: Personal History of the British Christian Socialists by Chris Bryant, 1996, Hodder & Stoughton Religious, The Glamour Boys: The Secret Story of the Rebels who Fought for Britain to Defeat Hitler by Chris Bryant, 2020, Bloomsbury Publishing, References External links Chris Bryant MP official constituency website Chris Bryant MP Welsh Labour Party profile |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1962 births Living people People educated at Cheltenham College Alumni of Ripon College Cuddesdon Alumni of Mansfield College, Oxford 20th-century Church of England clergy 20th-century Welsh Anglican priests Anglican socialists BBC executives Councillors in the London Borough of Hackney Gay politicians Welsh Labour Party MPs Labour Friends of Israel Labour Friends of Palestine and the Middle East LGBT Anglicans LGBT members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom LGBT politicians from Wales UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 UK MPs 2015–2017 UK MPs 2017–2019 Welsh Christian socialists Welsh people of Scottish descent Conservative Party (UK) people UK MPs 2019–present LGBT politicians from England Labour Party (UK) councillors 21st-century Welsh historians Welsh biographers 21st-century LGBT people

235888

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Stewart

Jon Stewart

Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962) is an American comedian, writer, producer, director, political commentator, actor, and television host. He hosted The Daily Show, a satirical news program on Comedy Central, from 1999 to 2015. Stewart now hosts The Problem with Jon Stewart, which premiered September 2021 on Apple TV+. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian but branched into television as host of Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central. He went on to host You Wrote It, You Watch It (1992–1993) and then The Jon Stewart Show (1993–1995), both on MTV, until The Jon Stewart Show was retooled, dropped by the network and moved to syndication. Stewart has also appeared in several films, including Big Daddy (1999) and Death to Smoochy (2002), but did few cinematic projects after becoming host of The Daily Show in 1999. He also was a writer and co-executive producer of the show. After Stewart joined, The Daily Show steadily gained popularity and critical acclaim, and during his tenure, won 22 Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards and also was nominated for news and journalism awards. Stewart hosted the 78th and 80th Academy Awards. He is the co-author of America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, which was one of the best-selling books in the US in 2004, and Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race, released in 2010. Since leaving The Daily Show, Stewart has mostly maintained a low profile in entertainment industry circles, but has used his celebrity and voice in a sustained advocacy for 9/11 first responders, and also for war veterans' health benefits. In 2019 he received the New York City Bronze Medallion for his "tireless advocacy, inspiration, and leadership (helping to) pass the permanent authorization of the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund Act". Early life and education Jon Stewart was born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz on November 28, 1962, in New York City, to Marian (née Laskin), a teacher and later educational consultant, and Donald Leibowitz, an energy coordinator for the New Jersey Department of the Treasury. Stewart's family members are Jewish immigrants to America from Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. One of his grandfathers was born in Manzhouli (now part of Inner Mongolia). He is the second of four sons, with older brother Lawrence, and younger brothers Dan and Matthew. Stewart's parents divorced when he was eleven years old, and Stewart was largely estranged from his father. Because of his strained relationship with his father, which in 2015 he described as "still 'complicated'", he dropped his surname and began using his middle name. Stewart stated, "There was a thought of using my mother's maiden name, but I thought that would be just too big a fuck you to my dad... Did I have some problems with my father? Yes. Yet people always view [changing my surname] through the prism of ethnic identity." He had his surname changed legally to Stewart in 2001. Stewart and his brother Lawrence, who was previously the chief operating officer of NYSE Euronext (parent company of the New York Stock Exchange), grew up in Lawrenceville, New Jersey, where they attended Lawrence High School. According to Stewart, he was subjected to anti-Semitic bullying as a child. He describes himself in high school as "very into Eugene Debs and a bit of a leftist." Stewart grew up in the era of the Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal, which inspired in him "a healthy skepticism towards official reports". His first job was working with his brother at a Woolworth's store, and jokingly says being fired by Lawrence was one of the "scarring events" of his youth. He has also credited legendary television producer Norman Lear as someone who "raised me." Stewart graduated in 1984 from The College of William & Mary where he initially majored in chemistry before switching to psychology. While at William & Mary, Stewart became a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity, but eventually began disassociating himself from them; leaving the fraternity altogether after six months. "My college career was waking up late, memorizing someone else's notes, doing bong hits, and going to soccer practice", he later said. He was a three-year starter in 1981, 1982 and 1983 with the Tribe men's soccer team. He had 10 goals and 12 assists on a squad that went 40–15–9 (.695) in his three seasons with the program. He is listed as Jon Leibowitz in official William & Mary Athletics records. The former head coach of the Tribe men's soccer team from 1971 to 2003, Al Albert, describes Jon as "athletic and feisty and quick" and added that he "wasn't the most technical or clinical player, but he could make things happen." After college, Stewart held numerous jobs: a contingency planner for the New Jersey Department of Human Services, a contract administrator for the City University of New York, a puppeteer for children with disabilities, a soccer coach at Gloucester High School in Virginia, a caterer, a busboy, a shelf stocker at Woolworth's, a bartender at the Franklin Corner Tavern (a local blue-collar bar), and a bartender at the legendary City Gardens in Trenton, New Jersey. He has said that working at City Gardens was a pivotal moment for him: "finding this place City Gardens was like, 'Oh, maybe I'm not a giant weirdo. Maybe there are other people who have a similar sense of yearning for something other than what they have now.' I think it inspired a lot of people, man. It was a very creative environment. It was a place of great possibility." Career Early work With a reputation for being a funny man in school, Jon Stewart returned to New York City in 1986 to try his hand at the comedy club circuit, but he could not muster the courage to get on stage until the following year. He made his stand-up debut at The Bitter End, where one of his comedic idols, Woody Allen, also began. He began using the stage name "Jon Stewart" by dropping his last name and changing the spelling of his middle name "Stuart" to "Stewart". He often jokes this is because people had difficulty with the pronunciation of Leibowitz or it "sounded too Hollywood" (a reference to Lenny Bruce's joke on the same theme). He has implied that the name change was due to a strained relationship with his father, with whom Stewart no longer had any contact. Stewart became a regular at the Comedy Cellar, where he was the last performer every night. For two years, he would perform at 2 a.m. while developing his comedic style. In 1989, Stewart landed his first television job as a writer for Caroline's Comedy Hour. In 1990, he began co-hosting Comedy Central's Short Attention Span Theater, with Patty Rosborough. In 1992, Stewart hosted the short-lived You Wrote It, You Watch It on MTV, which invited viewers to send in their stories to be acted out by the comedy troupe, The State. Stewart relates that his career did not take off until his March 6, 1992, appearance on NBC's Late Night with David Letterman. He was considered a finalist to take over Letterman's position upon his departure from the program, but instead, it was given to relatively unknown Conan O'Brien. He co-hosted MTV Spring Break '93 Blind Date from Daytona Beach with Melissa Rivers. The Jon Stewart Show Later in 1993, Stewart developed The Jon Stewart Show, a talk show on MTV, which was later dropped by the network and was syndicated for its last two years. The Jon Stewart Show was the first talk show on that network and was an instant hit, becoming the second-highest rated MTV show, behind Beavis and Butt-Head. In 1994, Paramount canceled The Arsenio Hall Show and, with new corporate sibling MTV (through MTV parent Viacom's acquisition of the studio), launched an hour-long syndicated late-night version of The Jon Stewart Show. Many local affiliates had moved Hall's show to 2 a.m. during its decline and Stewart's show inherited such early morning time slots in many cities. Ratings were dismal and the show was canceled in June 1995. Among the fans of the show was David Letterman, who was the final guest of The Jon Stewart Show. Letterman signed Stewart with his production company, Worldwide Pants. Stewart then became a frequent guest host for Tom Snyder on The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder, which was produced by Letterman and aired after the Late Show on CBS. This led to much speculation that Stewart would soon replace Snyder permanently, but instead, Stewart was offered the time slot after Snyder's, which he turned down. In 1996 Stewart hosted a short-lived talk show entitled, Where's Elvis This Week?, that was a half-hour, weekly comedy television program. It aired on Sunday nights in the United Kingdom on BBC Two. It was filmed at the CBS Broadcast Center in New York City and featured a set of panelists, two from the UK and two from the United States, who discussed news items and cultural issues. The show premiered in the UK on October 6, 1996; five episodes aired in total. Notable panelists included Dave Chappelle, Eddie Izzard, Phill Jupitus, Nora Ephron, Craig Kilborn, Christopher Hitchens, Armando Iannucci, Norm Macdonald, and Helen Gurley Brown. In 1997, Stewart was chosen as the host and interviewer for George Carlin's tenth HBO special, 40 Years of Comedy. The Daily Show In 1998, when Craig Kilborn left the show to replace Tom Snyder on The Late Late Show, Stewart began hosting The Daily Show on Comedy Central. The Daily Show blends humor with the day's top news stories, usually in politics, while simultaneously poking fun at politicians, newsmakers, and the news media. In an interview on The O'Reilly Factor, Stewart denied the show has any intentional political agenda, saying the goal was "schnicks and giggles" and that "[t]he same weakness that drove me into comedy also informs my show", meaning that he was uncomfortable talking without hearing the audience laugh. In his first Daily Show on-air appearance on January 11, 1999, Stewart told his guest that evening, Michael J. Fox, that he felt as if "this is my bar mitzvah". His style was described by one critic as, "Stewart does not offer us cynicism for its own sake, but as a playful way to offer the kinds of insights that are not permitted in more serious news formats that slavishly cling to official account of events." Until Trevor Noah permanently took over the show in 2015, Stewart hosted almost all airings of the program, except for a few occasions when correspondents such as Stephen Colbert, Rob Corddry, Jason Jones, and Steve Carell subbed for him, and during John Oliver's stint as host during the summer of 2013. Stewart won twenty Primetime Emmy Awards for The Daily Show as either a writer or producer, and two for producing The Colbert Report (2013–14), earning a total of twenty-two Primetime Emmy Awards, the most wins for a male individual. In 2005, Stewart and The Daily Show received the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album for the audiobook edition of America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction. In 2000 and 2004, the show won two Peabody Awards for its coverage of the U.S. presidential elections in those years, called "Indecision 2000" and "Indecision 2004", respectively. The show of September 20, 2001, the first show after the attacks of September 11th, 2001, began with no introduction. Before this, the introduction included footage of a fly-in toward the World Trade Center and New York City. The first nine minutes of the show included a tearful Stewart discussing his personal view on the event. His remarks ended as follows: In mid-2002, amid rumors that David Letterman was going to switch from CBS to ABC when his contract ran out, Stewart was rumored as Letterman's replacement on CBS. Ultimately, Letterman renewed his contract with CBS. On the March 9, 2002, episode of Saturday Night Live, hosted by Stewart, a Weekend Update sketch poked fun at the situation. In late 2002, ABC offered Stewart his own talk show to air right after Nightline. Stewart's contract with The Daily Show was near expiring, and he expressed strong interest. ABC, however, decided to give another Comedy Central figure, Jimmy Kimmel, the post-Nightline slot. On April 4, 2006, Stewart confronted U.S. Senator John McCain (R-AZ) on The Daily Show about his decision to appear at Liberty University, an institution founded by Jerry Falwell whom McCain previously had denounced as one of the "agents of intolerance". In the interchange, Stewart asked McCain, "You're not freaking out on us? Are you freaking out on us, because if you're freaking out ... and you're going into the crazy base world—are you going into crazy base world?" McCain replied, "Just– just– just a little" and "I'm afraid so." The clip was played on CNN, was noted and discussed in more detail in the blogosphere and was followed up on in the mainstream media. In 2007, The Daily Show was involved in former correspondent Stephen Colbert's announcement that he would run for president in 2008. In 2008, Stewart appeared on the news program Democracy Now!. A 2008 New York Times story questioned whether he was, in a phrase originally used to describe longtime network news anchor Walter Cronkite, "the most trusted man in America". On April 28, 2009, during a discussion on torture with Clifford May, Stewart expressed his opinion that former President Harry S. Truman was a war criminal for his use of the atomic bomb on Japan during World War II. He defended his assertion moments later: "Here's what I think of the atom bombs. I think if you dropped an atom bomb fifteen miles offshore and you said, 'The next one's coming and hitting you', then I would think it's okay. To drop it on a city, and kill a hundred thousand people? Yeah. I think that's criminal." On April 30, Stewart apologized on his program, and stated he did not believe Truman was a war criminal: "I shouldn't have said that, and I did. So I say right now, no, I don't believe that to be the case. The atomic bomb, a very complicated decision in the context of a horrific war, and I walk that back because it was in my estimation a stupid thing to say." In April 2010, Comedy Central renewed Stewart's contract to host The Daily Show into 2013. According to a Forbes list of celebrities in 2008, he was earning $14 million a year. On September 16, 2010, Stewart and Stephen Colbert announced a rally for October 30, known as the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear. It took place on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. and attracted an estimated 215,000 participants. In December 2010, Stewart was credited by the White House, other media, and political news outlets for bringing awareness of the Republican filibuster on the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act to the public, leading to the ultimate passing of the bill that provides health benefits to first responders whose health has been adversely affected by their work at Ground Zero. On the show of January 10, 2011, Stewart began with a monologue about the shootings in Tucson, Arizona. He said he wished the "ramblings of crazy people didn't in any way resemble how we actually talk to each other on television". Before a commercial break, Stewart told viewers that the show would continue as usual the next night. After the commercial break, the show featured a rerun of a field piece done by Jason Jones two years earlier. The New York Times opined that Stewart is "the modern-day equivalent of Edward R. Murrow" and the UK national newspaper The Independent called him the "satirist-in-chief". In an interview, Senator John McCain described Stewart as "a modern-day Will Rogers and Mark Twain". Writer Wyatt Cenac said that Stewart cursed him out after Cenac acknowledged he was uncomfortable about a June 2011 Daily Show bit about Republican presidential candidate Herman Cain (reported in July 2015). In March 2013, it was announced that Stewart would be taking a 12-week hiatus from The Daily Show to direct the film Rosewater, which is based on the book Then They Came for Me by Maziar Bahari. Beginning June 10, 2013, The Daily Show correspondent John Oliver assumed primary hosting duties during Stewart's break. The TV Guide annual survey for 2013 star salaries showed that Stewart was the highest-paid late night host, making an estimated $25–30 million per year. On July 14, 2014, Stewart interviewed Hillary Clinton about the Middle East. Clinton's condemnations of Hamas led Stewart to ask her: "But don't you think they would look at that though as, they've given a lot of different things a chance and these are the only guys to them that are giving any resistance to what their condition is?" For Gazans living in that situation, he said Hamas could be viewed as "freedom fighters". Leaving The Daily Show During a taping of the show on February 10, 2015, Stewart announced he was leaving The Daily Show. Comedy Central president Michele Ganeless confirmed Stewart's retirement with a statement. Later, it was announced that South African comedian Trevor Noah would succeed Stewart as the host of the show. On April 20, 2015, Stewart indicated that his final show would be on August 6, 2015. On July 28, 2015, Darren Samuelsohn of Politico reported that twice, Stewart had been at the White House for previously unreported meetings with President Obama: once in October 2011 and once in February 2014. Michael D. Shear of The New York Times also picked up on the story. Stewart responded on his show by pointing out that the meetings were listed in the president's publicly available visitor log and that he has been asked to meet privately by many prominent individuals, including Roger Ailes of Fox News. He said Obama encouraged him not to make young Americans cynical about their government and Stewart said that his reply was that he was "skeptically idealistic". On June 19, 2015, in the wake of the Charleston Church Shooting, Stewart decided not to write jokes for the opening monologue. Elaborating on his decision, Stewart stated, "I honestly have nothing other than just sadness". Stewart spoke about the racial disparity and injustices in America, saying "The Confederate flag flies over South Carolina ... and the roads are named for Confederate generals" describing it as "racial wallpaper". Instead he designated a large portion of the show to his guest that night Malala Yousafzai, calling her "an incredible inspiration," and that "to be quite honest with you, I don't think there's anyone else in the world I would rather talk to tonight than Malala: So that's what we're going to do. And sorry about no jokes." On August 5, 2015, Stewart's friend of 30 years, comedian Louis C.K., was selected to be the last guest before the final Daily Show episode with Stewart helming the show. C.K. joked that he was there "representing comedy to say good job". The hour-long-plus final Daily Show on August 6 featured reunions with former correspondents Stephen Colbert, Steve Carell, John Oliver, Samantha Bee, Hasan Minhaj, Ed Helms, Kristen Schaal, Larry Wilmore, Jessica Williams, Aasif Mandvi, Lewis Black, John Hodgman, Rob Corddry, Olivia Munn, Josh Gad, Michael Che, and Mo Rocca and cameo video clips from people Stewart had targeted over the years, including Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Lindsey Graham, Chris Christie, John Kerry, Chuck Schumer, Bill O'Reilly, Wolf Blitzer, Joe Scarborough, and Mika Brzezinski. During the final episode, there was a pre-taped behind-the-scenes look at the show spoofing the long-take Copacabana scene from Goodfellas, featuring a brief appearance by Martin Scorsese. It concluded with a performance by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band. Post-Daily Show In November 2015, it was announced that Stewart signed a four-year deal with HBO that would include exclusive digital content for HBO NOW, HBO Go, and other platforms. HBO programming president Casey Bloys has said that "the idea is it will be an animated parody of a cable news network with an Onion-like portal." The team began working with the cloud graphics company, OTOY, to build a system for creating content. Confirmed to be working on the project included Mike Brown, Steve Waltien, Chelsea Devantez, Lucy Steiner, Kate James, and Robby Slowik. The team tested material in Red Bank, New Jersey at The Count Basie Theatre Performing Arts Academy. The show's premiere was moved several times, from fall 2016, to the first quarter of 2017, and then cancelled on May 23, 2017. The cancelation statement read: After his contract with HBO ended, Stewart signed a multi-year show deal with Apple. On September 30, 2021, Stewart's new series, The Problem with Jon Stewart, premiered on AppleTV. The series features hour-long, single-subject episodes. In addition to hosting the show, Stewart serves as executive producer through his company, Busboy Productions. Writing In 1998, Stewart released his first book, Naked Pictures of Famous People, a collection of humorous short stories and essays. The book reached The New York Times Best Seller List. In 2004, Stewart and The Daily Show writing staff released, America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction, a mock high-school history textbook offering insights into the unique American system of government, dissecting its institutions, explaining its history and processes, and satirizing such popular American political precepts as, "one man, one vote", "government by the people", and "every vote counts". The book sold millions of copies upon its 2004 release and ended the year as a top-fifteen best seller. In 2005, Stewart provided the voice of President James A. Garfield for the audiobook version of Sarah Vowell's Assassination Vacation. In 2007, Stewart voiced Mort Sinclaire, former TV comedy writer and communist, on Stephen Colbert's audiobook version of I Am America (And So Can You!). In 2010, Stewart and The Daily Show writing staff released a sequel to their first book entitled, Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race. The book is meant to serve as a Baedeker travel guide for an alien civilization that discovers Earth after humanity has died out, most likely by its own hands. In March 2012, Stewart interviewed Bruce Springsteen for Rolling Stone. Acting Stewart's first film role was a bit part in the box-office bomb, Mixed Nuts. He landed a minor part in The First Wives Club, but his scene was deleted. In 1995, Stewart signed a three-year deal with Miramax. Stewart played romantic leads in the films, Playing by Heart and Wishful Thinking. He had a supporting role in the romantic comedy, Since You've Been Gone and in the horror film, The Faculty. Other films were planned for Stewart to write and star in, but they never were produced. Stewart maintained a relationship with Miramax founders Harvey and Bob Weinstein and appeared in films they produced including, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Doogal, and the documentary, Wordplay. He appeared in Half Baked as an "enhancement smoker" and in Big Daddy as Adam Sandler's roommate; he has joked on the Daily Show and in the documentary The Aristocrats that to get the role, he slept with Sandler. Stewart often makes fun of his appearances in the high-profile flop, Death to Smoochy, in which he played a treacherous television executive; and the animated film Doogal, where he played a blue spring named Zeebad who shot a freeze ray from his mustache. In 2007, Stewart made a cameo appearance as himself in Evan Almighty, which starred former Daily Show correspondent Steve Carell. In the movie, Stewart was seen on a television screen in a fictional Daily Show episode poking fun at Carell's character for building an ark. Stewart had a recurring role in The Larry Sanders Show, playing himself as an occasional substitute and possible successor to late-night talk show host Larry Sanders (played by Garry Shandling). In 1998, Stewart hosted the television special, Elmopalooza, celebrating 30 years of Sesame Street. He has guest-starred on other sitcoms including The Nanny, Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist, Spin City, NewsRadio, American Dad!, and The Simpsons. He also has made guest appearances on the children's television series Between the Lions, Sesame Street, Jack's Big Music Show, and Gravity Falls. Producing In the mid-1990s, Stewart launched his own production company, Busboy Productions, naming the company in reference to his previous job as a busboy. Stewart signed a deal with Miramax to develop projects through his company, but none of his ideas have been produced. After Stewart's success as host and producer of The Daily Show, he revived Busboy Productions with Daily Show producers Ben Karlin and Rich Korson. In 2002, Busboy planned to produce a sitcom for NBC starring Stephen Colbert, but the show did not come to fruition. In 2005, Comedy Central reached an agreement with Busboy in which Comedy Central would provide financial backing for the production company. Comedy Central has a first-look agreement on all projects, after which Busboy is free to shop them to other networks. The deal spawned the Daily Show spin-off The Colbert Report and its replacement, The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore. Other projects include the sitcom pilot Three Strikes, the documentary Sportsfan, the series Important Things with Demetri Martin, and the film The Donor. After Stewart's departure from The Daily Show, he was listed as an executive producer on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. In addition, Stewart has presented occasional comedic monologues filled with political and media commentary. In July 2017, HBO announced Stewart would produce a stand-up comedy special for the network, his first stand-up special since 1996. Directing In March 2010, Stewart announced that he had optioned rights to the story of journalist Maziar Bahari, who was imprisoned in Iran for 118 days. On June 6, 2011, episode of The Daily Show, Stewart again hosted Bahari, and in March 2013, he announced that he was leaving the show for 12 weeks to direct the film version of Bahari's 2011 book, Then They Came For Me. Stewart's screenplay adaptation is entitled, Rosewater. It premiered at the September 2014 Toronto International Film Festival, receiving "generally favorable" reviews, and was released to general audiences on November 14, 2014. On directing, Stewart noted on Employee of the Month that The Daily Show influenced his directing process more than his acting gigs did. He said, "It's about the collaboration. It's about understanding. Doing a show taught me this process of clarity of vision, but the flexibility of process. So know your intention, know where you're wanting to go with the scene with the way that you want it to go, the momentum shifts, the emphasis, where you want it to be." He also expressed interest in directing more films. Stewart directed the political satire Irresistible, released in June 2020, which follows a demoralized Democratic strategist (played by Daily Show alumnus Steve Carell), who helps a retired veteran (Chris Cooper) run for mayor in a small, blue collar town in Wisconsin. Hosting and public speaking Stewart has hosted the Grammy Awards twice, in 2001 and in 2002, and the 78th Academy Awards, which were held March 5, 2006, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood. Critical response to Stewart's performance was mixed. Roger Ebert compared him favorably to legendary Oscar host Johnny Carson. Other reviewers were less positive; Tom Shales of The Washington Post said that Stewart hosted with "smug humorlessness". James Poniewozik of TIME said that Stewart was a bad host, but a great "anti-host" in that he poked fun at parts of the broadcast that deserved it, which lent him a degree of authenticity with the non-Hollywood audience. Stewart and correspondent John Oliver later poked fun at his lackluster reception on The Daily Show coverage of the 79th Academy Awards by saying that the "demon of last year's Oscars had finally been exorcised". Stewart returned to host the 80th Academy Awards on February 24, 2008. The reception to his performance was better received. Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe felt the ceremony was average, but praised Stewart, writing that, "It was good to see Jon Stewart being Jon Stewart. He is shaping up to be a dependable Oscar host for the post-Billy Crystal years. He's not musical, but he's versatile enough to swing smoothly between jokes about politics, Hollywood, new media, and, most importantly, hair." Variety columnist Brian Lowry lauded Stewart's performance noting that he "earned his keep by maintaining a playful, irreverent tone throughout the night, whether it was jesting about Cate Blanchett's versatility or watching Lawrence of Arabia on an iPhone screen. In December 2009, Stewart gave a speech at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts honoring Bruce Springsteen, one of that year's Kennedy Center Honors recipients, and of whom Stewart is a fan. Stewart gave another speech paying tribute to Springsteen in February 2013 as part of the singer's MusiCares Person of the Year award ceremony. Stewart began a comedic feud with WWE wrestler Seth Rollins in March 2015, and appeared on WWE Raw during a Daily Show-styled segment hosted by Rollins. On August 23, 2015, Stewart returned to host the WWE's SummerSlam at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York. Later, he got involved in the main event between Rollins and John Cena, helping Rollins retain his WWE World Heavyweight Championship, as well as winning Cena's United States Championship when he interfered and hit Cena with a steel chair. The next night on Raw, he explained his actions, saying he did it for Ric Flair (who was also present), which was to retain his world championship record. Cena then gave Stewart his finishing move, the Attitude Adjustment, to end the segment. Stewart returned at SummerSlam on August 21, 2016, as a special guest. In 2016, Stewart joined President Barack Obama, Michelle Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Jill Biden, and David Letterman in honoring military families on May 5 at Joint Base Andrews, Maryland. The special celebration which marked both the USO's 75th anniversary and the fifth anniversary of Joining Forces. Stewart got into a Twitter war with then-presidential candidate Donald Trump, who in multiple tweets stated that Stewart's changing his name indicated that he was a fraud. Stewart and some analysts considered this to be anti-Semitic. Trump then tweeted that Stewart should be "proud of his heritage", and Stewart tweeted back, facetiously, that Trump's real name was "Fuckface Von Clownstick" and that Trump should be proud of the "Clownstick heritage". In June 2017, Stewart spoke at the funeral service for Ray Pfeifer, an FDNY firefighter from Hicksville, New York, who died after an eight-year battle with cancer as a result of service as a first responder at the September 11 attacks. Criticism of television journalists Stewart is known as an outspoken, humorous critic of personality-driven media shows, in particular, those of the U.S. media broadcast networks such as CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC. Critics say Stewart benefits from a double standard: he critiques other news shows from the safe, removed position of his "news satire" desk; Stewart asserts that neither his show nor Comedy Central purport to be anything other than satire and comedy. Crossfire appearance In a televised exchange with then-CNN correspondent Tucker Carlson on Crossfire on October 15, 2004, Stewart criticized the state of television journalism and pleaded with the show's hosts to "stop hurting America", and he referred to both Carlson and co-host Paul Begala as "partisan hacks". When posted on the internet, this exchange became widely viewed and was a topic of much media discussion. Despite being on the program to comment on current events, Stewart immediately shifted the discussion toward the show itself, asserting that Crossfire had failed in its responsibility to inform and educate viewers about politics as a serious topic. Stewart stated that the show engaged in partisan hackery instead of honest debate, and said that the hosts' assertion that Crossfire is a debate show is like "saying pro wrestling is a show about athletic competition". Carlson responded by saying that Stewart criticizes news organizations for not holding public officials accountable, but when he interviewed John Kerry, Stewart asked a series of "softball" questions (Stewart has acknowledged he voted for Kerry in the 2004 presidential election). Stewart responded that he didn't realize "the news organizations look to Comedy Central for their cues on integrity". When Carlson continued to press Stewart on the Kerry issue, Stewart said, "You're on CNN! The show that leads into me is puppets making crank phone calls! What is wrong with you?" In response to prods from Carlson, "Come on. Be funny." Stewart said, "No, I'm not going to be your monkey." Later in the show when Carlson jibed, "I do think you're more fun on your show", Stewart retorted, "You're as big a dick on your show as you are on any show." In response to Stewart's criticisms, Carlson said, "You need to get a job at a journalism school", to which Stewart responded, "You need to go to one!" Stewart discussed the incident on The Daily Show the following Monday: In January 2005, CNN announced that it was canceling Crossfire. When asked about the cancellation, CNN's incoming president, Jonathan Klein, referred to Stewart's appearance on the show: "I think he made a good point about the noise level of these types of shows, which does nothing to illuminate the issues of the day." On March 18, 2009, Carlson wrote a blog entry for The Daily Beast criticizing Stewart for his handling of the CNBC controversy (see below). Carlson discussed the CNN incident and claimed that Stewart remained backstage for at least "an hour" and "continued to lecture our staff", something Carlson described as, "one of the weirdest things I have ever seen". Criticism of CNBC Stewart again became a viral internet phenomenon following a March 4, 2009, The Daily Show sequence. CNBC canceled Rick Santelli's scheduled appearance on The Daily Show that day, so the show ran a short segment showing CNBC giving poor investment advice. Subsequent media coverage of exchanges between Stewart and Jim Cramer, who had been featured heavily in the original segment, led to a highly anticipated face-to-face confrontation on The Daily Show. The episode received much media attention and became the second most-viewed episode of The Daily Show, trailing only the 2009 Inauguration Day episode. It had 2.3 million total viewers, and the next day, the show's website saw its highest day of traffic in 2009. Although Cramer acknowledged on the show that some of Stewart's criticisms of CNBC were valid and that the network could "do better", he later said on The Today Show that Stewart's criticism of the media was "naïve and misleading." Criticism of Fox News Throughout his tenure on The Daily Show, Stewart frequently accused Fox News of distorting the news to fit a conservative agenda, at one point ridiculing the network as "the meanest sorority in the world". In November 2009, Stewart "called out" Fox News for using some footage from a previous Tea Party rally during a report on a more recent rally, making the latter event appear more highly attended than it was. The show's anchor, Sean Hannity, apologized for the footage use the following night. A month later, Stewart criticized Fox & Friends cohost Gretchen Carlson – a former Miss America and a Stanford graduate – for claiming that she googled words such as "ignoramus" and "czar". Stewart said that Carlson was dumbing herself down for "an audience who sees intellect as an elitist flaw". Stewart stepped up his criticism of Fox News in 2010; within five months, The Daily Show had 24 segments criticizing the Fox News coverage. Bill O'Reilly, host of the talk show The O'Reilly Factor on Fox News, countered that The Daily Show was a "key component of left-wing television" and that Stewart loved Fox News because the network was "not boring". During an interview with Chris Wallace on June 19, 2011, Stewart called Wallace "insane" for saying that Stewart's earlier comparison of the marketing techniques of a Sarah Palin campaign video and an anti-herpes medicine ad was a political comment. Stewart also said Fox viewers are the "most consistently misinformed" viewers of political media. This comment was ranked by the fact-checking site, PolitiFact, as false, with conditions. Stewart later accepted his error. In 2014, Stewart engaged in an extended "call-out" of Fox News, based on their coverage of food stamps and U.S. government assistance, opining that said coverage was biased. This culminated in segments across multiple episodes, specifically singling out Sean Hannity and his show's coverage of the Bundy standoff. Hannity would "return fire" by calling out Stewart for associating himself with Cat Stevens during his Rally in 2010. Stewart responded to this by criticizing Hannity for frequently calling Ted Nugent a "friend and frequent guest" on his program and supporting Nugent's violent rhetoric toward Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2007. In late August 2014, Stewart criticized the manner in which Fox News portrayed the events surrounding the shooting of teenager Michael Brown by police officer Darren Wilson in Ferguson, Missouri, and the subsequent protests from citizens. Advocacy of the 9/11 First Responders Bill Over the years, Stewart sometimes used The Daily Show to argue for causes such as the treatment of veterans and 9/11 first responders. He is credited with breaking a Senate deadlock over a bill to provide health care and benefits for 9/11 emergency workers; the bill passed three days after he featured a group of 9/11 responders on the show. In March 2009, he criticized a White House proposal to remove veterans from Veterans Administration rolls if they had private health insurance; the White House dropped the plan the next day. In 2010, Stewart held an interview with a panel of four of the 9/11 first responders Kenny Specht with the FDNY, Chris Bowman NYPD, Ken George DOT, and Kevin Devlin, Operating Engineer of Heavy Equipment, who discussed their health problems with Stewart. In 2015 four months after leaving The Daily Show he returned to reunite the four, with Specht as the only panelist healthy enough to attend. Devlin had died and the two other panelists, Bowman and George, were too ill to make it to the show. In February and June 2019, Stewart again went to Congress to oppose the $7.375 billion limit in pay-outs to 9/11 responders through December 2020 and to lobby for permanent funding for the Victims Compensation Fund past December 2020, delivering a tearful testimony. Stewart continued to be a vocal advocate, appearing on late night shows such as The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, The Daily Show with Trevor Noah, and news programs such as Fox News Sunday with Chris Wallace, and The Fox Report with Shepherd Smith. On July 12, 2019, the House approved the bill overwhelmingly 402–12. The bill came to the Senate floor where it passed the 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund through 2092, virtually funding health care for 9/11 victims and first responders for life. The vote was 97–2 with Republican Senators Rand Paul (KY) and Mike Lee (UT) opposing. When hearing that the bill had been passed, Stewart responded by saying, "It has been the honor of my life working with the 9/11 first responders...these families deserve better...and I will follow you wherever your next adventure shall be". Writers Guild of America strike of 2007–2008 Stewart was an important factor in the unionization of the Comedy Central writers. The Daily Show writers were the first of Comedy Central's writers to be able to join the guild, after which other shows followed. Stewart supported the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike. On The Daily Show episode just before the strike, he sarcastically commented about how Comedy Central had made available all episodes for free on their website, but without advertising, and said, "go support our advertisers". The show went on hiatus when the strike began, as did other late-night talk shows. Upon Stewart's return to the show on January 7, 2008, he refused to use the title, The Daily Show, stating that The Daily Show was the show made with all of the people responsible for the broadcast, including his writers. During the strike, he referred to his show as A Daily Show with Jon Stewart until the strike ended on February 13, 2008. Stewart's choice to return to the air did bring criticism that he was undermining the writers of his show. Seth MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode of Family Guy about this, causing Stewart to respond with an hour-long call in which he questioned how MacFarlane could consider himself the "moral arbiter" of Hollywood. Other former writers of The Daily Show such as David Feldman also have indicated that Stewart was anti-union at the time and punished his writers for their decision to unionize. The Writers Guild Strike of 2007–08 also was responsible for a notable mock feud between Stewart, Stephen Colbert, and Conan O'Brien in early 2008. Without writers to help fuel their banter, the three comedians concocted a crossover/rivalry to garner more viewers during the ratings slump. Colbert claimed that because of "the Colbert bump", he was responsible for Mike Huckabee's success in the 2008 presidential race. O'Brien claimed that he was responsible for Huckabee's success because not only had he mentioned Huckabee on his show, but also that he was responsible for Chuck Norris's success (Norris backed Huckabee). In response, Stewart claimed that he was responsible for the success of O'Brien since Stewart had featured him on The Jon Stewart Show, and in turn, the success of Huckabee. This resulted in a three-part comedic battle between the three pundits, with all three appearing on each other's shows. The feud ended on Late Night with Conan O'Brien with a mock brawl involving the three hosts. Influences Stewart has said his influences include George Carlin, Lenny Bruce, Woody Allen, David Letterman, Steve Martin, and Richard Pryor. Among comedians who say they were influenced by Stewart are Stephen Colbert, John Oliver, Hasan Minhaj, Samantha Bee, Larry Wilmore, Bassem Youssef, Trevor Noah, and Jordan Klepper. Personal life Stewart is irreligious, but of Jewish heritage. While making the 1997 film, Wishful Thinking, a production assistant on the film arranged for a blind date between Stewart and Tracey Lynn McShane. They dated for four years. Stewart proposed to her through a personalized crossword puzzle created with the help of Will Shortz, the crossword editor at The New York Times. They married in 2000. On June 19, 2001, Stewart and his wife filed a joint name change application and legally changed both of their surnames to "Stewart". With the help of in vitro fertilization, the couple has two children. In 2000, when he was labelled a Democrat, Stewart generally agreed, but described his political affiliation as "more socialist or independent" than Democratic, and Stewart has voted for Republicans, the last time being in the 1988 presidential election when he voted for George H. W. Bush over Michael Dukakis. He described Bush as having "an integrity about him that I respected greatly". He has been a vocal proponent of single-payer health care system. In 2013, Stewart and his wife bought a farm in Middletown, New Jersey, called "Bufflehead Farm". The Stewarts operate it as a sanctuary for abused animals. In 2015, Stewart began eating a vegetarian diet for ethical reasons; his wife is a long-time vegan. In 2017, Stewart and his wife received approval to open a 45-acre (18 ha) animal sanctuary in Colts Neck, New Jersey, a home to animals saved from slaughterhouses and live markets. Honors and awards Stewart and other members of The Daily Show have received three Peabody Awards for "Indecision 2000" and "Indecision 2004", covering the 2000 presidential election and the 2004 presidential election, respectively. He received his third Peabody in 2016 for his tenure at The Daily Show. The Daily Show received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety, Music, or Comedy Program in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2015 and Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series for 10 consecutive years from 2003 to 2012. In 2013, the award for both categories instead went to The Daily Show spin-off The Colbert Report. In 2015, The Daily Show resurfaced, winning both categories for one last time for Stewart's swan song as host. Stewart won the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album in 2005 for his recording, America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction. In the December 2003 New Year's edition of Newsweek, Stewart was named the "Who's Next?" person for 2004, with the magazine predicting that he would emerge as an absolute sensation in that year. (The magazine said they had been correct at the end of that year.) Stewart was named among the 2005 Time 100, an annual list of 100 of the most influential people of the year by Time magazine. In 2004, Stewart spoke at the commencement ceremonies at his alma mater, William and Mary, and received an honorary Doctor of Arts degree. Stewart was the Class Day keynote speaker at Princeton University in 2004, and the 2008 Sacerdote Great Names speaker at Hamilton College. Stewart and The Daily Show received the 2005 National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language. Stewart was presented an Honorary All-America Award by the National Soccer Coaches Association of America (NSCAA) in 2006. On April 21, 2009, President of Liberia Ellen Johnson Sirleaf made Stewart a chief. On October 26, 2010, Stewart was named the Most Influential Man of 2010 by AskMen. For his advocacy on behalf of 9/11 victims and families, Stewart was one of eighteen individuals and organizations awarded the Bronze Medallion on December 16, 2019. The Bronze Medallion is the highest award conferred upon civilians by New York City. Filmography Film Television Bibliography Naked Pictures of Famous People (Rob Weisbach Books, 1998). . America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction (Warner Books, September 2004). . Earth (The Book): A Visitor's Guide to the Human Race (Grand Central Publishing, 2010). . See also New Yorkers in journalism Political satire References Further reading David Marchese, "Jon Stewart Is Back to Weigh In", The New York Times Magazine, June 15, 2020. Lisa Rogak, Angry Optimist: The Life and Times of Jon Stewart. New York: Saint Martin's Griffin, 2014. . Bruce Watson, Jon Stewart: Beyond the Moments of Zen. New Word City, 2014. External links The Daily Show profile 1962 births 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American male actors 21st-century American non-fiction writers American film producers American male comedians American male film actors American male non-fiction writers American male television actors American media critics American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent American people of Polish-Jewish descent American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent American political commentators American satirists American male screenwriters American religious skeptics American social commentators American stand-up comedians American television talk show hosts American television writers Association footballers not categorized by position Comedians from New York City Criticism of journalism Film directors from New Jersey Film directors from New York City Grammy Award winners Jewish American male comedians Jewish American male actors Jewish American writers Jewish male comedians Late night television talk show hosts Lawrence High School (New Jersey) alumni Living people Male actors from New Jersey Male actors from New York City New Jersey Hall of Fame inductees American male television writers Peabody Award winners People from Lawrence Township, Mercer County, New Jersey Primetime Emmy Award winners Screenwriters from New York (state) Television producers from New York City William & Mary Tribe men's soccer players Writers from New Jersey Writers from New York City 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers Television producers from New Jersey Association football players not categorized by nationality

239009

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Catch%20a%20Thief

To Catch a Thief

To Catch a Thief is a 1955 American romantic thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, from a screenplay by John Michael Hayes based on the 1952 novel of the same name by David Dodge. The film stars Cary Grant as a retired cat burglar who has to save his reformed reputation by catching an impostor preying on the wealthy tourists (including the daughter of a wealthy widow, played by Grace Kelly) of the French Riviera. Plot Retired jewel thief John "The Cat" Robie is suspected by the police in a string of burglaries on the French Riviera. When they come to his hilltop villa to question him, he slips their grasp and heads to a restaurant owned by his friend Bertani. The restaurant's staff are members of Robie's old gang, who have been paroled for their work in the French Resistance during World War II. They are angry at Robie because they are all under suspicion as long as the new Cat is active. When the police arrive at the restaurant looking for Robie, Foussard's daughter spirits him to safety; Danielle is a young woman who fancies him dearly. Robie realizes he can prove his innocence by catching the new Cat in the act. He enlists the aid of an insurance man, H. H. Hughson, who reluctantly discloses a list of the most expensive jewelry owners currently on the Riviera. American tourists Jessie Stevens, a wealthy nouveau riche widow, and her daughter Frances, top the list. Robie strikes up a friendship with them. Frances feigns modesty at first, but kisses Robie at the end of the night before retiring to her room. The day after, Frances invites Robie to a swim at the beach, where Robie runs into Danielle. He keeps up his cover of being a wealthy American tourist, despite Danielle's jealous barbs about his interest in Frances. Frances accompanies Robie on a "picnic" to a villa where Robie suspects the new Cat might break in. Frances reveals that she knows Robie's real identity. He initially denies it, but concedes it that evening when she has invited him to her room to watch a fireworks display. They kiss passionately. The next morning, Jessie discovers her jewels are gone. Frances accuses Robie of using her as a distraction so he could steal her mother's jewelry. The police are called, but by the time they reach Jessie's room, Robie has disappeared. Later, Robie is staking out an estate at night when he is attacked by an unknown assailant. A second attacker raises a wrench and appears to hit Robie, who falls off the estate's seawall into the water. But when the police reach the body in the water, it turns out to be Foussard, one of the staff at Bertani's restaurant. The police chief publicly announces that Foussard was the jewel thief, but, as Robie points out privately in the abashed Hughson's presence, this would have been impossible because Foussard had a wooden leg, and could not climb on rooftops. Foussard's funeral is interrupted by Danielle's loud accusation that Robie is responsible for her father's death. Outside the graveyard, Frances apologizes to Robie and confesses her love. Robie asks Frances to arrange his attendance at a fancy masquerade ball, where he believes the Cat will strike again. Robie accompanies Frances to the ball dressed as a masked Moor. The police hover nearby. Upstairs, the cat burglar silently cleans out several jewel boxes. When Jessie addresses the Moor as "John" and asks him to go and get her "heart pills", the authorities are tipped off as to his identity. Upon the masked Moor's return, the police wait as he and Frances dance together all night. When the masked Moor and Frances go to her room, the mask is removed: it was Hughson, who switched places with Robie to conceal Robie's exit. Robie lurks on the rooftop, and his patience is finally rewarded when he spots a figure in black. However, just as his pursuit begins, the police throw a spotlight on him and demand he halt. He flees as they shoot at him, but he nonetheless manages to corner his foe with jewels in hand. Unmasked, his nemesis turns out to be Danielle. She loses her footing on the roof, but Robie grabs her hand before she can fall. While she hangs in his grasp, he forces her to confess to the police and admit that Bertani was the ringleader of this gang. Robie speeds back to his villa. Frances follows to convince him that she has a place in his life. He agrees but looks less than thrilled when she says, "Mother will love it up here." Cast Cary Grant as John Robie ("The Cat") Grace Kelly as Frances Stevens Jessie Royce Landis as Jessie Stevens John Williams as H. H. Hughson Charles Vanel as Monsieur Bertani Brigitte Auber as Danielle Foussard Jean Martinelli as Foussard, Danielle's father Georgette Anys as Germaine, housekeeper René Blancard as Commissaire Lepic (uncredited) Paul Newlan as Vegetable Man in Kitchen (uncredited) Cast notes Alfred Hitchcock makes his signature cameo, approximately ten minutes into the film, as a bus passenger sitting next to Cary Grant. Production To Catch a Thief was the director's first film (of five) made using the VistaVision widescreen process, and the last of the three Hitchcock films with Grace Kelly. The film was the penultimate collaboration with Cary Grant; only North by Northwest (1959) followed. It is also about a man with a mistaken identity who goes on a breakneck adventure to prove his innocence. The costumes were by Edith Head, including Kelly's memorable gold lamé gown for the film's costume ball. The car driven by Grace Kelly was a metallic blue 1953 Sunbeam Alpine Mk I. Locations To Catch a Thief was filmed largely in the Paramount Studios, Hollywood, California, and on location in the Alpes-Maritimes of southeastern France, on the Mediterranean coast. It included the resorts of Cannes, Nice, Villefranche-sur-Mer and Saint-Jeannet. Crucial to the film's success in shooting on location was the presence of unit production manager C.O. "Doc" Erickson. He had developed a reputation for his work on prior Paramount films that had relied on a great amount of location photography such as Shane (1953) and Secret of the Incas (1954). Erickson thoroughly researched the logistics of shooting in the South of France and communicated with Bill Mull, the production manager on Little Boy Lost (1953). Production credits The production credits on the film were as follows: Director - Alfred Hitchcock Writing - John Michael Hayes (screenplay) Cinematography - Robert Burks (director of photography) Art direction - Hal Pereira and Joseph MacMillan Johnson (art direction); Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams (set decoration) Editor - George Tomasini Assistant director - Daniel McCauley Technicolor color consultant - Richard Mueller Special effects - John P. Fulton (special photographic effects), Farciot Edouart (process photography) Makeup supervision - Wally Westmore Sound recording - Harold Lewis and John Cope Musical score - Lyn Murray Second unit director - Herbert Coleman Costumes - Edith Head Distribution To Catch a Thief is the only Hitchcock film released by Paramount that is still owned and controlled by the company. The others were sold to Hitchcock in the early 1960s and are currently distributed by Universal Studios. Reception The film drew mixed reviews from critics, with some enjoying Grant and Kelly in the lead roles as well as the French Riviera setting, while others expressed disappointment at the lack of suspense compared to earlier Hitchcock films. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote in a positive review that the film "comes off completely as a hit in the old Hitchcock style ... Mr. Grant and Miss Kelly do grandly, especially in one sly seduction scene." Variety wrote that while the film was "not the suspense piece one usually associated with the Alfred Hitchcock name," it was "strong on sight and performance values" though it had "some plot weaknesses and is not as smooth in the unfolding as one might expect from an upper 'A' presentation." Harrison's Reports wrote, "Alfred Hitchcock has not endowed the action with as much suspense as one might expect in a picture produced and directed by him; nevertheless, its story of a one-time jewel robber who sets out to establish his innocence by catching a thief who was using his technique is tight and swiftly-paced, and constantly offers dramatic and comical developments." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it "one of those de luxe pictures in which everyone lives in glorious workless luxury on the French Rivera, looks wonderful, speaks amusingly and is unconcerned with transit strikes or hurricanes. I loved every minute of it." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times was also positive, calling Grant and Kelly "ideal in the romantic leads" and the dialogue "daring but delightful," adding, "Above all, there is the spell of the French Riviera—a lazy, laissez-faire thing that apparently captivated the director as much as it will audiences in the soft, beguiling hues of its Technicolor and VistaVision." John McCarten of The New Yorker dismissed the film as "an Alfred Hitchcock picture that makes you wonder what has happened to the man ... As the heiress, Grace Kelly is very pretty. She does not, presumably, try to act." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Even a comedy thriller needs considerably more in the way of plain excitement and tension than To Catch a Thief provides, and Hitchcock's celebrated habit of playing tricks with the audience ... seem a poor substitute for the real thing." The Guardian called the film "a thorough disappointment," writing that Hitchcock had "failed so completely that one can only wonder if, in this tale of high-class burglary on the Côte d'Azur, he has not altogether abandoned his devotion to 'tension.' Certainly the 'whodunnit' element in this film is remarkably slack; the unmasking of the master criminal, which is the climax of the story, comes as mildly as bread and milk." François Truffaut wrote "To Catch a Thief completely satisfies all [Hitchcock's] fans—the snobbiest and the most ordinary—and still manages to be one of the most cynical films Hitchcock has ever made." On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 96% based on reviews from 50 critics, with an average rating of 8.00/10, with the critical consensus reading: "It may occasionally be guilty of coasting on pure charm, but To Catch a Thief has it in spades -- as well as a pair of perfectly matched stars in Cary Grant and Grace Kelly." Accolades Robert Burks won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography, while Hal Pereira, Joseph McMillan Johnson, Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams were nominated for Best Art Direction, and Edith Head was nominated for Best Costume Design. In 2002, American Film Institute included the film in AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions (#46). Adaptations In May 2018, it was announced that Viacom was set to adapt the film as a Spanish-language television series. It was launched in October 2019 as Atrapa a un ladrón (es). See also List of American films of 1955 References Bibliography Further reading "Two Interviews About To Catch a Thief by Tifenn Brisset, Film International magazine Vol. 11, No. 6, 2013, pages 13–21. Interviews with French script supervisor Sylvette Baudrot conducted September 2011 and actress Brigitte Auber, September 2011, March 2013, regarding their work on the film and with Cary Grant and Alfred Hitchcock. Discussion of a different ending and script differences. Twelve color photographs, nine pages. External links Historic reviews, photo gallery at CaryGrant.net 1955 films 1950s mystery thriller films 1950s romantic thriller films American films American mystery thriller films American romantic thriller films English-language films Films based on American novels Films based on mystery novels Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock Films scored by Lyn Murray Films set in Monaco Films set on the French Riviera Films shot in France Films shot in Monaco Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award French-language films Paramount Pictures films Films with screenplays by John Michael Hayes

240547

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Blake%20%28actor%29

Robert Blake (actor)

Robert Blake (born Michael James Gubitosi; September 18, 1933) is an American actor known for his roles in the 1967 film In Cold Blood and the 1970s U.S. television series Baretta. Blake began acting as a child, with a lead role in the final years of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's Our Gang (Little Rascals) short film series from 1939 to 1944. He also appeared as a child actor in 22 entries of the Red Ryder film franchise. In the Red Ryder series and in many of his adult roles, the Italian-American actor was often cast as an American Indian or Latino character. After a stint in the United States Army, Blake returned to acting in both television and movie roles. Blake continued acting until 1997's Lost Highway in a career that author Michael Newton called "one of the longest in Hollywood history." In March 2005, Blake was tried and acquitted of the 2001 murder of his second wife, Bonnie Lee Bakley. In November 2005, he was found liable in a California civil court for her wrongful death. Early life Robert Blake was born Michael James Gubitosi in Nutley, New Jersey, on September 18, 1933. His parents were Giacomo (James) Gubitosi and his wife, Elizabeth Cafone. In 1930, James worked as a die setter for a can manufacturer. Eventually, Blake's parents began a song-and-dance act. In 1936, their three children began performing, billed as "The Three Little Hillbillies." They moved to Los Angeles, California in 1938, where their children began working as movie extras. Blake had an unhappy childhood in which he was abused by his alcoholic father. When he entered public school at age 10, he was bullied and had fights with other students, which led to his expulsion. Blake stated that he was physically and sexually abused by both of his parents while growing up and was frequently locked in a closet and forced to eat off the floor as punishment. At age 14, he ran away from home, leading to several more difficult years. His father committed suicide in 1956. Child actor Then known as "Mickey Gubitosi", Blake began his acting career as Toto in the MGM movie Bridal Suite (1939), starring Annabella and Robert Young. Blake then began appearing in MGM's Our Gang short subjects (a.k.a. The Little Rascals) under his real name, replacing Eugene "Porky" Lee. He appeared in 40 of the shorts between 1939 and 1944, eventually becoming the series' final lead character. Blake's parents also made appearances in the series as extras. In Our Gang, Blake's character, Mickey, was often called upon to cry, for which he was criticized for being unconvincing. He was also criticized for being obnoxious and whiny. In 1942, he acquired the stage name "Bobby Blake" and his character in the series was renamed "Mickey Blake." In 1944, MGM discontinued Our Gang, releasing the final short in the series, Dancing Romeo. In 1995, Blake was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award for his role in Our Gang. In 1942, Blake appeared as "Tooky" Stedman in Andy Hardy's Double Life. In 1944, Blake began playing an American Indian boy, "Little Beaver," in the Red Ryder western series at the studios of Republic Pictures (now CBS Radford Studios), appearing in twenty-three of the movies until 1947. He also had roles in one of Laurel and Hardy's later films The Big Noise (1944), and the Warner Bros. movies Humoresque (1946), playing John Garfield's character as a child, and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), playing the Mexican boy who sells Humphrey Bogart a winning lottery ticket and gets a glass of water thrown in his face by Bogart in the process. In 1950, at age 17, Blake appeared as Mahmoud in The Black Rose and as Enrico, Naples Bus Boy (uncredited) in Black Hand. Career as an adult In 1950, Blake was drafted into the United States Army. Upon leaving at the age of 21, he found himself without any job prospects and fell into a deep depression. This led to a two-year addiction to heroin and cocaine. He also sold drugs. Blake entered Jeff Corey's acting class and began working on improving his personal and professional life. He eventually became a seasoned Hollywood actor, playing notable dramatic roles in movies and on television. In 1956, he was billed as Robert Blake for the first time. In 1959, Blake turned down the role of Little Joe Cartwright, a character ultimately portrayed by Michael Landon, in NBC's western television series Bonanza. He did appear that year as Tobe Hackett in the episode "Trade Me Deadly" of the syndicated western series 26 Men, which dramatized true stories of the Arizona Rangers. Blake also appeared twice as "Alfredo" in the syndicated western The Cisco Kid and starred in "The White Hat" episode of Men of Annapolis, another syndicated series. He appeared in three distinctive guest lead roles in the CBS series Have Gun Will Travel, as well as one-time guest roles on John Payne's NBC western The Restless Gun, Nick Adams's ABC western The Rebel, and in season 3, episode 25 of Bat Masterson, the NBC western series The Californians, the short-lived ABC adventure series Straightaway, and the NBC western television series Laramie. Blake performed in numerous motion pictures as an adult, including the starring role in The Purple Gang (1960), a gangster movie, and featured roles in Pork Chop Hill (1959) and, as one of four U.S. soldiers participating in a gang rape in occupied Germany, in Town Without Pity (1961). He was also in Ensign Pulver (1964), The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965) and other films. Blake garnered further exposure as a member of the ensemble cast of the 1963 acclaimed but short-lived The Richard Boone Show, appearing in fifteen of the NBC series' 25 episodes. At 33, Blake played Billy the Kid in the 1966 episode "The Kid from Hell's Kitchen" of the syndicated western series Death Valley Days, hosted by Robert Taylor. In the story line, The Kid sets out to avenge the death of his friend John Tunstall played by John Anderson. In 1967, Blake experienced a career breakout due to his work in the film In Cold Blood. Blake played real-life murderer Perry Smith, to whom he bore a chilling resemblance. Richard Brooks received two Oscar nominations for the film: one for his direction, and one for his adaptation of Truman Capote's book. With In Cold Blood, Blake was the first actor to utter the expletive "bull----" in a mainstream American motion picture. Blake played a Native American fugitive in Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here (1969), starred in a TV movie adaptation of Of Mice and Men (1981), and played a motorcycle highway patrolman in iconoclastic Electra Glide in Blue (1973). He played a small-town stock car driver with ambitions to join the NASCAR circuit in Corky, which MGM produced in 1972. The film featured real NASCAR drivers, including Richard Petty and Cale Yarborough. Blake may be best known for his Emmy Award-winning role of Tony Baretta in the popular television series Baretta (1975 to 1978), playing a street-wise, plain clothes police detective. The show's trademarks included Baretta's pet cockatoo "Fred" and his signature phrases—notably "Don't do the crime if you can't do the time", "That's the name of that tune", and "You can take that to the bank." After Baretta ended, NBC offered to produce several pilot episodes of a proposed series titled Joe Dancer, in which Blake would play the role of a hard-boiled private detective. In addition to starring, Blake also was credited as the executive producer and creator. Three television films aired on NBC in 1981 and 1983, and the series never ultimately sold. He continued to act through the 1980s and 1990s, mostly in television, in such roles as Jimmy Hoffa in the miniseries Blood Feud (1983) and as John List in the murder drama Judgment Day: The John List Story (1993), which earned him a third Emmy nomination. Blake starred in the 1985 television series Hell Town, playing a priest working in a tough neighborhood. He also had character parts in the theatrical movies Money Train (1995) and played the Mystery Man in David Lynch's Lost Highway (1997). Marriages and children Blake and actress Sondra Kerr were married in 1961, and divorced in 1983. It was his first marriage, from which came two children: actor Noah Blake (born 1965) and Delinah Blake (born 1966). In 1999, Blake met Bonnie Lee Bakley, formerly of Wharton, New Jersey, who had already been married nine times and reportedly had a history of exploiting older men, especially celebrities, for money. She was dating Christian Brando, the son of Marlon Brando, during her relationship with Blake. Bakley became pregnant and told both Brando and Blake that her baby was theirs. Initially, Bakley named the baby "Christian Shannon Brando" and stated that Brando was the father. Bakley wrote letters describing her dubious motives to Blake. Blake insisted that she take a DNA test to prove the paternity. Blake became Bakley's tenth husband on November 19, 2000, after DNA tests proved that Blake was the biological father of her child, who was renamed Rosie. Blake remained married to Bakley until she was murdered on May 4, 2001. In a March 2016 interview at age 82, Blake indicated he had a new woman in his life, who remained unnamed. In 2017, Blake applied for a marriage license for his fiancée, Pamela Hudak, whom he had known for decades, and who had testified on his behalf at his trial. On December 7, 2018, it was announced that Blake had filed for divorce. Murder of Bonnie Lee Bakley On May 4, 2001, Blake took Bakley out for dinner at Vitello's Italian Restaurant at 4349 Tujunga Avenue in Studio City, California. Bakley was fatally shot in the head while sitting in Blake's vehicle, which was parked on a side street around the corner from the restaurant, across the street and behind a dumpster next to a construction site. Blake claimed that he had returned to the restaurant to collect a pistol which he had left inside and claimed that he had not been present when the shooting took place. The pistol Blake claimed to have left in the restaurant was later found and determined by police not to be the murder weapon. Arrest On April 18, 2002, Blake was arrested and charged with Bakley's murder. His longtime bodyguard, Earle Caldwell, was also arrested and charged with conspiracy in connection with the murder. A key event that gave the Los Angeles Police Department the confidence to arrest Blake came when a retired stuntman, Ronald "Duffy" Hambleton, agreed to testify against him. Hambleton alleged that Blake tried to hire him to kill Bakley. Another retired stuntman and an associate of Hambleton's, Gary McLarty, also came forward with a similar story. According to author Miles Corwin, Hambleton had agreed to testify against Blake only after being told that he would be subject to a grand jury subpoena and a misdemeanor charge. On April 22, 2002, Blake was charged with one count of murder with special circumstances, an offense which carried a possible death penalty. He was also charged with two counts of solicitation of murder and one count of conspiracy to commit murder. Blake entered a plea of not guilty. On March 13, 2003, after almost a year in jail, Blake was granted bail, which was set at $1.5 million, and was allowed to go free to await trial. Blake was placed under house arrest during this time. On October 31, in a major reversal for the prosecution, the judge dismissed the conspiracy charges against Blake and Caldwell during a pre-trial hearing. The junior prosecutor who handled the case, Shellie Samuels, was interviewed by CBS reporter Peter Van Sant for the CBS program 48 Hours Investigates. During the interview, broadcast in November 2003, she admitted that the prosecutors had no forensic evidence implicating Blake in the murder and that they could not tie him to the murder weapon. Trial and acquittal Blake's criminal trial for murder began on December 20, 2004, with opening statements by the prosecution and opening statements by the defense the following day. The prosecution contended that Blake intentionally murdered Bakley to free himself from a loveless marriage, while the defense claimed that Blake was an innocent victim of circumstantial and fabricated evidence. McLarty and Hambleton each testified that Blake had asked them to murder Bakley. On cross-examination, the defense brought up McLarty's mental health problems and Hambleton's criminal history. The lack of gunshot residue on Blake's hands was a key part of the defense's case that Blake was not the shooter. Blake chose not to testify. On March 16, 2005, Blake was found not guilty of murder and not guilty of one of the two counts of solicitation of murder. The other count, for solicitation to commit murder, was dropped after it was revealed that the jury was deadlocked 11–1 in favor of an acquittal. Los Angeles District Attorney Stephen Cooley, commenting on this ruling, called Blake "a miserable human being" and the jurors "incredibly stupid" to fall for the defense's claims. Public opinion regarding the verdict was mixed, with some feeling that Blake was guilty, though many felt that there was not enough evidence to convict him. On the night of his acquittal several fans celebrated at Blake's favorite haunt – and the scene of the crime – Vitello's. Civil case Bakley's three children filed a civil suit against Blake, asserting that he was responsible for their mother's death. During the trial, the girlfriend of Blake's co-defendant Earle Caldwell said she believed Blake and Caldwell were involved in the crime. On November 18, 2005, a jury found Blake liable for the wrongful death of his wife and ordered him to pay $30 million. On February 3, 2006, Blake filed for bankruptcy. Blake's attorney, M. Gerald Schwartzbach, appealed the court's decision on February 28, 2007. On April 26, 2008, an appeals court upheld the civil case verdict, but cut Blake's penalty assessment to $15 million. Aftermath Blake has maintained a low profile since his acquittal and filing for bankruptcy, with debts of $3 million for unpaid legal fees as well as state and federal taxes. Due to his legal problems Blake has said that he might return to acting someday in order to help himself financially. On April 9, 2010, the state of California filed a tax lien against Blake for $1,110,878 in unpaid back taxes. On July 16, 2012, Blake was interviewed on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight. When Piers Morgan asked Blake about the night of Bakley's murder, Blake became defensive and angry, stating he resented Morgan's questioning and felt he was being interrogated. Morgan responded he was only asking questions that he felt people were eager to have answered. In January 2019, Blake was interviewed by 20/20. Initially he seemed to decline the interview and instead delegated it to a friend, but then began to participate, discussing the murder and the behavior of the police officers who dealt with him, the culture of Hollywood and its reaction to the event, and his early life and difficulties with his parents. In September 2019, Blake started a YouTube channel titled 'Robert Blake: I ain't dead yet, so stay tuned,' in which he discusses his life and career. Later in October the same year, Blake's daughter, Rose Lenore, opened up about her childhood and how the trial affected her. She discussed reuniting with her father, visiting her mother's grave and her own desire to get into acting. Regarding knowing the truth about her mother's murder and whether Blake did it she declined to know the details but is open to knowing the truth "If it's ever an option". In 2021, Blake opened up a website, "Robert Blake's Pushcart", where scripts, memorabilia and books including his autobiography 'Tales of a Rascal' are available to read and in the case of the latter can be ordered. Quentin Tarantino's novel of Once Upon a Time in Hollywood based on his film of the same name is dedicated to Blake. Notably Blake's later life dealing with his wife's murder mirrors Brad Pitt's character Cliff Booth who is also accused of murdering his wife. Filmography Film Television References Further reading Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, pp. 185–186. Dye, David. Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914–1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p. 20–22. External links 1933 births 20th-century American male actors American male child actors American male comedy actors American male film actors American male television actors American people of Italian descent Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners Living people Male actors from New Jersey Male Western (genre) film actors Our Gang Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners People acquitted of murder People from Nutley, New Jersey Western (genre) television actors

240739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riddick%20Bowe

Riddick Bowe

Riddick Lamont Bowe (born August 10, 1967) is an American former professional boxer who competed between 1989 and 2008. He reigned as the undisputed world heavyweight champion in 1992, and as an amateur he won a silver medal in the super heavyweight division at the 1988 Summer Olympics. After turning professional in 1989, Bowe went on to become a two-time world heavyweight champion. In 1992 he won the undisputed WBA, WBC and IBF titles by defeating then-unbeaten former undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield. That same year, Bowe was named Fighter of the Year by The Ring and the Boxing Writers' Association of America. Bowe vacated the WBC title later that year in protest, instead of defending the title against their number one contender, Lennox Lewis. This left the undisputed championship fragmented until 1999. In a rematch with Holyfield in 1993, Bowe narrowly lost the WBA and IBF titles in what would be his only professional defeat. He later regained a portion of the world heavyweight championship in 1995, defeating Herbie Hide for the WBO title. In doing so, Bowe became the first boxer in history to win the titles of all four major sanctioning bodies: the WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO. Later that year, Bowe vacated the WBO title in order to fight Holyfield for a third time, and won decisively by being the first boxer to defeat Holyfield by knockout. 1996 saw Bowe engage in two brutal slugfests with Andrew Golota, both of which ended controversially when Golota repeatedly hit him with low blows. Bowe retired from boxing after the Golota fights, making low-key comebacks in 2004 and 2008. In a 2010 article by BoxingScene, Bowe was ranked the 21st greatest heavyweight of all time. In 2015, he was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Early years Bowe was born on August 10, 1967, the twelfth of his mother Dorothy Bowe's thirteen children. Bowe was born and raised in the East New York section of Brooklyn, New York City. His brother Henry died of AIDS, and his sister Brenda was stabbed to death by a drug addict during an attempted robbery. Bowe was in the same elementary school sixth-grade class with Mike Tyson. "We went to school together the sixth grade in P.S. 396 (in Brownsville.) I really didn't know him," Bowe recalled. Amateur boxing career Bowe was training at the Bedford-Stuyvesant Boxing Association Gym or the "Bed-Stuy BA" for short. As an amateur, Bowe won the prestigious New York Golden Gloves Championship and other tournaments. In 1984, age 17, he knocked out opponent James Smith in just 4 seconds. In 1985, at the National Golden Gloves championships, he lost to Fort Worth heavyweight Donald Stephens. Apart of boxing he attended Kingsborough Community College, where he studied drama — in hopes of an acting career after boxing — also he took up a business administration study. His friends called him "Don King" because of his hairstyle. Bowe said he was emulating Mark Breland, "I got a majority of my experience with Mark, I'm inspired by what he's accomplished. It makes it possible for me to do the same," said Bowe in an interview. New York Golden Gloves Championships Bowe won four New York Golden Gloves Championships. He won two bouts as a 178-pounder in 1984 before failing to show for a third bout. He won the 1985 178 lb Novice Championship, 1986 178 lb Open Championship and the 1987 and 1988 Super Heavyweight Open Championship. Already in 1985 Bowe was ranked #1 light heavyweight in the United States. 1986 Goodwill Games He was a light heavyweight runner-up for the 1986 World Championships and 1986 Goodwill Games but for some reason didn't qualify. Meanwhile, during the year-and-a-half hiatus he gained well above thirty pounds and jumped from light heavyweight to super heavyweight, coming back for the 1987 United States Olympic Festival. 1987 Pan Am Prior to 1987 Pan American Games, Bowe said he had suffered a hairline fracture in his right hand during one of his two fights at the Olympic Festival in July 1987. The injury, he said, was revealed in X-rays he had taken at home. Roosevelt Sanders, the head coach, said he was aware that Bowe's hand was being treated, but had not known it was broken. Bowe said he kept those injuries secret from the U.S. team coaching staff for fear of being kept out of the tournament. Olympic qualifiers At first, Bowe was dismissed from the Olympic-year training camp, because U.S. Olympic boxing Coach Ken Adams didn't like him. U.S. Army superheavyweight Robert Salters, a Brooklyn-born 25-year-old artilleryman of Fort Bragg, NC, who took up boxing in 1986, and had less than twenty amateur fights in his 16-months-long record before they first met at the 1988 AAU National finals, where Salters floored Bowe twice before ref stopped the fight, became a real nemesis for Bowe during his amateur career, as they fought each other to nearly a draw in the 1988 Olympic Box-offs at Caesars Palace, after Bowe lost to Salters in the Olympic Trials (Bowe came in at 231 lbs, Salters at 247.). "He was talkin' trash about me, and that helped me mentally," Salters said. Bowe had been boxing reportedly with ligament damage on the middle knuckle of his right hand, which he got the day before the Box-offs, and with a damaged right ankle, eventually managed to win, for the judges had to pick up a winner despite the even 58–58 score. The fifth unidentified judge, who scored the bout 58–58, gave it to Bowe on unidentified subjective grounds. Despite giving Bowe a hard time on four occasions in a row, Salters never turned pro. 1988 Olympics Bowe won the silver medal in the 1988 Seoul Olympics, outpointing Soviet Alex Miroshnichenko in the semifinals, and losing a controversial match in the finals to future world heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis. Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from East Germany gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was no headbutt. Commentator Ferdie Pacheco disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two standing eight counts and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it "very strange," but Marv Albert said Bowe took "a pounding." Highlights United States Junior Championships (middleweight), 1983: Lost to Adolpho Washington RSC 2 New York Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), New York City, February 1984: 1/16: Defeated Richard Newton RSC 1 1/8: Defeated Hezekiah Salone 1/4: Lost to ? by walkover New York Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), Elks Club, Queens, New York, and Madison Square Garden, New York City, February 1985: 1/4: Defeated Alonzo Knowles KO 1 1/2: Defeated Jose Guzman KO 3 Finals: Defeated Alfred Walcott KO 1 New York State Golden Gloves, novice division (light heavyweight), Madison Square Garden, New York City, March 1985: 1/2: Defeated Gil Walden KO 1 Finals: Defeated n/a National Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), Little Rock, Arkansas, March 1985: 1/16: Defeated Keith Sudduth KO 1/8: Defeated Odell Jones by decision 1/4: Defeated Cornell Harris RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Gregory Everett RSC 3 Finals: Lost to Donald Stephens by split decision, 2–3 Junior World box-offs (light heavyweight), El Paso Civic Center, El Paso, Texas, August 1985: Defeated Razz Chapin KO 1 Junior World Championships (light heavyweight), Bucharest, Romania, September 1985: 1/4: Defeated Mikhail Sadovsky (Soviet Union) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Damian Vasile (Romania) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Péter Hart (Hungary) RSC 1 World Cup (light heavyweight), Seoul, South Korea, November 1985: 1/4: Lost to Nurmagomed Shanavazov (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 0–5 U.S. Olympic Festival Eastern Qualifier (super heavyweight), Lake Placid, New York, May 1987: 1/4: Defeated Bryant Farris RSCH 1 1/2: Defeated Mark Anthony by walkover Finals: Defeated George Kilbert Pierce by unanimous decision, 5–0 U.S. Olympic Festival (super heavyweight), Raleigh, North Carolina, July 1987: 1/2: Defeated Nathaniel Fitch RSC 2 Finals: Defeated Kevin Ford RSC 3 Pan Am Box-offs (super heavyweight), International Center of the Broadmoor, Colorado Springs, Colorado, July 1987: Defeated Carlton Hollis Pan American Games (super heavyweight), Indianapolis, Indiana, August 1987: 1/2: Lost to Jorge Luis González (Cuba) by split decision, 2–3 USSR−USA Duals (super heavyweight), Moscow, Soviet Union, 1988: Lost to Alex Miroshnichenko (Soviet Union) by decision United States National Championships (heavyweight), Colorado Springs, Colorado, March–April 1988: 1/16: Defeated James Ernst RSCH 1 1/8: Defeated Tevin George RSCH 2 1/4: Defeated Kevin Ford 1/2: Lost to Robert Salters RSCH 2 Olympic Trials (super heavyweight), Concord Pavilion, Concord, California, July 1988: 1/4: Defeated Nathaniel Fitch by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Defeated Louis Savarese DQ 2 Finals: Lost to Robert Salters by majority decision, 1–4 Olympic Box-offs (super heavyweight), Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1988: Day 1: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2 Day 2: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2 Summer Olympics (super heavyweight), Seoul, South Korea, September–October 1988: 1/8: Defeated Biko Botowamungu (Austria) KO 2 1/4: Defeated Peter Hrivnák (Czechoslovakia) RSCH 1 1/2: Defeated Alex Miroshnichenko (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Finals: Lost to Lennox Lewis (Canada) RSC 2 Bowe finished his amateur career with a record of 104 wins, 18 losses. Professional boxing career Bowe turned professional after his Olympic loss. Highly regarded trainer Eddie Futch took on the job of developing Bowe, as he saw the talent. Eddie would say that Bowe had more potential than any boxer he had ever trained. Bowe turned professional in March 1989 and knocked out Lionel Butler. His then manager, Rock Newman, kept Bowe active, fighting 13 times in 1989, beating journeymen — the most notable being Garing Lane, whom he beat twice. In September 1990, Bowe made his first step up in class, fighting faded ex-champion Pinklon Thomas, whom he dominated until Thomas gave up after eight rounds. The following month, Bowe knocked out Bert Cooper in two rounds, which added to his reputation and high ranking. In March 1991, Bowe knocked out 1984 Olympic Super Heavyweight Gold medalist Tyrell Biggs. In Bowe's next fight, ex-champion Tony Tubbs appeared to outbox and outsmart Bowe in a close bout, only to have the judges award Bowe a unanimous decision. In August 1991, Bowe knocked out future world heavyweight champion Bruce Seldon in one round. In July 1992, he knocked out South African Pierre Coetzer in the seventh round of a world title eliminator. Fights against Elijah Tillery Bowe fought two interesting bouts against Elijah Tillery in 1991. Their first fight was in Washington D.C. at the Washington Convention Center was known as the 'crazy fight' for its bizarre conclusion. Bowe dominated the first round and dropped Tillery. After the round ended, Tillery walked toward Bowe and taunted him, and Bowe responded by punching Tillery. Tillery then threw several low kicks at Bowe, who then unleashed a flurry of punches on Tillery as he lay on the ropes. Bowe's trainer Rock Newman grabbed Tillery from behind on the ring apron and pulled him over the ropes as Bowe continued to throw punches. Tillery somersaulted over the ropes, and was quickly detained by security. After order was restored and the fighters returned to the ring, Tillery and Bowe continued a war of words, and minor incidents continued until the ring was cleared. Tillery was controversially disqualified for kicking Bowe, with Bowe getting the win, much to the surprise of the television announcers. The referee, Karl Milligan, had stepped between the two fighters to separate them and stepped forward as he did so, inadvertently missing the action behind him after the bell between the combatants. The fighters fought a rematch two months later at Convention Hall in Atlantic City, with Bowe dominating and stopping Tillery in four rounds. World heavyweight champion In November 1992 he fought reigning champ Evander Holyfield for the undisputed heavyweight title. Bowe won a unanimous decision in an entertaining fight, flooring Holyfield in the 11th round. However, it was the tenth round most boxing fans will remember. The epic brutal back and forth exchanges helped make it Ring Magazine's "Round of the Year." Commentator Al Bernstein exclaimed, "That was one of the greatest rounds in heavyweight history. Period!" A couple of weeks earlier in London, Bowe's old Olympic rival, Lennox Lewis, knocked out Canadian Donovan "Razor" Ruddock in two rounds, establishing himself as the World Boxing Council's number one contender. The Bowe-Holyfield and Lewis-Ruddock fights were part of a mini-tournament, whereby all four fighters agreed the two winners would meet each other for the undisputed world heavyweight championship. Bowe's manager Rock Newman made a proposal: the $32 million purse HBO was offering should be split 90–10 in Bowe's favor, an 'absurd' offer which Lennox Lewis rejected. Lewis's manager, Kelley Maloney (known as Frank Maloney at the time), rejected another offer of two million for Lewis to fight on a Bowe undercard, citing his distrust of the Bowe camp after the aforementioned financial negotiations. Bowe responded by holding a press conference in which he dumped the WBC world heavyweight championship belt into a trash can and relinquished it in order to protest the actions of the WBC and WBC President José Sulaimán concerning the fight payoff. Bowe's first defense of his remaining titles came on February 6, 1993, when he fought 34-year-old former champion Michael Dokes at Madison Square Garden and knocked him out in the first round. In February 1993, Bowe met Pope John Paul II during the pope's general audience at the Vatican, a day after Bowe completed a goodwill mission to Somalia. In Bowe's next fight, May 22, 1993 at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., Bowe knocked out Jesse Ferguson in the second round to retain the title. This set up a rematch with Evander Holyfield. In the rematch with Holyfield, Bowe looked overweight. He had entered training camp at a 266 lbs and weighed in at 246 lbs, eleven pounds heavier than in the first fight with Holyfield. Bowe and Holyfield exchanged hard punches. Bowe ended up losing the belts to Holyfield by a majority decision. This fight was also known for a bizarre stunt in which parachutist James "Fan Man" Miller dropped into the open air arena, landing in the ropes by Bowe's corner. This surreal scene delayed the fight in the seventh round by nearly a half-hour. Bowe stated afterwards he thought the bout should have declared a 'technical draw' or a 'no contest' owing to the unfair delay. After title loss In August 1994, Bowe fought two comeback fights. He faced the much smaller Buster Mathis Jr and, after struggling to connect with his bobbing and weaving target, hit Mathis while he was down with what was ruled an accidental blow, and the bout was ruled a 'No Contest' by referee Arthur Mercante, Sr. In December 1994, Bowe punched Larry Donald at a prefight press conference, later beating him by 12 round unanimous decision for the WBC Continental Americas Heavyweight title, giving the 16-0 heavyweight contender Donald his first loss. WBO heavyweight champion and Holyfield rubber match In March 1995, Bowe won the WBO version of the world heavyweight championship by knocking down England's Herbie Hide six times en route to scoring a sixth-round knockout. In June 1995, after a heated build up, Bowe defended the WBO heavyweight title against his archrival in the amateurs, Jorge Luis González, At the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The prefight hype contained bizarre trash talk, which included Gonzalez declaring a desire to eat Bowe's heart and likening himself to a lion while making Bowe out to be a hyena. Bowe won by sixth-round knockout over Gonzalez. He vacated the WBO championship soon after. After the Gonzales fight, Bowe fought a rubber match with Evander Holyfield, their third and final meeting. Holyfield knocked Bowe down during the fight, but Bowe maintained his composure, and persevered to score an eighth round stoppage victory. Bowe vs. Golota I and II After defeating Holyfield in the third bout of their trilogy, Bowe was matched against undefeated heavyweight contender Andrew Golota at the Madison Square Garden in an HBO Boxing event. Bowe's weight problem again resurfaced, as the favorite entered the ring at a career high of 252 lbs. Though ahead on points, Golota was penalized several times for low blows, and was finally disqualified in the seventh round after a volley of punches to Bowe's testicles. Seconds after Golota was disqualified, Bowe's entourage rushed the ring, attacked Golota with a two way radio (Golota traded punches with one of them, requiring 11 stitches to close the wound caused by the radio) and assaulted Golota's 74-year-old trainer Lou Duva, who collapsed in the ring and was taken out of The Garden on a stretcher. The entourage began rioting, fighting with spectators, staff and policemen alike, resulting in a number of injuries before they were forced out of the arena in what evolved into a lengthy televised ring spectacle. The fight made many sports shows, including SportsCenter, and there was a good amount of public interest in a rematch. The rematch was on Pay Per View. Golota, after dropping Bowe in the second round, and being dropped himself later, was leading on the scorecards, only to be disqualified in the ninth round, once again for repeated shots to the testicles. Despite not having another riot, this fight also proved to be controversial, with an unsuccessful protest filed by Golota's camp to try to overturn the fight's result. This fight was featured on HBO's documentary Legendary Nights: The Tale of Bowe-Golota. Return to boxing On September 25, 2004, after seven and a half years away from boxing, Bowe returned with a second-round knockout over Marcus Rhode. In a second comeback fight, in April 2005, an overweight Bowe narrowly defeated journeyman Billy Zumbrun by ten round split decision. Bowe declared bankruptcy in 2005. On December 13, 2008, with the help of new manager Bob Bain, Bowe, 41, returned to the ring for the first time in over three and a half years on the undercard of the Wladimir Klitschko versus Hasim Rahman world heavyweight title bout in Mannheim, Germany and won an eight-round unanimous decision over Gene Pukall. Legacy and reputation Riddick Bowe's boxing record stands at 43 wins and 1 loss, with 33 knockouts. In the autobiography of veteran former referee Mills Lane, Let's Get It On, who had officiated at some of Bowe's fights, he professed that Bowe could have been one of boxing's greatest boxers but foolishly squandered the opportunity through immaturity and lack of discipline. Bowe's fighting weight during his career ranged from . His prime fighting weight was . It was within this weight span that Bowe achieved all of his most notable victories. BoxRec ranks Bowe as the 32nd best heavyweight of all time. Noted for his in-fighting skills, jab and combination punching, Bowe's first fight with Evander Holyfield is considered one of the greatest world heavyweight title fights of all time. Following this victory, he met Nelson Mandela during a visit to South Africa. Bowe's trainer at the time, Eddie Futch, lamented that upon his return, Bowe failed to ever achieve the same physical condition for his subsequent fights. Yet, as late as 1995 and past his peak, Bowe was good enough to become the first man to stop Evander Holyfield, outclass former amateur standout and undefeated pro, Jorge Luis González, and bludgeon over-matched Herbie Hide to win the then lightly-regarded WBO version of the world heavyweight championship. In 2017, The Ring magazine ranked Bowe as the 19th best heavyweight of all time in a poll of a panel of 30 trainers, matchmakers and members of the boxing media. The consensus was that Bowe, described as both a "super talent" and a "super waste", only had one great fight, when winning the title from Holyfield, and ultimately disappointed in squandering his obvious natural ability due to laziness. Bowe's reputation suffered because of the weak challengers he faced as champion (Michael Dokes and Jesse Ferguson) before losing the title to Holyfield in their rematch. He is also widely criticized for relinquishing the WBC title rather than defending it against mandatory challenger Lennox Lewis, thus fracturing the undisputed championship until Lewis unified the titles in 1999.{cn} Bowe is the first boxer in any division to hold all four major versions of the world championship (WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO) during his career, an accomplishment emulated in the heavyweight division only by Tyson Fury. This achievement has also been followed in other weight classes: Bernard Hopkins (middleweight), Jermain Taylor (middleweight), Winky Wright (light middleweight), Joe Calzaghe (super middleweight), Floyd Mayweather Jr. (welterweight), Terence Crawford (light welterweight), Cecilia Brækhus (welterweight), Katie Taylor (lightweight), Oleksandr Usyk (cruiserweight), Claressa Shields (middleweight, light middleweight) and Josh Taylor (light welterweight). Only Hopkins, Taylor, Crawford, Brækhus, Shields, Usyk, and Taylor held all four titles simultaneously. Bowe's sole loss, to Evander Holyfield in 1993, was avenged in 1995, meaning that he finished their trilogy 2-1 ahead. With the exception of a 1994 no-contest with Buster Mathis Jr., Bowe defeated every opponent he faced as a professional. Alongside Gene Tunney, Rocky Marciano, Sultan Ibragimov and Nikolai Valuev, Bowe is one of five former heavyweight champions to have never suffered a stoppage defeat during his career. Professional kickboxing career In March 2013, Bowe announced his Muay Thai debut, having trained under Kru Airr Phanthip and Kru Chan in Las Vegas. He faced Levgen Golovin for the WPMF Super Heavyweight World Title in Pattaya, Thailand. On June 14, 2013, Bowe was knocked down five times from kicks to his leg. The championship match was called to a stop halfway through the second round. Life outside of boxing Joining the Marine Corps After the Golota fights, Bowe retired from boxing and decided to join the United States Marine Corps Reserve. He said he made the decision both to make his mother proud and to rededicate himself to training, with the intention of returning to boxing shortly after. Bowe arrived at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island on February 10, 1997. On his first day of recruit training, Bowe discussed leaving the Corps with Marine commanders, and quit after three days of heavy physical training with his platoon in Parris Island, South Carolina on February 21, 1997. Humanitarian Activities Shortly after winning his first title against Evander Holyfield, Bowe saw a news story on television that revealed a million dollars worth of medicines donated to the Somali refugees and orphans were not able to be transported to the war-torn region due to a lack of funds to pay for the charter aircraft needed. Bowe immediately had his representatives contact AmeriCares, the NGO leading the effort, and pledged the 100,000 dollars needed to fund the trip - on the condition he could go to the country with the goods, and make sure they got to their intended recipients. While in Somalia, he visited U.S. Marines and an orphanage on the Kenyan border. He was accompanied by several members of his management team, including manager Rock Newman and Head of International Sales Alexis Denny (CEO of an independent media distributor). Bowe also took action when he heard news of other tragedies. In 1995, when Alexis Denny was in Indonesia on other business, she read Asian news coverage of Rodolfo Yap, a young man in the Philippines who was electrocuted while positioning his antenna so his family could watch a Riddick Bowe fight. She relayed this news to Bowe, and explained to the media at the time 'The heavyweight champion was very moved by the story and having lost a brother and a sister earlier in life, decided to make a financial contribution to the family of Mr. Yap." Bowe authorized her to fly to the Philippines and try to locate the man's family, make a contribution to their expenses, and also provide funds to support the Philippine boxing Team training for the Olympics (in the name of the deceased). Prison Bowe was convicted of the February 1998 kidnapping of his estranged wife Judy, and their five children. Thinking it would reconcile his marriage, Bowe went to his wife's Cornelius, North Carolina home and threatened her with a knife, handcuffs, duct tape, and pepper spray. He forced her and their children into a vehicle and set out for his Fort Washington, Maryland home. During the kidnapping, Bowe stabbed his wife in the chest. Police captured Bowe in South Hill, Virginia, freeing his family. Bowe agreed to a plea bargain of guilty to "interstate domestic violence", and was sentenced to 18 to 24 months in prison. Despite the agreed sentence, on February 29, 2000, the judge sentenced Bowe to only 30 days, due to a claim of brain damage by Bowe's defense. This sentence, counter to the plea agreement, was later overturned. Bowe served 17 months in Federal prison. On February 8, 2001, Bowe was arrested in Long Island after a domestic dispute with his new wife. Bowe allegedly dragged his wife and left her with cuts on her knees and elbows. Attempted professional wrestling debut In 2013, Riddick Bowe announced his intentions to start training to be a professional wrestler. He was to make his debut for the UK-based Preston City Wrestling organisation on March 1, 2014. On December 14, 2013, Preston City Wrestling announced on their Facebook Page that Bowe would no longer be appearing due to a disagreement with Bowe's new agent. In popular culture In 1993, a video game entitled Riddick Bowe Boxing was released for various platforms. Also that year, Bowe appeared in an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, entitled "You Bet Your Life", as a bully named "Bo". In 1997, Bowe appeared in the music video “Mo Money Mo Problems” by The Notorious B.I.G. Professional boxing record Muay Thai record |- style="background:#fbb;" | 2013-06-14 || Loss || align=left | Yevgeniy Golovin || WPMF Super Heavyweight Title || Pattaya, Thailand || TKO (right low kick) || 2 || N/A || 0–1 |- | colspan=9 | Legend: See also List of undisputed boxing champions List of heavyweight boxing champions List of WBA world champions List of WBC world champions List of IBF world champions List of WBO world champions Notes References External links CBZ Profile Boxing Hall of Fame Sports-Reference -- Olympics 1967 births Living people Sportspeople from Brooklyn African-American boxers Boxers from New York City American male kickboxers Heavyweight kickboxers Kickboxers from New York (state) International Boxing Federation champions World Boxing Association champions World Boxing Council champions World Boxing Organization champions World heavyweight boxing champions Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States Olympic silver medalists for the United States in boxing Olympic boxers of the United States Boxers at the 1987 Pan American Games Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics American male boxers American sportspeople convicted of crimes American people convicted of kidnapping Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics Pan American Games medalists in boxing People from Brownsville, Brooklyn Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games United States Marine Corps reservists 21st-century African-American people 20th-century African-American sportspeople

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20South%20Africa

Music of South Africa

The South African music scene includes both popular (jive) and folk forms like Zulu isicathamiya singing and harmonic mbaqanga. South Africa has a global music industry. Pre-20th-century history Early records of music in southern Africa indicate a fusion of cultural traditions: African, European and Asian. Modern country's early musician Enoch Sontonga wrote the Southern African national anthem Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika in 1897. By the end of the nineteenth century, South African cities such as Cape Town were large enough to attract foreign musicians, especially American ragtime players. In the 1890s Orpheus McAdoo's Jubilee Singers popularised African-American spirituals. Marabi In the early-twentieth century governmental restrictions on black people increased, including a nightly curfew which kept the nightlife in Johannesburg relatively small for a city of its size (then the largest city south of the Sahara). Marabi, a style from the slums of Johannesburg, was the early "popular music" of the townships and urban centres of South Africa. Practitioners played marabi on pianos with accompaniment from pebble-filled cans, often in shebeens, establishments that illegally served alcohol to black people. By the 1930s, however, marabi had incorporated new instruments - guitars, concertinas and banjos - and new styles of marabi had sprung up. These included a marabi/swing fusion called African jazz and jive, a generic term for any popular marabi style of music. Pre war, in the 1930s, when Eric Gallo's Brunswick Gramophone House sent several South African musicians to London to record for Singer Records. Gallo went on to produce music in South Africa, beginning in 1933. His company, Gallo Record Company, remains the largest and most successful label in South Africa, having had acclaimed artists such as Solomon Linda, Ladysmith Black Mambazo, Miriam Makeba, Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens and many more pass through the recording studios. Marabi, which happens to be a keyboard style of play traceable to the 1920s are mostly made up of Jazz with instruments like guitar and banjo. Gospel In the early twentieth century, Zionist Christian churches spread across South Africa. They incorporated African musical elements into their worship, thus inventing South African gospel music, which remains one of the most popular forms of music in the country today. Classical and art music Classical and art music in South Africa reached its zenith of popularity in the mid-20th century and was primarily composed by a triumvirate of Afrikaner composers known as the "fathers of South African art music." These composers were Arnold van Wyk, Hubert du Plessis, and Stefans Grové. All three composers were White South Africans, yet harbored very different views on Apartheid, which was state policy at the time. Stefans Grové was one of the first white composers to incorporate Black African music into his compositions, and openly rejected apartheid ideals in an effort to fuse his "Western art and his physical, African space." Arnold Van Wyk became known for his government-endorsed nationalistic compositions, though he himself was reluctant to support the apartheid administration. Hubert Du Plessis, on the other hand, was a very strong Afrikaner nationalist, and experienced a "growing consciousness" of his heritage which made him proud to compose such pieces. Du Plessis' works included chamber music, orchestral pieces, and many pieces for the piano. Afrikaans music Afrikaans music was primarily influenced by Dutch folk styles, along with French and German influences, in the early twentieth century. Zydeco-type string bands led by a concertina were popular, as were elements of American country music, especially Jim Reeves. The most prolific composers of "tiekie draai" Afrikaans music were lyricist Anton De Waal who wrote many hit songs with songwriters, pianist Charles Segal ("Hey Babariebab Se Ding Is Vim", "Kalkoenjie", "Sy Kom Van Kommetjie" and many others) and accordionist, Nico Carstens. Bushveld music based on the Zulu were reinterpreted by such singers as Marais and Miranda. Melodramatic and sentimental songs called trane trekkers (tearjerkers) were especially common. In 1973, a country music song won the coveted SARI Award (South African Music Industry) for the Song of the Year – "My Children, My Wife" was written by renowned South African composer Charles Segal and lyricist Arthur Roos. In 1979 the South African Music scene changed from the Tranetrekkers to more lively sounds and the introduction of new names in the market with the likes of Anton Goosen, David Kramer (singer), Koos du Plessis, Fanie de Jager, Flaming Victory and Laurika Rauch. Afrikaans music is currently one of the most popular and best selling industries on the South African music scene. Waptrendz is a big collection of the Afrikaans music. After World War I, Afrikaner nationalism spread and such musicians as Jewish pianist and composer Charles Segal and accordionist Nico Carstens were popular. The 1930s A cappella The 1930s saw the spread of Zulu a cappella singing from the Natal area to much of South Africa. The style's popularity, finally producing a major star in 1939 with Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds, whose "Mbube" ("The Lion") was probably the first African recording to sell more than 100,000 copies. It also provided the basis for two further American pop hits, The Weavers' "Wimoweh" (1951) and The Tokens' "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" (1961). Linda's music was in a style that came to be known as mbube. From the late 1940s to the 1960s, a harsh, strident form called isikhwela jo was popular, though national interest waned in the 1950s until Radio Zulu began broadcasting to Natal, Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1962 (see 1950s: Bantu Radio and pennywhistle for more details). Also formed in this era was the Stellenbosch University Choir, part of the University of Stellenbosch, the oldest running choir in the country and was formed in 1936 by William Morris, also the first conductor of the Choir. The current conductor is Andre van der Merwe. They specialise in a cappella music and consist of students from the University. The 1950s Bantu Radio and the music industry By the 1950s, the music industry had diversified greatly, and included several major labels. Innovative musician and composer, Charles Segal was the first white musician to work with the indigenous African people, recording tribal performers and promoting African music overseas starting in the 1950s. Charles Segal was also the first white musician to write in the indigenous African style and to bring the African music genre into the commercial market. His single "Africa" was a hit amongst the diverse South African population in the 1960s and he continued to produce, record and teach his own unique style of African music, which was a mix of African and Jazz influences. These compositions include "Opus Africa", "African Fantasy", "Kootanda" and many more. In 1962, the South African government launched a development programme for Bantu Radio in order to foster separate development and encourage independence for the Bantustans. Though the government had expected Bantu Radio to play folk music, African music had developed into numerous pop genres, and the nascent recording studios used radio to push their pop stars. The new focus on radio led to a government crackdown on lyrics, censoring songs which were considered a "public hazard". Pennywhistle jive The first major style of South African popular music to emerge was pennywhistle jive (later known as kwela). Black cattle-herders had long played a three-holed reed flute, adopting a six-holed flute when they moved to the cities. Willard Cele is usually credited with creating pennywhistle by placing the six-holed flute between his teeth at an angle. Cele spawned a legion of imitators and fans, especially after appearing in the 1951 film The Magic Garden (film). Groups of flautists played on the streets of South African cities in the 1950s, many of them in white areas, where police would arrest them for creating a public disturbance. Some young whites were attracted to the music, and came to be known as ducktails. The 1950s also saw 'coloured' bands develop the new genre of Quela, a hybrid of South African Squares and modern samba. Once again, we see the cross-over between white, Afrikaans music and the indigenous South Africa music in the compositions of pianist and composer, Charles Segal, with his penny whistle hits including "Kwela Kwela" and many others. The 1960s In the 1960s, a smooth form of mbube called cothoza mfana developed, led by the King Star Brothers, who invented isicathamiya style by the end of the decade. By the 1960s, the saxophone was commonplace in jive music, the performance of which continued to be restricted to townships. The genre was called sax jive and later mbaqanga. Mbaqanga literally means dumpling but implies home-made and was coined by Michael Xaba, a jazz saxophonist who did not like the new style. The early 1960s also saw performers such as bassist Joseph Makwela and guitarist Marks Mankwane add electric instruments and marabi and kwela influences to the mbaqanga style, leading to a funkier and more African sound. Mbaqanga developed vocal harmonies during the very early 1960s when groups including The Skylarks and the Manhattan Brothers began copying American vocal bands, mostly doo wop. Rather than African-American four-part harmonies, however, South African bands used five parts. The Dark City Sisters were the most popular vocal group in the early 1960s, known for their sweet style. Aaron Jack Lerole of Black Mambazo added groaning male vocals to the female harmonies, later being replaced by Simon 'Mahlathini' Nkabinde, who has become perhaps the most influential and well-known South African "groaner" of the twentieth century. Marks Mankwane and Joseph Makwela's mbaqanga innovations evolved into the more danceable mgqashiyo sound when the two joined forces with Mahlathini and the new female group Mahotella Queens, in Mankwane's backing group Makhona Tsohle Band (also featuring Makwela along with saxophonist-turned-producer West Nkosi, rhythm guitarist Vivian Ngubane, and drummer Lucky Monama). The Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens/Makhona Tsohle outfit recorded as a studio unit for Gallo Record Company, to great national success, pioneering mgqashiyo music all over the country to equal success. In 1967 Miriam Makeba released US hit "Pata Pata". 1967,Izintombi Zesi Manje Manje, an mgqashiyo female group that provided intense competition for Mahotella Queens. Both groups were massive competitors in the jive field, though the Queens usually came out on top. Soul and jazz The late 1960s saw the rise of soul music from the United States. Wilson Pickett and Percy Sledge were among singers who were especially popular and inspired South African performers to enter the field with an organ, a bass-and-drum rhythm section and an electric guitar. In the 1960s jazz split into two fields. Dance bands like the Elite Swingsters were popular, while avant-garde jazz inspired by the work of John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk and Sonny Rollins was also common. The latter field of musicians included prominent activists and thinkers, including Hugh Masekela, Abdullah Ibrahim (formerly known as 'Dollar Brand'), Kippie Moeketsi, Sathima Bea Benjamin, Chris McGregor, Johnny Dyani and Jonas Gwangwa. In 1959, American pianist John Mehegan organised a recording session using many of the most prominent South African jazz musicians, resulting in the first two African jazz LPs. The following year saw the Cold Castle National Jazz Festival, which brought additional attention to South African jazz. Cold Castle became an annual event for a few years, and brought out more musicians, especially Dudu Pukwana, Gideon Nxumalo and Chris McGregor. The 1963 festival produced a LP called Jazz The African Sound, but government oppression soon ended the jazz scene. Again, many musicians emigrated or went into exile in the UK or other countries. In 1968 Hugh Masekela got big hit "Grazing in the Grass", and it reached No.1 on Billboard pop chart. While the African jazz of the north of South Africa was being promoted in Johannesburg, musicians in Cape Town were awakening to their jazz heritage. Pianist Charles Segal, who had moved from Pretoria to Cape Town, brought an enthusiasm for jazz after several trips to the US, where he met and was influenced by the jazz pianist Oscar Peterson. The port city had a long history of musical interaction with seafaring players. The rise of the Coon Carnival and the visionary talent of Abdullah Ibrahim (Dollar Brand) and his sax players Basil Coetzee and Robbie Jansen led to Cape Jazz. It was an improvised version of their folk songs with musical reference to European and American jazz which would go on some 20 years later to be South Africa's most important jazz export. The 1970s Mgqashiyo and Isicathamiya By the 1970s, only a few long-standing mgqashiyo groups were well-known, with the only new groups finding success with an all-male line-up. Abafana Baseqhudeni and Boyoyo Boys were perhaps the biggest new stars of this period. The Mahotella Queens' members began leaving the line-up around 1971 for rival groups. Gallo, by far the biggest record company in South Africa, began to create a new Mahotella Queens line-up, recording them with Abafana Baseqhudeni. Lead groaner Mahlathini had already moved to rival label EMI (in early 1972), where he had successful records with backing team Ndlondlo Bashise and new female group the Mahlathini Girls. The new Mahotella Queens line-up over at Gallo found just as much success as the original Queens, recording on-and-off with new male groaners such as Robert Mbazo Mkhize of Abafana Baseqhudeni. Ladysmith Black Mambazo, headed by the sweet soprano of Joseph Shabalala, arose in the 1960s, and became perhaps the biggest isicathamiya stars in South Africa's history. Their first album was 1973's Amabutho, which was also the first gold record by black musicians; it sold over 25,000 copies. Ladysmith Black Mambazo remained popular throughout the next few decades, especially after 1986, when Paul Simon, an American musician, included Ladysmith Black Mambazo on his extremely popular Graceland album and its subsequent tour of 1987. With progressive jazz hindered by governmental suppression, marabi-styled dance bands rose to more critical prominence in the jazz world. The music became more complex and retained popularity, while progressive jazz produced only occasional hits, such as Winston Ngozi's "Yakal Nkomo" and Abdullah Ibrahim's "Mannenberg". Punk rock During the punk rock boom of the late 1970s, UK and American punk music influenced South African bands, such as Wild Youth and Powerage and gained a cult following, focused in Durban and in and around Johannesburg. Bands such as Dog Detachment and The Radio Rats and Young Dumb & Violent had a similar following on the fringes of the music scene. Cape Town had a big following with Safari Suits, Housewife's Choice, The Lancaster Band, The News and Permanent Force (aka Private File after BOSS intervention), soon followed by The Rude Dementals, The Zero's, Fred Smith Band, Red Army, Riot Squad, Injury Time and The Vipers. In Cape Town many gigs took place at "Scratch" Club (run by Gerry Dixon and Henry Coombes), 1886, UCT, Off The Road, numerous town halls and other local venues. Some of the aforementioned bands passed through on tours. The "RIOT ROCK" tour of December 1979 being a culmination of the period. Disco In the middle of the 1970s, American disco was imported to South Africa, and disco beats were added to soul music, which helped bring a halt to popular mbaqanga bands such as the Mahotella Queens. In 1976, South African children rebelled en masse against apartheid and governmental authority, and a vibrant, youthful counterculture was created, with music as an integral part of its focus. Styles from before the 1970s fusion of disco and soul were not widely regarded, and were perceived as being sanctioned by the white oppressors. Few South African bands gained a lasting success during this period, however, with the exception of the Movers, who used marabi elements in their soul. The Movers were followed by the Soul Brothers, and the instrumental band The Cannibals, who soon began working with singer Jacob "Mpharanyana" Radebe. The coloured (not black) band The Flames also gained a following, and soon contributed two members (Blondie Chaplin and Ricky Fataar) to American band The Beach Boys. Harari arose in their place, eventually moving to an almost entirely rock and roll sound. One of Harare's members, Sipho 'Hotstix' Mabuse became a superstar in the 1980s. Rock There was a thriving, mostly white, rock music scene in Cape Town in the 1970s. The album McCully Workshop Inc. from the psychedelic rock band McCully Workshop is a good example the genre on Trutone Records. The Trutone label was owned by South African company Gallo (Africa) Limited an internationally recognised music producer. The 1980s Alternative rock and Afrikaans The early 1980s brought popular attention on alternative rock bands such as The Usual and Scooter's Union. In and around Johannesburg the growth of the independent music scene led to not just a surge of bands ranging from big names (relatively speaking) Tribe After Tribe, The Dynamics, The Softies and the Spectres through to smaller hopefuls What Colours, Days Before and No Exit, but also to the growth of a vibrant DIY fanzine scene with "Palladium" and "One Page to Many" two titles of note. South African alternative rock grew more mainstream with two leading bands, Asylum Kids from Johannesburg and Peach from Durban having chart success and releasing critically acclaimed albums. The burgeoning music scene around Johannesburg saw a surge of small bands, inspired and informed by the UK DIY punk ethic, form and start performing at a growing number of venues from clubs the likes of Metalbeat, Bluebeat, King of Clubs, DV8 and Dirtbox to student run venues such as GR Bozzoli Hall and later the Free People Concert on the University of the Witwatersrand campus. One artist of specific note to come from this era was James Phillips who was involved with several influential and important bands including Corporal Punishment; Cherry Faced Lurchers; and his Afrikaans alter ego Bernoldus Niemand (roughly translates as Bernard Nobody). With his Bernoldus Niemand character, James managed to cross the language division and influence a whole range of Afrikaans speaking musicians to the same punk ethic that had inspired him, and an important Afrikaans alternative rock scene grew from this influence. During this period, the only Afrikaners to achieve much mainstream fame were Anton Goosen, a rock singer-songwriter, and Bles Bridges, an imitator of American lounge singer Wayne Newton. Gothic rock In 1983, Dog Detachment was one of the earliest groups which combined Post-Punk music with elements of Gothic rock. South Africa's first Gothic rock band was No Friends of Harry, formed in the mid-1980s. Other notable bands from the second half of the 1980s are The Gathering (not to be confused with the Dutch Metal band), The Death Flowers of No-cypher, Lidice, The Attic Muse, The Autumn Ritual, The Elephant Celebes and Penguins in Bondage. In 1995, The Awakening was formed by vocalist, guitarist and producer Ashton Nyte. The band is credited in major national press as "South Africa's most successful Gothic Rock act and one of the top bands in the far broader Alternative scene" and headlined major national festivals throughout South Africa, including the country's largest music festival Woodstock, in addition to Oppikoppi and RAMFest. With more than a dozen top ten national singles between 1998 and 2007, The Awakening were the first goth-styled act to have major success in South Africa. Another notable goth artist was The Eternal Chapter, which had a hit with the cover "Here comes the man", originally by Boom Boom Room. Pop P J Powers won the 1986 Song for South Africa competition, the first one run by the SABC. It aimed to promote South African music. The winning song was Don Clarke's Sanbonani. The final round was televised on national TV, with P J Powers supported by her band, Hotline. Sanbonani featured on the P J Powers and Hotline Greatest Hits album in 1991. International attention The original Mahotella Queens line-up reunited with Mahlathini and the Makgona Tsohle Band in 1983, due to unexpected demand from mgqashiyo and mbaqanga fans. Ladysmith Black Mambazo took their first step into the international arena via Paul Simon on his Graceland album in 1986, where a series of reissue albums by US label Shanachie sold very well. Mambazo became world travellers, touring the world and collaborating with various Western musicians to massive success. "Graceland" won many awards including the Grammy Award for Best Album of the Year. A year later, Simon produced Black Mambazo's first U.S. release, Shaka Zulu, which won the Grammy Award, in 1988, for Best Traditional Folk Album. Since then, and in total, the group has received fifteen Grammy Award Nominations and three Grammy Award wins, including one in 2009. The Graceland album not only propelled Mambazo into the spotlight, but paved the way for other South African acts (including Mahlathini and the Queens, Amaswazi Emvelo, Moses Mchunu, Ray Phiri and Stimela, The Mighty Soul beat and others) to become known worldwide as well. World in Union, the Ladysmith Black Mambazo record feat. P J Powers, became an international hit record in 1995. It charted in the UK (no 47 on the singles charts). Johnny Clegg got his start in the 1970s playing Zulu-traditional music with Sipho Mchunu, and became prominent as the only major white musician playing traditional black music, achieving success in France as "Le Zoulou Blanc" (The White Zulu). The 1980s also saw a resurgence in rock and roll bands, among them The Helicopters, Petit Cheval, Sterling and Tellinger. Mango Groove has racked up a host of achievements throughout the years, and has firmly established itself as one of South Africa’s most recognised and loved music icons. The group exploded into the national consciousness with the release of its 10 times Platinum debut album in 1989. Taking SA music to the world: Amongst other things, this included Mango Groove being the only South African act invited to perform at the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to China, being the only South African act featured on The Freddy Mercury Tribute concert (broadcast to over a billion people), appearing in front of 200 000 people at the SOS Racisme concert in Paris and receiving 3 encores at the Montrieux Jazz Festival. Reggae The most lasting change, however, may have been the importation of reggae from Jamaica. Following international superstar Bob Marley's concert celebrating Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, reggae took hold across Africa. Lucky Dube was the first major South African artists; his style was modelled most closely on that of Peter Tosh. Into the 1990s, Lucky Dube was one of the best-selling artists in South African history, especially his 1990 album Slave. The 1990s also saw Jamaican music move towards ragga, an electronic style that was more influential on kwaito (South African hip hop music) than reggae. A group from the Free State called Oyaba also emerged during this period. Their best known hit songs are Tomorrow Nation, Paradise and Love Crazy. Reggae became quite popular and there was also a singer from KwaZulu-Natal, Sipho Johnson known as Jambo. Bubblegum Bubblegum was a form of pure South African pop music that arose in the middle of the 1980s, distinctively based on vocals with overlapping call-and-response vocals. Electronic keyboards and synthesisers were commonplace. Dan Tshanda of the band Splash was the first major bubblegum star, followed by Chicco Twala. Twala introduced some politically oriented lyrics, such as "We Miss You Manelo" (a coded tribute to Nelson Mandela) and "Papa Stop the War", a collaboration with Mzwakhe Mbuli. In 1983 a major new South African star was born, Brenda Fassie. Her single, "Weekend Special", announced her as the pre-eminent female South African vocalist of her generation. She remained unmatched in popularity, talent until her untimely death in 2004. The late 1980s saw the rise of Yvonne Chaka Chaka, beginning with her 1984 hit "I'm in Love With a DJ", which was the first major hit for bubblegum. Her popularity rose into the 1990s, especially across the rest of Africa and into Europe. Jabu Khanyile's Bayete and teen heart-throb Ringo have also become very popular. The Voëlvry movement Afrikaans-language music saw a resurgence in the 1980s as the Voëlvry ("free as a bird" or "outlawed") movement reflected a new Afrikaans artistic counter-culture largely hostile to the values of the National Party and conservative Afrikanerdom. Spearheaded by the singer-songwriter Johannes Kerkorrel and his Gereformeerde Blues Band, the movement (which was named after Kerkorrel's 1989 regional tour) also included musicians Bernoldus Niemand (aka James Phillips) and Koos Kombuis. Voëlvry tapped into a growing dissatisfaction with the Apartheid system amongst white Afrikaans speakers, and thus Voëlvry represents the musical branch of opposition that was paralleled by literature and the arts. The 1990s New rhythms In 1994, South African media was liberalised and new musical styles arose. Prophets of Da City became known as a premier hip hop crew, though a South Africanised style of hip hop known as kwaito soon replaced actual hip hop groups. In kwaito, synthesisers and other electronic instruments are common, and slow jams adopted from Chicago house musicians like The Fingers, Tony Humphries and Robert Owen are also standard. Stars of kwaito include Trompies, Bongo Maffin, TKZee, Mandoza and Boom Shaka. The band Tree63 also emerged, first known for their hit single, "A Million Lights" and then further popularised by their version of Matt Redman's "Blessed Be Your Name". Gospel The biggest star of 1990s gospel was Rebecca Malope, whose 1995 album Shwele Baba was extremely popular. Malope continues to record, in addition to performers such as Lusanda Spiritual Group, Barorisi Ba Morena, Amadodana Ase Wesile, Vuyo Mokoena and International Pentacoastal Church Choir, Rayreed Soul Beat, Lundi, Joyous Celebration, and Scent From Above who have performed in Botswana occasionally. In 2000s Vuyo Mooena has emerged as the best selling Gospel artist. His albums have been audited to be in Top 5 selling in the country. In his album he sang in all South African languages like Venda, Shangaan, Sotho, Zulu and Xhosa. The industry has also been joined by the likes of Hlengiwe Mhlaba (whose Aphendule is popular) and Solly Moholo. Also we see the new singers like Oleseng Shuping become popular and he won the king of gospel award. Afrikaans music Prof Piet de Villiers was the front runner prior to 1994 with his compositions of Boerneef. The period after 1994 saw a dramatic growth in the popularity of Afrikaans music. Numerous new young Afrikaans singers (soloists and groups) released CDs and DVDs and attracted large audiences at "kunstefeeste" (art festivals) such as the "Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees – KKNK" in Oudtshoorn, "Aardklop" in Potchefstroom and "Innibos" in Nelspruit. Apart from dozens of new songs being introduced into the Afrikaans music market, it became popular for modern young artists to sing old Afrikaans songs on a stage or in a pub, with crowds of young admirers singing along. The reason for the dramatic increase in the popularity of Afrikaans music can be speculated about. One theory is that the end of Apartheid in 1994 also meant the end of the privileged position that the Afrikaans culture had in South Africa. After losing the privileged protection and promotion of the language and the culture by the State, the Afrikaans-speaking community seems to have spontaneously started embracing and developing their language and culture. This was due to pop artists like Steve Hofmeyr, Nádine, Kurt Darren, and Nicolis Louw bringing a new fresh sound in Afrikaans Music. Many of the songs sung and/or written by these artists are similar in sound to Euro dance music. Critics would claim that all an Afrikaans pop artist needs for a song to be popular is a catchy tune and an easy beat. This is due to the massive popularity of a form of couples dancing called "langarm" or "sokkie". The dance halls where this takes place could be considered as night clubs but they play almost exclusively Afrikaans pop music. The Afrikaans pop music market therefore generates tremendous demand for new material. Alternative The 1990s could be seen as the genesis of a vibrant alternative music scene in South Africa. The Voëlvry movement was a major influence in establishing the scene, but subject material markedly shifted from protest to the more abstract and personal. Major festivals like Oppikoppi and Woodstock were started and grew steadily, firmly cementing the niche under predominantly white university students exploring a newfound intellectual independence after the fall of apartheid. The first band to reach any major recognition was Springbok Nude Girls established in 1994. Other notable acts established in this decade were The Outsiders (est. 1991), Nine (est. 1992), Fetish (est. 1996), Wonderboom (est. 1996), Boo! (est. 1997), The Awakening (est. 1996), Henry Ate, Just Jinger (est. 1996), Fuzigish and Battery 9. Metal In the early and mid-1980s there were bands like Black Rose, Stretch, Razor, Lynx, Pentagon, Montreaux, Unchained and Osiris. Then came the new breed of South African metal with a band called Ragnärok, South Africa's first thrash metal band, formed by Dean G Smith who were labelled as South Africa's Metallica and the only metal band at that time to have a cult following. They formed in South Johannesburg in 1986 playing covers for a short while and then moving on to original music only. Through the late 1980s and into the early 1990s, South Africa grew a well supported metal scene, marked by the release of Johannesburg-based Odysseys' self-titled album in 1991. There was a burgeoning crossover punk/metal scene in the major centres, particularly spurred on by Cape Towns' Voice of Destruction and Johannesburg based Urban Assault in the very late 1980s. Johannesburg developed an extreme metal scene in 1992 with rising grindcore/death metal act Retribution Denied, Boksburg based macabre/death metal act Debauchery followed by Pretoria doom metal band Funeral, Christian metal act Abhorrence and Insurrection, Metalmorphosis, Sacrifist and Agro, the latter two acts still perform today. The Cape Town metal scene was on a high in the mid-1990s, driven largely by Pothole and Sacraphyx. Pothole would release two critically acclaimed albums on South Africa's most successful punk/metal label, Way-Cool Records – their debut "Force-Fed Hatred" is still the top selling South African metal album to date. Whilst many of the acts failed to find commercial success in terms of CD sales, there was a devout following nationally and local metal bands soon opened the national touring circuit to a higher extent than most other genres. It also attracted international artists to tour the country almost immediately after the demise of apartheid, with some of the most respected international artists having seen fit to visit the country since. Techno The first South African live techno band was Kraftreaktor. Amoraim and Gareth Hinde are from Kraftreaktor and performed at several raves, playing mainly techno-trance music with guest musicians sometimes. Their music was influenced by themselves, but included a unique South African touch. They sometimes integrated African sounds and ethnomusicologist, Gavin Coppenhall. The 2000s Blues Rock The Blues Rock scene has dramatically emerged in South Africa. Albert Frost, Dan Patlansky, The Black Cat Bones, Gerald Clark, Crimson House Blues, The Blues Broers and Boulevard Blues band are some of the most prominent blues acts in South-Africa. Figures like Piet Botha and Valiant Swart have largely contributed to the South-African Blues and Rock scene. Kwaito Kwaito is based on house music beats, but typically at a slower tempo and containing melodic and percussive African samples which are looped, deep bass-lines and often vocals, generally male, shouted or chanted rather than sung or rapped. Many consider it South Africa's unique implementation of hip hop. Afrikaans In a resurgence (an increase or revival after a period of little activity, popularity, or occurrence) that has been linked by some to freedom from Apartheid guilt, Afrikaans music saw a surge in new artists, album releases and sales after 2000. In 2004 an Afrikaans album (by balladeer Steve Hofmeyr) was named best-selling album of the year. In 2007 an Afrikaans song about Boer War general Koos de la Rey by Bok van Blerk became a hit amid debates on whether it represented a call to arms for the reinstatement of Afrikaner rule or just expressed cultural nostalgia. While the boom in the Afrikaans pop industry has continued from the previous decade through the popularity of arts festivals and dance halls, other Afrikaans music genres experienced a revival of sorts in the new millennium. Rock and alternative Afrikaans music had stagnated somewhat after the heady days of the "Voëlvry" tour and the alternative movement. Signs of a revival could be found in the arrival of Karen Zoid on the music scene due to her distinct alternative sound. Shortly afterwards, a band of young rockers called "Fokofpolisiekar" became the first group to create alternative rock in Afrikaans. Their controversial name (translated as Fuckoffpolicecar), statements and behavior drew much public attention, making them a symbol of the Afrikaans Rock revival movement. Lead singer Francois Van Coke and songwriter Hunter Kennedy have gone on to explore other genres of music also not previously popular in Afrikaans and have ventured into more commercial routes. Shortly after the arrival of this and other rock acts, the first Afrikaans television music channel (MK89) was opened which focused mainly on rock music. The Afrikaans (and English) rock and alternative music scene has been booming ever since. Bands like Battery9, Terminatrix, NuL, K.O.B.U.S. and Thys Nywerheid continue to reinvent alternative Afrikaans music, while Jack Parow has continued the Cape's development of Afrikaans rap from pioneers Brasse vannie Kaap, finding success as far afield as Holland with his 2009 single "Cooler as Ekke". 2009 Breakthrough Experimentalism From 2009 into 2010, two unique and eclectic but thoroughly South African groups in particular received high acclaim from international music media, and both groups challenged traditional genre descriptions. They significantly increased global recognition of contemporary South African music culture. BLK JKS' experimental Afro-rock took inspiration from The Mars Volta to blend their Zulu heritage and township origins with modern sounds and equipment and an approach to music-making that seems entirely devoid of boundaries, while maintaining the sweet melodies and rhythmic qualities of South Africa's traditional music. They received an important boost after performing in Opening Ceremony of 2010 FIFA World Cup. Die Antwoord has challenged conventions of hip-hop through its blend of English, Afrikaans, and local slang, and sparse House-influenced production, reflecting the new 'Zef' counter-culture in its cheap-and-dirty values. The band achieved worldwide attention with their self-published debut thanks to two striking and humorous YouTube music videos released in 2010 that rapidly reached viral proportions. The highly polarised international response to their music helped them secure an album deal with Cherrytree Records, an imprint of Interscope. They also famously triggered a feud with American pop singer Lady Gaga, who offered them the chance to open for her on her Born This Way Tour, which they blatantly refused. In 2016, singer Refentse Morake made waves for releasing his debut album solely in Afrikaans, becoming the first black singer to do so. Drum and bass The South African drum and bass scene began in the mid nineties. In 2000, events such as Homegrown became a prominent fixture in Cape Town and a launching platform for international and local artists such as Counterstrike, SFR, Niskerone, Tasha Baxter, Anti Alias and Rudeone. Other regular events include It Came From The Jungle in Cape Town and Science Friksun in Johannesburg. A weekly Sublime drum and bass radio show is hosted by Hyphen on Bush Radio. Psychedelic trance South African psytrance is a form of darker psychedelic trance music that started and is produced mostly in South Africa. Unlike the Russian dark psytrance, South African psytrance is more rhythmic, melodic and danceable, yet keeps the 'nasty-like' attitude. Notable record labels include Timecode Records, Mind Manipulation Device and Nano Records. Modern day The South African music scene has continued to flourish in the 2000s. The decade has seen the rise of Xhosa singer Simphiwe Dana, whose success has seen her hailed as the "new Miriam Makeba", with her unique combination of jazz, pop, and traditional music. Another similar young singer is Thandiswa Mazwai, originally a kwaito singer with Bongo Maffin. Thandiswa combined local hip-hop rhythms with traditional Xhosa sounds, creating a rich textured style. 2006 saw the rise of Shwi Nomtekhala, a duo combining mbaqanga rhythms and maskandi sounds. The duo has become one of the most influential new acts on the music scene today, outselling even kwaito artists. Their third album Wangisiza Baba was a major hit in the country. Cape Town-based female artist Verity has been recognised internationally for innovation in the music industry for selling 2000 copies of her album Journey before it was actually recorded. Rap group "2 and a Half Secondz" has found recognition in Cape Town suburb, Delft since 2009. Cape Town based band Crimson House Blues has made waves throughout the live circuit being hailed as one of the greatest live acts in the country. In addition Willim Welsyn, part of the Afrikaans rock band Willim Welsyn en Sunrise Toffies was nominated and won multiple awards in the Afrikaans Alternative categories. Nianell, the South African superstar, is also another internationally recognised artist in modern South African music, combing Folk, Classical, Pop, Country, and Celtic music that make her own unique sound. She has released seven albums with songs that switch back and forth between Afrikaans and English. Her first platinum hit that sold more than 2 million copies was "Who Painted The Moon" that was also covered by international superstar Hayley Westenra. In early 2011, she made her initial debut in the U.S. with her compilation album Who Painted The Moon. Ladysmith Black Mambazo remain one of the world's most popular choral groups and still retain popularity in South Africa, with their latest offering being the highly praised Ilembe (2007/2008). The legendary group boasts three grammy wins. The Mahotella Queens also remain high-selling, and – with the death of long-time groaner Mahlathini in 1999 – have recorded several new albums, including their 2007 release Siyadumisa (Songs of Praise). 2008 has also seen the return of a former singer with the Mahotella Queens, Irene Mawela. Mawela appeared on thousands of mbaqanga and mgqashiyo recording sessions well throughout the 1960s and the 1970s, recording mainly for Gallo Record Company, often as part of the line-ups of the Mahotella Queens, the Mgababa Queens, Izintombi Zomgqashiyo, and also under her own name (though sometimes as Irene & The Sweet Melodians, or Irene & The Zebra Queens). In 1983 she left the company to record as a solo artist, with a successful Venda-traditional release Khanani Yanga. Mawela left the music business in the late 1980s, but returned in November 2007 with a brand-new album called Tlhokomela Sera, which combines modern contemporary sounds with pure gospel music, making what Mawela calls "gospel jive". The music scene in South Africa is focused around four major areas, Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban and Bloemfontein. One of the characteristics of the scene is the strong sense of community which sees artist, promoters and venues all actively involved in developing the local talent. Bloemfontein's music focus is centred predominantly around the metal and Afrikaans genres. Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban are far more wide-ranging in the genres of music covered by bands and artists. Cape Town is a hotbed for the underground music scene, generally held to be more experimental than the music produced in the other centres. Potchefstroom seems to be the newest development ground for Afrikaans rock music, with various bands like Straatligkinders making their start here. The introduction of the South African Music Awards (SAMA), intended to recognise accomplishment in the South African recording industry has raised the awareness of local artists and bands. The awards are given in various categories, including album of the year, best newcomer, best artists (male and female) and the best duo or group. South African Music Award winners include Karen Zoid, Freshlyground, Tasha Baxter and Seether. Uniquely African music aside, the South African music scene has, to a large extent, been characterised by bands seeking to emulate popular genres abroad. However, recent years have seen South African music begin to develop a truly original sound. South Africa has several annual music festivals including Woodstock South Africa, MotherFudd, Oppikoppi, Rocking the Daisies and Splashy Fen. The music festivals cater to different genres and styles of music. Motherfudd is an exclusively metal festival held early in the year. The 2008 Motherfudd festival had a line-up of 30 bands with 2 stages and took place near Hartebeespoort. The Oppikoppi festival started in 1994 and is held in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, near the mining town of Northam. Originally a rock festival, Oppikoppi has expanded to include other genres. Splashy Fen is an annual Easter festival held on a farm near Underberg in KwaZulu-Natal, with a focus on rock and reggae music. Since 2016, The Legend stage at Splashy, convened by Don Clarke and Dicky Roberts has brought well known local legends back to the festival, including P J Powers in 2019. Rocking the Daisies is an annual music festival which is held outside Cape Town in Darling on the Cloof wine estate. It was established in 2005 with a focus upon rock music and is a "green" festival for which it has garnered awards. Skouspel is a very popular televised annual concert sponsored by the Afrikaans family-magazine Huisgenoot, hosted at the Sun City resort. Skouspel (translates as "spectacle") focuses primarily on Afrikaans music and regularly features some of the biggest names in the Afrikaans music scene along with new artists. There is also a young movement of community rap called Tzaneen Rap, producing up-and-coming rappers that are already coming up and keeping up with the rap game. It is a good combination of vernacular Xitsonga, Sepedi, Xhosa, Zulu, Sesotho and English lyricism. It was formed in the 1990s and only became popular around 2015. There are vernacular rappers like DNP, Dj Snake and English lyrics from Ironic, Savanna and Gratitude Moruti. It all began in Limpopo, Tzaneen. South Africa has experienced a new wave of artists over the last few years, some artists include Nasty C, Timo ODV, AKA, YoungstaCPT, K.O, Anatii, and Maloon The Boom. Although the local music scene has continued to grow exponentially since the 2000s, a lot of South Africans still consume foreign music contents over local contents. Amapiano In 2019, the South African music scene was introduced to a new genre of music called Amapiano, the genre is thought to be most dominant in the music industry. The Amapiano genre has filled the void that was left by the disappearance of Kwaito in the 2000s. Amapiano is appealing to the Youth and is currently producing the most chart-topping songs in South Africa. The top 200 Shazam songs in South Africa is dominated by Amapiano tracks. Amapiano has taken the international market by storm, with some of its top artists getting bookings from West Africa, the UK and other parts of the world. The international attention has created appropriation concerns among the local Amapiano fans, as noticed with the recent song by Jorja Smith. Neo-traditional styles Traditionally styled music is generally appellated as "Sotho-traditional" or "Zulu-traditional", and has been an important part of the South African music business since the 1930s. Vocal and concertina records were released with a call-and-response style and a concertina used as a counterpoint to the lead vocal. Following World War 1, cheap imported concertinas arrived in South Africa, especially the Italian brand bafstari. Sotho-traditional The Sotho musician Tshwatlano Makala was the first traditional musician to achieve widespread commercial success. He helped to set the stage for the subsequent rise of Letsema Mat'sela's band, Basotho Dihoba, which used styles from his native Lesotho to develop a genre called mohobelo. By the 1970s, the concertina of Sotho-traditional music was replaced with an accordion and an electric backing band. This wave of neo-traditional performers was led by Tau Ea Mat'sekha. Zulu The Zulu people adopted the guitar following its introduction by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, and guitars were locally and cheaply made by the 1930s. John Bhengu was the first major Zulu guitarist, earning a reputation in 1950s Durban for his unique ukupika style of picking (as opposed to traditional strumming). Bhengu's song format, which includes an instrumental introduction (izihlabo), a melody and spoken praise (ukubonga) for a clan or family, was widely used for a long time in Zulu-traditional music. Bhengu, however, switched to the electric guitar in the late 1960s and began recording as "Phuzushukela" (Sugar Drinker). His popularity exploded, and Zulu-traditional music entered a boom. Since the 1970s, the concertina has returned to Zulu-traditional music, while diverse influences from pop music and drum and bass were added. Vusi Ximba's Siyakudamisa (1992) was perhaps the most memorable Zulu-traditional album of the later twentieth century, and drew controversy for racy, comedic lyrics. Tsonga-traditional Tsonga traditional music was first recorded in the 1950s by Francisco Baloyi for Gallo, and showed a largely African style influenced by Latin rhythms. Mozambiquan musicians Fani Pfumo and Alexander Jafete became prominent studio performers in the 1950s and into the next decade. In 1975, however, Mozambique became independent and a radio station was opened by Radio Bantu, leading to the abandonment of Portuguese elements from this style. More modern Tsonga bands, such as General MD Shirinda & the Gaza Sisters play a style called Tsonga disco, featuring a male lead vocalist backed by female singers, a guitar, keyboard or synth and disco rhythms. Thomas Chauke & the Shinyori Sisters (Tusk Records) have become probably the best-selling band of any neo-traditional style. George Maluleke na Van'wanati Sisters have also been instrumental in modernizing the music by experimenting with a faster tempo and native instruments. The most popular Tsonga musicians, however, has arguably been either Thomas Chauke, the pop singer Peta Teanet or the equally successful Penny Penny, Joe Shirimani. Paul Ndlovu is another artist who has contributed a lot in this genre, with his popular hits, Hi ta famba moyeni and Tsakane. The modern sound of traditional Xitsonga music comprises more of the earlier native sounds that had initially been abandoned in favor of the Portuguese electronic guitars, namely the xylophone and bass marimba. Bands such as Thomas Chauke and the Xinyori Sisters and George Maluleke predominantly used guitars; however the modern sound replaces these with the xylophone or bass marimba. The Tsonga people's preference for the xylophone and marimba type of sound is inherited from the timbila music of the Chopi people, which has been entered into the UNESCO heritage archives as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Pedi-traditional Pedi-traditional music is principally harepa and is based on the harp. The German autoharp arrived in South Africa in the nineteenth century, brought by Lutheran ministers proselytising among the Pedi. Harepa has not achieved much mainstream success in South Africa, though there was a brief boom in the 1970s, led by Johannes Mohlala and Sediya dipela Mokgwadi. Venda-traditional Venda-traditional music was also recorded when black music in South Africa was being recognised. The late 1960s (and, more significantly the late 1970s) saw a boom in Venda-speaking artists. This was mainly influenced by the launch of a Venda radio station. Irene Mawela (who had been singing in the 1960s and 1970s with groups like Mahotella Queens, Sweet Sixteens and the Dark City Sisters) significantly impacted traditional and contemporary Venda music, despite vocal recordings in Zulu, Sotho and Xhosa languages. Mawela's 1983 release, Khanani Yanga, was one of the most successful Venda-traditional music albums of that year. After some lean years, Mawela returned to the South African music scene with Tlhokomela Sera, released in December 2007. Mawela's recent numbers like Mme Anga Khotsi Anga and Nnditsheni are very popular. Solomon Matase is known for his hits Ntshavheni and Vho i fara Phele. Alpheus Ramavhea, Mundalamo, Eric Mukhese, and Adziambei Band are also famous for their contributions to Venda music. The latter band still continues to produce music with great success, including a recent album release, Mutula Gole, in February 2012. Colbert Mukwevho has been involved with Venda music for over 20 years, starting with 1980s hits like "Kha tambe na thanga dzawe," "i do nela rothe" and "saga-saga." In 2006 his comeback album Mulovha namusi na matshelo, included hit songs "Ndo takala hani" and "Zwa mutani wavho" which remain popular with Venda and Pedi's. He grew up in a family of music. His father Christopher Mukwevho, then leader of the popular band Thrilling Artist, used to feature him at young age. Rudzani Shurflus Ragimana of shurflus was well known for known for venda reggae music together with Khakhathi and friends, Tshiganzha, Ntshenge. Reggae music is well played by a lot of artists for Tshivenda. Other performers include: Makhadzi, Fizzy, Prifix, Bhamba, Komrade Li, SubZro, TAKZIT, Humbulani Ramagwedzha, Jahman Chiganja, Khakhathi and Friends, Maduvha Madima, Takalani Mudau, Rapson Mbilummbi Rambuwani, TMan Gavini, Clean-G, Mizo Phyll, Killah Gee, Jininka, Paul Mulaudzi, Malondo Ramulongo, Burning Doctor, Just ice, Lufuno Dagada and Tshidino Ndou. Another singer making a name for himself in the South African music market is Tshidino Ndou, a reggae artist who is also owner of Vhadino Entertainment music company. Tshidino was born and bred in Tshakhuma, a rural village in South Africa in the Limpopo Province. So far he has two albums, Ndi do fa na inwi (2009) (Till death do us part) and Nne Ndi Nne (2010) (I am what I am). His song "Ni songo nyadza" (meaning "do not undermine other people's religions"), featuring a Venda reggae icon Humbulani Ramagwedzha of thivhulungiwi fame, is gaining extensive media exposure through Phalaphala FM, Soweto TV, Makhado FM and Univen radio. Tshidino entered the music scene as a founder member of Vhadino House Grooves group which he established alongside his brother, Arthur Ndou in 2008. They released their debut hot album titled Ro Swika meaning we have arrived. The album contains a controversial song "Ri ya groova", widely known as "Ndo Fara Mudifho". He has released a single, "Ri khou phusha life", which has already made a mark on radios and newspapers. The full album was planned for release in 2012, featuring two other giants: Takalani Mudau of "baby fusheani" fame and the Burning Doctor of "A lu na mutwe" fame. Tshidino is not just a musician but also a prominent film producer who is more popular in the Vendawood film industry in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. He plays the character of Vho-Mulingo in Vho-Mulingo comedy. Other movies he produced include Mathaithai, , and . Xhosa-traditional Perhaps the best known neo-traditional South African music, internationally anyway, is the music of Amampondo and the solo work of their leader and founder, Dizu Plaatjies. He and his group took traditional Xhosa music from the hills of Pondoland and the Eastern Cape and put it on stage worldwide. The success of the genre was how the exponents combined their music with their stage performances and dance. See also List of Afrikaans singers List of radio stations in South Africa List of South African musicians Music of Namibia Recording Industry of South Africa South African Music Awards Music in the movement against apartheid Botswana Bibliography Allingham, Rob. "Nation of Voice". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 638–657. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Mthembu-Salter, Gregory. "Spirit of Africa". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 658–659. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Allingham, Rob. "Hip Kings, Hip Queens". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp. 660–668. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. References Further reading Xulu, M.K., "The Re-emergence of Amahubo Songs, Styles and Ideas in Modern Zulu Musical Styles." PhD dissertation, University of Natal 1992. External links BBC Radio 3 Audio (120 minutes): South Africa 1995. (Sony Radio Award Winner, 1995.) Accessed 25 November 2010. Field recordings of traditional and neo-traditional music mainly from KwaZulu-Natal, recorded by composer Kevin Volans South African culture

250879

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract%20killing

Contract killing

Contract killing is a form of murder or assassination in which one party hires another party to kill a targeted person or persons. It involves an illegal agreement which includes some form of payment, monetary or otherwise. Either party may be a person, group, or organization. Contract killing has been associated with organized crime, government conspiracies, dictatorships, and vendettas. For example, in the United States, the gang Murder, Inc. committed hundreds of murders on behalf of the National Crime Syndicate during the 1930s and 1940s. Contract killing provides the hiring party with the advantage of not having to carry out the actual killing, making it more difficult for law enforcement to connect them with the murder. The likelihood that authorities will establish that party's guilt for the committed crime, especially due to lack of forensic evidence linked to the contracting party, makes the case more difficult to attribute to the hiring party. Contract killers may exhibit serial killer traits, but are generally not classified as such because of third-party killing objectives and detached financial and emotional incentives. Nevertheless, there are occasionally individuals that are labeled as both hitmen and serial killers. A contract killer is colloquially known as a hitman. Contract killers who work for criminal organizations are often known as enforcers. Statistics A study by the Australian Institute of Criminology of 162 contract murders and attempted contract murders in Australia between 1989 and 2002 indicated that the most common reason for murder-for-hire was insurance policy payouts. The study also found that payments varied from $5,000 to $30,000 per killing, with an average of $15,000, and that the most commonly used weapons were firearms. Contract killings accounted for 2% of murders in Australia during that time period. Contract killings generally make up a small percentage of murders. For example, they accounted for about 5% of all murders in Scotland from 1993 to 2002. Notable persons Perpetrators Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll, an Irish-American hitman who worked for Dutch Schultz and Owney Madden. Abe Reles, hitman and initial leader of Murder, Inc. along with Martin Goldstein. Harry Strauss, hitman for Murder, Inc. he is possibly the most prolific hitman to have ever lived, committing 100 (possibly 500) murders during his career. Elmer "Trigger" Burke, notorious hitman and supporting player in the Great Brink's Robbery Glennon Engleman, American dentist who moonlighted as a hitman. Ray Ferritto, Italian-American hitman and soldier for the Cleveland and Los Angeles crime families, best known for killing Danny Greene; later he became a government witness and testified against the mob. Christopher Dale Flannery, reputed Australian hitman. Giuseppe Greco, a Sicilian hitman who killed at least 58 people during the Second Mafia War. Charles Harrelson, American hitman, father of actor Woody Harrelson. Marinko Magda, Serbian hitman convicted for 11 murders. Tommy "Karate" Pitera, an Italian-American hitman and soldier in the Bonanno crime family. He was known for having serial killer-like characteristics, and was a skilled martial artist. Jhon Jairo "Popeye" Velásquez, Colombian hitman who was part of the Medellín Cartel. Frank "the Irishman" Sheeran, a union official and mob hitman, who was associated with Russell Bufalino. Sheeran claimed to have murdered former Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa. Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, a Jewish hitman who headed the Bugs and Meyer Mob and was a hitman for Murder, Inc.; Siegel was also the Italian mob's main hitman during Prohibition. Alexander Solonik, Russian hitman, known for carrying a firearm in each hand. Alexander Solonik was a main killer in the Kurganskaya criminal group. Alexander "Sasha-soldier" Pustovalov, Russian hitman and Orekhovskaya gang soldier. Pustovalov has 22 confirmed kills. Robert Young, Willie Sanchez, an escaped convict and contract killer employed by an organized crime outfit headed by Nicky Barnes. Z, a 15-year-old minor who was convicted of murdering an insurance agent under the orders of her husband in Singapore in 2001. He was detained at the President's Pleasure for 17 years. Victims Griselda Blanco, the subject of the film Cocaine Godmother (2018), a former drug lord gunned down on September 3, 2012. Li Fuguo, a Tang Dynasty eunuch killed by a hitman hired by Emperor Tang Daizong. Harry Greenberg, a Mafia associate of Charles "Lucky" Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel. He was killed by Siegel, Whitey Krakower, Albert Tannenbaum, and Frankie Carbo in 1939. Harry Millman, gang leader and former Purple Gang member, killed by Harry Strauss and Harry Maione Shiori Ino, a 21-year-old university student, who was stabbed to death in 1999. Hitman had been hired by Ino's abusive ex-boyfriend (who committed suicide before he could be apprehended) and the ex-boyfriend's brother, who was sentenced to life imprisonment. Salvatore Maranzano, a Castellammarese Mafia boss and rival to Masseria in the Castellammarese War who was killed by Siegel and several other men in 1931. Dan Markel, an attorney and legal academic murdered in Tallahassee, Florida, in 2014. Joe Masseria, a Mafia boss murdered by Siegel, Vito Genovese, Albert Anastasia, and Joe Adonis in 1931. Alexander Solonik, was strangled to death by Russian hitman and ex-Marine Alexander Pustovalov in his villa in 1997. Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel, Las Vegas mob boss killed by unknown assailants in 1947. Barry Seal, American airline pilot and undercover CIA informer, who became a major drug smuggler for the Medellin Cartel. Grady Stiles, a freak show performer whose family hired a hitman to kill due to his abusiveness. John H. Wood Jr., an American judge known as "Maximum John" for giving severe prison sentences for drug offenses, killed by Charles Harrelson at the behest of organized crime. Annie Leong, an insurance agent in Singapore who was murdered by a minor hired by her husband, who was subsequently sentenced to death and later executed. Employers Dana Ewell, convicted of hiring his college roommate to murder Ewell’s mother, father, and sister for the US$8,000,000 estate. John Gotti, Italian-American crime boss, hired hitmen to murder Paul Castellano outside of Sparks Steak House in December 1985. Robert Fratta, ex-police officer, hired two men to kill his wife. Lawrence Horn, record producer whose hiring of a hitman led to the case Rice v. Paladin Press Ruthann Aron, convicted of hiring a hitman to kill her husband and a lawyer who had won a fraud case against her. Mike Danton, former NHL player, hired an undercover federal agent to kill his sports agent. Wanda Holloway hired a hitman to kill the mother of her daughter's cheerleading rival, inspiring a film. Silas Jayne, Chicago-area stable owner, was convicted in 1973 of hiring hitmen to murder his half-brother George. Tim Lambesis, heavy metal vocalist who attempted to hire an undercover police officer to murder his wife. Charlotte Karin Lindström, Swedish waitress/model who attempted to hire a hitman to kill persons testifying against her boyfriend in a drug trial in Australia. Charles "Lucky" Luciano, American Mafia and Luciano crime family boss. Ordered Siegel, Tannenbaum, Genovese, Buchalter, Carbo, and Krakower to murder Mustache Petes Joe Masseria and Sal Maranzano in 1931, and stool pigeon Harry Greenberg in 1939. Joseph Maldonado-Passage (better known by his stage name Joe Exotic), an American zoo owner who attempted to hire an undercover FBI agent to murder a rival, the CEO of Big Cat Rescue (with whom he had a long-running and public feud). Diana Lovejoy, a technical writer, and her gun instructor Weldon McDavid were convicted of conspiracy to commit murder of Lovejoy's husband in 2016. Jennifer Pan, a Canadian woman who hired three men to stage a home invasion in order to eliminate her parents in 2010. Nicole Doucet Ryan attempted to hire an undercover Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer to kill her husband. After ruling that she could not use the defense of duress, the Supreme Court of Canada ordered she could not be retried. Pamela Smart hired teenage lover Billy Flynn and his friends to murder her husband. Thomas Bartlett Whitaker, an American man who hired people to attack his parents and brother in a home invasion in 2003. Anthony Ler, a Singaporean who hired a 15-year-old student in 2001 to murder his wife with promises of money and sex, as well as manipulation and death threats. He was sentenced to death and subsequently executed the following year. In popular culture Fictional cases of contract killing or "hitmen" are depicted in a range of popular fiction genres in the 20th and 21st century, including comic books, films, and video games. Contract killing is a core aspect of the video game franchise Hitman, wherein the player controls a hired hitman simply known as Agent 47. In the game Hotline Miami, the player controls a man who receives mysterious calls telling him to kill members of the Russian Mafia. The website RentAHitman.com is a satirical homepage for a fake contract killing agency. Its owner passes on details of those who try to use his services to law enforcement agencies. Nothing Personal is a television documentary series that presents stories of contract killings. See also Assassination Assassination market Cleaner (crime) List of contract killers and hitmen Mercenary Murder, Inc. Private military company Wetwork References External links Murder-for-Hire: Web Hits of a Deadly Kind (FBI) Satire Site Rent-A-Hitman—Has gun, will Gavel News story behind site and most-recent of several convicted Point-and-clickers (CNN-12-12-2021) Gangland warfare tactics Organized crime activity Temporary employment Killings by type Illegal occupations Speech crimes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Haven%2C%20Connecticut

East Haven, Connecticut

East Haven is a town in New Haven County, Connecticut, in the United States. As of the 2020 census, the town population was 27,923. Located east of New Haven, it is part of the Greater New Haven area. East Haven is from Hartford, from New York City, from Providence, Rhode Island, and from Boston. History The Connecticut Colony granted the town petition for Township in May 1707 and colonists changed the name from Iron Works Village to East Haven. Some outstanding land issues with New Haven and a minor feud with Governor Gurdon Saltonstall resulted in the rescinding of the township status; the area was made a parish of New Haven. New Haven and neighboring towns such as East Haven have been destinations for a new wave of immigrants since the late 20th century, the majority of whom in East Haven are Latinos from Ecuador. In the 2010 census, Hispanics and Latinos made up more than 10% of the town's population. On August 9, 2013, a Rockwell International Turbo Commander 690B crashed on approach, hitting two houses in an East Haven residential neighborhood near the airport. The impact and the resulting fires destroyed both houses. The private plane had taken off from Teterboro Airport in New Jersey. The incident resulted in four deaths: the pilot of the plane; his passenger, the pilot's 17-year-old son; and two children in one of the houses. They were girls of 13 years and one year of age. Geography and climate According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of ， of which of it is land and of it (8.57%) is water. East Haven also contains Stony Island, approximately from East Haven Town Beach in Long Island Sound. The shape of East Haven on a map is taller than it is wide. It is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New Haven, on the north by North Haven, and on the east by Branford, Lake Saltonstall, and North Branford. East Haven shares with New Haven the land belonging to local Tweed New Haven Airport and Alling Memorial Golf Course. Geology During the Paleozoic Era, 450 to 250 million years ago, several tectonic plates collided to form the supercontinent called Pangaea. East Haven was located in the middle of this collision, and the results can be seen today with the schists, gneisses and granites which are exposed. When Pangaea was broken up, during the Triassic and Jurassic periods, volcanic activity occurred, depositing basalt or trap rock. Earthquakes can still be felt in the area. In February 2001 the area was rocked by a 1.8 magnitude earthquake originating in Madison, Connecticut. It is estimated that Connecticut was covered by glaciers at least two times. The last glacier is estimated to have been thick in the New Haven area. 22,000 years ago, the glacier moved south, eroding mountains and pushing through East Haven to deposit large amounts of glacial till to form Long Island. 14,000 years ago the glacier retreated and shaped the coastline, formed Long Island Sound and created Lake Saltonstall. It also deposited glacial till, soil, sand, rocks and boulders that the ice carried south from the north. The coast is primarily covered by gneiss rock (including granite), schist and quartzite. The remaining sections are part of the Central Valley of Connecticut and are covered with clastic sedimentary rock (redbeds, conglomerate, sandstone, brownstone and shale). This soft surface has been resedimented by a number of floods, making the soil soft and fertile and ideal for farmland. Brownstone, a sedimentary rock that erodes easily, was easily dug into by glaciers and carved out many lakes and valleys. The area surrounding Farms River and Lake Saltonstall on the East Haven and Branford border is an example of this. The brownstone that did not erode was used for building foundations and rock fences found throughout New England. Deposits of basalt (lava flow) can be found in the north and northeast sections of East Haven. Several quarries can be found in this area. Traprock (basalt) is turned into crushed stone. It is primarily used in construction and in the bedding of roads. Sand and gravel from glacial till is the second most profitable quarried rock. They are used as fill, in concrete, leach fields or for road sand. Animals and plants When Pangaea was broken up, East Haven had forests. Dinosaurs, reptiles and mammals roamed the area. Dinosaur trackways like those found in Rocky Hill at Dinosaur State Park were recently found at a construction site near Lake Saltonstall. The tracks were made by Eubrontes. Fossils of Triassic period reptiles have been found in the area. Stegomus was covered with armor plates and looked similar to an armadillo. Today, East Haven is mostly covered with broadleaf, hardwood trees. There are a few conifer (evergreen) forests, mostly around Lake Saltonstall. Salt marshes are located in areas around Long Island Sound. Dinosaurs were long ago succeeded by deer, coyotes, squirrels, foxes, chipmunks and rabbits. Garter snakes can be found in the area. Pheasants, grouse, ducks and wild turkeys can be found in East Haven, as well as cardinals, blue jays, warblers, crows, sparrows, parrots, woodpeckers and sea gulls. Trout can be found in the fresh water lakes. Bluefish, bass, flounder, blackfish, sand sharks, eels, lobsters, crabs and clams can be found in Long Island Sound. Communities The residents of the town divide it into three large "sections" rather than smaller neighborhoods. These sections are: Foxon The area borders Branford and North Branford on the east, New Haven on the west to about Grannis Pond in the south, and surrounds State Route 80. This is the hilliest section of town. It counts among its landmarks the town high school, Foxon Park Beverage (a locally famous soda manufacturer), and Camp Murray, a Girl Scouts day camp. Grannis Pond used to host a YMCA camp until the land was sold and developed. Momauguin The area is located in the southern section of East Haven, from the Caroline Creek section of East Haven on the west to Branford on the east and starting at Short Beach Road in the north. This section includes the town beach, numerous condominiums, and summer cottages. The area near Tweed New Haven Airport has an industrial park that includes Town Fair Tire Centers Headquarters and Calabro Cheese Corporation. "The Center" The Center is not the geographical center of town but the hub of the administrative facilities. Landmarks include the Town Hall, Fire Department Headquarters, Hagaman Memorial Library, the "old" East Haven High School, and other administrative buildings. The old high school has been adapted for use by the East Haven Historical Society, and a teen center. The Police Department and Public Works Department reside on the "Center" – Foxon line. The most recognizable landmark in East Haven is the Old Stone Church. Built in 1774, the steeple of the church stands out against the low horizon. The Town Green is a park located at the eastern end of the central business district (two blocks east of the town hall) and is mostly covered by trees. Monuments are dedicated to honor war veterans and firefighters. The focal point of the green is the gazebo or bandstand. The Green is the site of the annual East Haven Fall Festival and summer concerts. Margaret Tucker Park is considered the second East Haven Green, with its location across the street from Town Hall and the Old Stone Church. They have developed additional land to the park, along with a water fountain. Included in this section is the "West End", which borders New Haven. Since the late 20th century, conditions have declined in this area of older housing. Efforts are underway to revitalize the area that most residents think have been overlooked with all the focus of the re-development efforts in the center of town. The Senior Center is located one block from Town Hall. The town has a weekly Farmers' Market held at the Town Hall on Sundays. This market features fresh produce, flowers, baked goods and crafts. Some weeks feature fundraising for town institutions. Climate East Haven's climate is tempered by its location on Long Island Sound; it has a continental climate which is common in New England. Winters are usually milder, with less snow accumulation, than those found inland. In a normal winter East Haven averages 27 inches (68.58 cm) of snowfall. It is not unusual to have a dusting of snow by the coast and an inch of snowfall in the northern areas of East Haven. The town is vulnerable to Nor'easter weather systems that can drop heavy rain or snow in the region. The Blizzard of 1888 dropped about 40 inches of snow, while the Blizzard of 1978 dropped almost . Summers are moderately warm and humid, though cooler than inland. Though rare, the region does experience high heat waves and some days. Precipitation is evenly spread throughout the year. East Haven enjoys a fairly long growing season with the last frost occurring in mid April and the first frost occurring in mid October. On average, East Haven has 207 sunny days and 158 cloud or rainy days. Severe weather does occur in East Haven. The area has been hit by several hurricanes, most recently in August 2011 when Hurricane Irene severely damaged numerous shore areas, destroying houses along Cosey Beach. In 1985, the eye of Hurricane Gloria came across state 22 west of East Haven. The area was without electricity, telephone and cable TV service for 7 days. Tornadoes sometimes occur in Connecticut. Though the town was not directly affected, a tornado touched down in Hamden on July 10, 1989, away. On August 11, 2016 a tornado touched down in North Haven, away. Demographics As of the census of 2010, there were 29,257 people and 11,492 households residing in the town. The population density was 2,377.7 people per square mile (896.8/km). The total gender makeup of the town is 13,956 (47.7%) male and 15,301 (52.3%) female. Age distribution of the estimated 2010 population of the town is as follows: ages 0 to 4 years old – 1,463 (5%) ages 5 to 17 years old – 5,647 (19.3%) ages 18 to 64 years old – 12,259 (58.1%) ages 65 and above – 5,149 (17.6%) The racial makeup of the town is 82.6% White, followed by 10.3% Hispanic or Latino, 2.9% African American, 3.3% Asian, .7% from other races and 0.2% Native American. The median age of a house is 40.0 years. The median house purchase price is $240,500.00 and median monthly rental is $1,200.00. The town is primarily considered a Democratic town, though it has elected a Republican mayor in the last 6 of 7 elections. There are 15,925 registered voters in East Haven. 5,683 registered Democrats, 2,544 Republicans, 7,681 unaffiliated and 17 registered to minor parties. The median income for a household in the town was $63,136. About 7.8% of the population were below the poverty line. 44% of the adult population (25 years and old) possess a high school diploma, 6% have associate degrees, and 19% have bachelor's degree or higher. https://web.archive.org/web/20170529192346/https://census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/data/tables.2018.html Geography Quinnipiac River in East Haven, 1907]] According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 39.9 square miles (103.3 km), of which 39.0 square miles (101.1 km) is land and 0.9 square miles (2.2 km), or 2.16%, is water. The town of East Haven sits astride the Quinnipiac River in southeastern New Haven County. It is south of Northford and about north of New Haven. Towns bordering East Haven are Branford, North Branford New Haven, and North Haven. East Haven is traversed by U.S. Route 1, Interstate 95, and State Highways Route 100, Connecticut Route 142 and Route 80 East Haven has a labor force of 16,751. 15,128 are employed and 1,623 are not. East Haven has an unemployment rate of 9.7%. There are 527 work units in East Haven, employing 6,260 staff members. There were 25 registered sex offenders living in East Haven as of December 2012. Government Town Government Beginning in the late 1990s, Republican Joe Maturo, Jr. served as mayor for a decade, being repeatedly re-elected to the two-year terms, serving from 1997 to 2007. In 1998 he appointed Leonard Gallo as Police Chief, who served until January 2012. Maturo was defeated on November 6, 2007 by Democratic challenger, April Capone Almon, by an apparent 21 votes. The slim margin of victory forced an automatic recount, and two were required. On November 14, 2007, Capone Almon was certified as the winner over Maturo by 25 votes. She was the first female mayor of East Haven and the youngest at age 32. She was re-elected in 2009, serving for two terms. After receiving a preliminary report in 2010 of a Department of Justice investigation of police department mistreatment of Latino residents, she put Police Chief Gallo on administrative leave pending completion of the investigation. That year a separate class action civil rights suit was filed on behalf of Latino residents against the city by Yale Law School’s Worker and Immigrant Rights Advocacy Clinic, naming 20 defendants, most with the police department. Former mayor Joe Maturo had defeated incumbent mayor Almon on November 8, 2011, by an apparent 31 votes. The slim margin of victory forced an automatic recount. On November 12, 2011, Maturo was certified as the winner over Almon by 34 votes. By winning a sixth term, Maturo became the longest-serving mayor in the town's history. He reinstated Gallo. DOJ submitted its final report to the city in December 2011, detailing a pattern of harassment against Latinos. Four officers were arrested on January 24, 2010 under the Department of Justice criminal investigation, charged with harassing Latinos. Police Chief Gallo was allowed to resign in late January 2012. Two of the officers pleaded guilty in 2012, and two were convicted at trial in 2013, being sentenced in 2014 to varying terms in prison. In 2013, Maturo easily defeated Jack Stacey to earn a seventh term. Joe Maturo retired after his term ended in 2019. 2019 election saw Democratic Candidate Joseph Carfora defeat Republican candidate Steve Tracey and Independent candidate Bonifacio Sioson, 3865 votes to 3169 and 292 respectively. Joseph Carafora was elected to a second term when he defeated Republican challenger Salvatore Maltese 4208 votes to 1866 votes. Based on the separate 2010 class action civil rights suit, the city reached a settlement in June 2014 to pay $450,000 to the Latino class members and change immigration enforcement to clearly separate it from regular policing. The city "will no longer detain undocumented people for immigration authorities unless they have a judge-signed criminal warrant." The city admitted no wrongdoing. The 2006 Mill Rate was 30.95. Total revenue in 2010 was $76,940,939.00 with total expenditures of $78,565,834.00. Total Indebtedness was $52,789,047. Moody's Bond rating (2009) for the town was Baa1. Emergency services Police Department The East Haven Police Department employs over 50 uniformed officers. Since the late 20th century, the department has been the center of incidents related to racial harassment and profiling of minorities. In 1997, an East Haven police officer, Sergeant Robert Flodquist, was accused of using excessive force in a police action which killed Malik Jones, an African-American suspect. Subsequently, state and federal prosecutors failed to find enough evidence for criminal charges against Flodquist. His shooting of Jones was ruled justified; Flodquist testified in the investigation that Jones tried to run him over. Police Chief Leonard Gallo, who had been hired in 1998 from New Haven by Mayor Joseph A. Maturo, Jr., appointed Flodquist as the department's public spokesman. Neither the family nor civil rights activists were satisfied with the failure by the state and federal government to prosecute in the Jones case. Activists have used the case "to argue successfully for new state legislation aimed at limiting racial profiling" by local and state police departments. The Jones family filed a civil suit in US District Court, saying that Malik Jones civil rights were violated and seeking damages. In July 2003 a federal jury ruled in their favor and awarded them $2.5 million in punitive damages. Because in such a case the city was not liable for punitive damages, another hearing was held to settle whether there should be compensatory damages; the award was reduced in October 2010 to $900,000. The East Haven city attorney said the town intended to appeal this decision. Separately, in September 2009, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) began investigating the East Haven Police for racial profiling and harassment of Latinos following the "unwarranted arrest" of Father Paul Manship, a Catholic priest who was trying to study complaints by Latino parishioners that they were victims of police discrimination. That year the police arrested Mayor April Capone Almon and her assistant for allegedly interfering with a ticketing action at the beach. The DOJ investigation later reported having found that records related to Capone Almon's arrest and that of Manship had been altered numerous times. With civil and criminal investigations underway, DOJ issued a preliminary report to the city in 2010, saying that the police appeared to have a pattern of discrimination and harassment against Latinos. Mayor April Capone Almon put Police Chief Leonard Gallo (in office since 1998) on administrative leave until the investigation was concluded. After Joseph A. Maturo, Jr. was elected as mayor in November 2011, he reinstated Gallo. On his first day, the police chief barred police commission members, who were investigating an officer about whom they had received complaints, from police headquarters and the parking lot without his permission. A few days later, the commission established a policy requiring its members be given free access to the police headquarters and any members of the department. The Department of Justice submitted its "scathing" final report of the civil investigation to the city in December 2011, saying the police department had shown a pattern of discrimination against Latinos, and Gallo had "resisted efforts to root out problems." Its report concluded that "EHPD has engaged in a pattern or practice of discrimination against Latinos, a violation of the Constitution and federal law." On January 24, 2012, Sergeant John Miller and three officers were arrested by the FBI on a ten-count indictment, on charges of conspiracy, false arrest, and excessive force and obstruction of justice in connection with the investigation. A local businessman had complained to the mayor's office that the officers stopped his employees to check their documentation as they entered and left his place of business. Numerous other charges were detailed in the indictment. Numerous other complaints had been collected. Press reports indicated a suspicion among the investigators that the chief of the department, Leonard Gallo, was involved in obstructing justice and had tried to hinder the investigation. Several other East Haven officers attended the arraignment to show support. Mayor Joseph Maturo and the police union also stood by the officers pending results of prosecution. The government asked that Officer Dennis Spaulding be barred from entering the town for fear he would intimidate possible witnesses; officer Zullo was also barred from the town until the cases were resolved. Police Chief Leonard Gallo was allowed to resign in late January 2012. In September 2012, Miller pleaded guilty to having struck a handcuffed person. In October 2012, Officer Jason Zullo pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice under a deal that will require him to serve one or two years in jail. David Cari continued to fight the charges. Maturo replaced police chief Gallo with Brent Larrabee, formerly the police chief of Stamford. On October 23, 2012, the Associated Press reported that the city had reached a settlement with the DOJ on its "claims that officers engaged in a pattern of discrimination and abuse toward Latinos." The settlement will require actions in seven major areas to improve conditions, including policy and training related to search and seizure, management and supervision of officers, civilian control and resolution of complaints, racial sensitivity training, community outreach and development of trust with all residents. Convicted at trial in October 2013, on January 23, 2014, Officer Dennis Spaulding was sentenced to five years in prison. At his sentencing, he insisted he had done nothing wrong. Cari was also convicted at trial; in January 2014 he was sentenced to two and a half years in prison. Crime 2016 is the last reported year. Statistics are published yearly by the FBI. East Haven Fire Department The East Haven Fire Department was established in 1900. It was started as an all volunteer fire department with one engine company. The town is covered by four fire stations: Station 1 (Headquarters Center District) Station 3 (Foxon) Station 4 (Momauguin) Station 6 (Short Beach Rd) In total there are 3 active Engines, 1 Quint, 2 Squads, and 4 Rescues. There are both career and volunteer firefighters within the department. Economy Retail services dominate three stretches of roads in East Haven; Main Street and U.S. 1 in the center of town and State Route 80 in the Foxon Section. East Haven has two industrial parks on land adjacent to Tweed New Haven Airport which house many manufacturing and distribution companies. There are approximately 527 companies that employ 6,260 employees in East Haven. The top five employers are Super Stop & Shop, Thermatool Corporation, Village at Mariners Point (healthcare), Laurel Woods (healthcare) and Talmadge Park Health Care. East Haven Grand List (2008) was $2,968,044,077.00. Retail sales from 2007 was $296,138,827.00. East Haven Labor Force (those of working age) is 16,751 residents. 15,128 are employed while 1,623 of the employable residents are unemployed. Calabro Cheese Corporation, founded in 1953, calls East Haven home. They specialize in producing ricotta, mozzarella, Parmesan, and Romano cheeses, and a line of select specialty cheeses. Calabro Cheese was the first Italian cheese company to develop fat-free ricotta cheese with no fat, no salt, and no preservatives added. Foxon Park Beverages, Inc., founded over 80 years ago in nearby New Haven, is a family owned and operated business. Their bottled soda and dispensed syrups can be found in many of New Haven County's popular restaurants and delis. Foxon Park Soda with pizza has become a tradition for many people living in the area. Town Fair Tires Corporate Headquarters. Education Schools Education in the New Haven Colony was important. The colony had required that each parish provide a common school. Prior to 1700, the parish education was being provided by the Congregational Church. The town voted in 1706 to build the first public school. The school was located around what is now 260 Hemingway Avenue. In 1707 the town established a school board to oversee the education system. By 1728 East Haven had split their system into 4 school districts. The first town high school was opened on September 28, 1936, in the "Center" of town. Prior to the building of the high school, students had to apply to local town high schools for acceptance into their school system. A new junior high school complex was built in 1957. In 1997, a new high school campus was built in the Foxon section of town. Today the school system operates 9 schools. In 2014 there were 2,933 students enrolled in the East Haven Public School system, with 232 teachers for a student/teacher ratio of 13:1. The town's budget allocated for FY 2014 was $46,410,357.00. The cost per student was approximately $18,495.00 per student. Adult Learning Center Deer Run School enrolls 312 students and a student/teacher ratio of 14:1 in Grades K-2 Grove J Tuttle School enrolls 178 students and a student/teacher ratio of 12:1 in Grades 3–5 Momauguin School enrolls 147 students and a student/teacher ratio of 11:1 in Grades 3–5 Dominick H. Ferrara School enrolls 178 students and a student/teacher ratio of 13:1 in Grades 3–5 Overbrook School enrolls 183 students and a student/teacher ratio of 17:1 in Grades K-2 Joseph Melillo Middle School enrolls 582 students and a student/teacher ratio of 12:1 in Grades 6–8 East Haven Academy, located at Carbone School enrolls 265 students and a student/teacher ratio 13:1 in Grades 3–8 East Haven High School enrolls 880 students and a student/teacher ratio of 13:1 in Grades 9–12 St. Vincent de Paul School in East Haven closed in 2016. That year enrollment was 89. Library The East Haven Library was established in 1909. The library occupied several locations in the center of town before a gift from Isaac Hagaman allowed for a permanent building to be built. On September 22, 1928, the East Haven Library was opened. During the years of 1973 and 1974, the library added a two-story addition to the complex. Today the Hagaman Memorial Library, named to honor of Isaac Hagaman, holds approximately 65,290 books, 2,065 Audio Materials, 4,128 Video Materials and 90 serial subscriptions. The library has an extensive children's library, and facilities are available for community meetings. Infrastructure Health and medicine East Haven does not have its own hospital; the area has several facilities within in New Haven: Yale-New Haven Hospital, a major teaching hospital affiliated with the Yale School of Medicine, Yale-New Haven Children's Hospital, and Yale-New Haven Psychiatric Hospital. A VA medical center is located in West Haven. An urgent care center is located in Foxon. Transportation East Haven is served by Tweed New Haven Regional Airport, which is located on the border between East Haven and New Haven. Though East Haven does not have a train station, there are two stations within close driving distance. Union Station is located from the center of town in New Haven, and a commuter station is located an equal distance away in Branford. Both offer commuter railroad service to New York and to coastal Connecticut towns, and New Haven's Union Station has Amtrak train service to Boston and many other cities. Interstate 95 runs from east to west through the central portion of East Haven. Interstate 91, which is located west of the town, connects with State Route 80 which passes through the town in Foxon, running east to west. State Route 100 connects Foxon with the town center, running north to south. U.S. 1 crosses the town through the "Center", paralleling Interstate 95. The Connecticut Transit Bus Company, a state-run mass transportation system, serves the town. Utilities Water supply is provided by the Regional Water Authority. Lake Saltonstall, located on the border between East Haven and Branford, provides drinking water to the south section of East Haven and is a recreational facility for hiking and fishing. The northern section of town is served by Lake Guillard in North Branford. The New Haven Regional Water Pollution Control Authority is responsible for sewage-disposal services with facilities located in New Haven. United Illuminating is the exclusive distributor of electric power to the town. Natural gas is distributed by the Southern Connecticut Gas Company with several sections being served by local propane distribution companies. AT&T is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various national wireless companies and the local cable television provider. Cable television is available from Comcast and AT&T. Satellite television is available from AT&T (Dish Network) and DirecTV. People and culture Media and newspapers Newspapers: The town is served by one daily newspaper and two weekly newspapers. The New Haven Register is printed seven days a week. The East Haven Courier is the weekly paper. Media: The town is served by ETV, a local public-access television cable TV channel on the Comcast system. A local ABC affiliate is in New Haven, WTNH TV Channel 8 and New Haven's IntrigueTV WTXX TV Channel 34. East Haven can receive 16 on-air television channels, 13 AM radio stations, and 20 FM radio stations. Museums East Haven Historical Society The Shore Line Trolley Museum was founded in 1945 as the Branford Electric Railway Association (BERA). The Branford Electric Railway Association was founded to preserve the heritage of the trolley car, as well as artifacts and documents from the trolley era. The museum holds nearly one hundred trolley vehicles. The Shore Line Trolley Museum, just past the East Haven Green, operates the Branford Electric Railway, a National Historic Site. The railway is the oldest continuously operating suburban trolley line in the United States. National Register of Historic Places East Haven has three nationally registered historic sites: East Haven Green Historic District (added April 11, 2002) First Congregational Church of East Haven (added March 25, 1982) The Shore Line Trolley Museum (added May 23, 2019) Town events Every fifth year the town hosts the Columbus Day Parade (which is shared between New Haven, West Haven, North Haven, and Hamden). The town of East Haven sponsors a town-wide beach party to celebrate Independence Day. The town also hosts the Fall Festival, which is patterned after a New England town fair. Notable residents Cy Bentley (1850–1872), Major League Baseball player for one season with the Middletown Mansfields, born in East Haven Kori Gardner and Jason Edward Hammel of the pop music duo Mates of State Henry Winkler, actor and director who played "The Fonz" on the hit show Happy Days, resided in the Momaugin area of East Haven while he attended the Yale School of Drama. References External links Town of East Haven official website Hagaman Memorial Library Town of East Haven Photo Gallery View a map of East Haven Historic sites Towns in New Haven County, Connecticut Towns in the New York metropolitan area Towns in Connecticut Populated coastal places in Connecticut

259377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewster%2C%20Massachusetts

Brewster, Massachusetts

Brewster is a town in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States, Barnstable County being coextensive with Cape Cod. The population of Brewster was 10,318 at the 2020 census. Brewster is twinned with the town of Budleigh Salterton in the United Kingdom. History Brewster was first settled in 1656 as a northeastern parish of the town of Harwich. The town separated from Harwich as the northern, more wealthy parish in 1693, and was officially incorporated as its own town in 1803 when the less wealthy citizens of Harwich were upset that the town's institutions were all on Brewster's main street (now Route 6A), including the town hall and churches. Brewster was named in honor of Elder William Brewster, the first religious leader of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Colony. The town's history grew around Stony Brook, where the first water-powered grist and woolen mill in the country was founded in the late 17th century. There were many rich sea captains in the town, who built many of the mansions and stately homes which now constitute the town's inns and bed-and-breakfasts. Most notable of these are the Brewster Historical Society Capt. Elijah Cobb House on Lower Road, Crosby Mansion on Crosby Lane by Crosby Beach, and the Captain Freeman Inn on Breakwater Road. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 10.07%, is water. Brewster is bordered on the north by Cape Cod Bay, on the west by Dennis, on the south by Harwich, and on the east by Orleans. The town is usually separated into two villages, West and East Brewster, both of which comprise the Brewster census-designated place. Brewster is south of Provincetown, east of Barnstable, east of the Sagamore Bridge, and southeast of Boston. The town is bordered by the Brewster Flats, an extensive stretch of tidal sand flats to the north, along the shores of Cape Cod Bay. The town is home to the Roland C. Nickerson State Forest Park, the largest state forest on Cape Cod. The town has several large ponds, especially along the Harwich town line. There are several brooks throughout the town, all of which lead to Cape Cod Bay. The bay is home to several boat landings and beaches in the town. Brewster is home to the largest pond on Cape Cod, Long Pond. The Brewster-Harwich town line goes directly through the middle of the pond. Brewster's second largest pond is Cliff Pond, located in Nickerson State Park. Both are popular destinations. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification system, Brewster, Massachusetts has a warm-summer, wet all year, humid continental climate (Dfb). Dfb climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ 32.0 °F (≤ 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), all months with an average mean temperature ≤ 71.6 °F (≤ 22.0 °C), and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. The average seasonal (Nov-Apr) snowfall total is around 30 in (76 cm). The average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. The plant hardiness zone is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 4.0 °F (-15.6 °C). Ecology According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Brewster, Massachusetts, would primarily contain a Northeastern Oak/Pine (110) vegetation type with a Southern Mixed Forest (26) vegetation form. Transportation U.S. Route 6 passes through the southeast corner of Brewster from southwest to northeast, as a two-lane expressway with no exits in the town, although exits 9 through 12 provide access to Brewster via other roads. The five other numbered highways in Brewster are all surface roads. Massachusetts Route 6A passes through the town from east to west as Main Street through the town center. Routes 124 and 137 both have a northern terminus along Route 6A in town; short portions of Routes 28 and 39 also pass through the southeastern corner of town (the portion of 28 is less than long, and is actually signed as crossing from Harwich directly into Orleans). Brewster has one stop light (blinking red light, four-way stop) at the intersection of Harwich Road (Route 124) and Long Pond Road (Route 137). There is no rail or air service in the town. The Cape Cod Rail Trail, as well as several other bicycle trails, pass through the town. The nearest public airfield is in Chatham (Chatham Municipal, CQX); the nearest regional airport is Barnstable Municipal Airport (HYA), and the nearest national and international air service is at Logan International Airport in Boston. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 10,094 people, 4,124 households, and 2,853 families residing in the town. The population density was 439.2 people per square mile (169.6/km2). There were 7,339 housing units at an average density of 319.3 per square mile (123.3/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.24% White, 0.76% Black or African American, 0.23% Native American, 0.76% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.35% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.06% of the population. There were 4,124 households, out of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.8% were non-families. 24.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.79. In the town, the population was spread out, with 20.9% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 21.5% from 25 to 44, 27.0% from 45 to 64, and 26.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.2 males. The median income for a household in the town was $49,276, and the median income for a family was $57,174. Males had a median income of $41,407 versus $33,388 for females. The per capita income for the town was $24,638. About 1.6% of families and 3.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over. Government Brewster is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the First Barnstable District, along with Dennis and a portion of Yarmouth. The town is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Cape and Islands District, which includes all of Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket except the towns of Bourne, Falmouth, Sandwich and a portion of Barnstable. The town is patrolled by the Second (Yarmouth) Barracks of Troop D of the Massachusetts State Police. On the national level, Brewster is a part of Massachusetts's 9th congressional district, and is currently represented by William Keating. The state's senior (Class II) member of the United States Senate, elected in 2012, is Elizabeth Warren. The junior (Class I) senator, elected in 2013, is Edward Markey. Brewster is governed by the open town meeting form of government, led by an executive secretary and a board of selectmen. The town has its own police and fire departments. The fire department is located on Route 6A near the terminus of Route 137, while the police station is located about a half mile away on Route 124. There is a single post office near the geographic center of town, as well as the Brewster Ladies' Library, a 50,000-volume library which is a part of the Cape Libraries Automated Materials Sharing (CLAMS) library network. The Long Pond Medical Center, located just over the Harwich line at the intersection of Routes 6 and 137, serves the medical needs of the town, as well as the southeastern corner of the Cape. Education Brewster is a member of the Nauset Regional School District, along with the towns of Eastham, Orleans and Wellfleet. The town operates the Stony Brook Elementary School, which serves students from kindergarten through second grade, and the Eddy Elementary School, which serves students in third through fifth grades. Middle school students typically attend Nauset Middle School in Orleans, although the Cape Cod Lighthouse Charter School in East Harwich is an alternative choice. High school students attend Nauset Regional High School in North Eastham. Additionally, the town's high school students may attend Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in neighboring Harwich free of charge. There are also two private schools, The Family School and The Laurel School, both of which serve elementary students. The Sea Pines School operated in town from 1907 to 1972. See also: Brewster (CDP), Massachusetts Points of interest Brewster Conservation Trust Walking Trails Brewster Historical Society Museum Brewster Ladies' Library The Brewster Fish House Brewster Oysters The Brewster Store Brewster Sweets Cape Cod Museum of Natural History Cape Cod Sea Camps Captain Freeman Inn Chatham Bars Inn Farm, Brewster Crosby Mansion Factory Village JT's Seafood Kate's Ice Cream The Lemon Tree Village First Parish Brewster Ocean Edge Resort & Golf Club Stony Brook Grist Mill Satucket Farms Snowy Owl Coffee Roasters Sweetwater Farms, breeding world and national caliber Appaloosas since 1979 Sweetwater Forest Cape Cod's Family Campground since 1958 The Woodshed Parks and recreation Brewster beaches, from east to west on the Cape Cod Bay are: Crosby Landing, Linnell Landing, Ellis Landing, Point of Rocks Landing, Breakwater Beach, Saint's Landing, Mant's Landing (Robbins Hill Beach), and Paines Creek Beach. In addition to the beaches on the northside, there are numerous important recreation areas in the town. The Drummer Boy Park on Route 6A has walking trails, picnic areas, playground, and an 18th-century windmill, the Old Higgins Farm Windmill, and blacksmith shop. Several hiking trails leave the Natural History museum, with the John Wing Trail going over a salt marsh boardwalk to Wing Island and the beach on Cape Cod Bay. At Nickerson State Park, there are of open woodland, nearly of biking trails that can be hiked as well, and hiking trails around several ponds. Punkhorn Parklands also has thousands of acres of protected woodland with many hiking trails, the one to Eagle Point being particularly popular. Smaller conservation areas are available for hiking throughout the town. Notable associations In July 1888, Helen Keller and her teacher, Anne Sullivan, visited Brewster. In the photo, Helen is shown cradling a doll. The photograph was discovered almost 120 years after it was taken. The mother of the man who provided the photograph was Helen's playmate at the Elijah Cobb House. Minnie Riperton's song, "Alone in Brewster Bay", refers to when Riperton and her husband, producer Dick Rudolph, vacationed on Cape Cod during the early 1970s, prior to the release of her 1975 hit single, "Lovin' You". Samuel M. Nickerson, president of the First National Bank of Chicago, was one of the most influential business leaders of the time. Nickerson's shares in First National Bank were sold for $2.1M, according to The New York Times dated September 29, 1899. The syndicate that purchased the shares included J. P. Morgan, E. H. Harriman and Marshall Field. The Nickerson summer house, Fieldstone Hall in Brewster, is now a condominium resort called Ocean Edge. The Brewster Whitecaps of the Cape Cod Baseball League has been the home of many current and former major league baseball stars, such as Mike Avilés, Brian Bannister, Sean Casey, Chris Dickerson, Hall of Famer Tony Gwynn and his son Tony Gwynn Jr., Matt Herges, Bobby Kielty, Mike Meyers, Aaron Rowand, Gaby Sánchez, and Billy Wagner. The Whitecaps play at Stony Brook Field. In a 2011 episode of Who Do You Think You Are?, Ashley Judd traced her direct lineage back to William Brewster, the town's namesake. References External links Town of Brewster official website Brewster Chamber of Commerce tourist information 1656 establishments in Massachusetts Populated coastal places in Massachusetts Populated places established in 1656 Towns in Barnstable County, Massachusetts Towns in Massachusetts

261107

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangers%20on%20a%20Train%20%28film%29

Strangers on a Train (film)

Strangers on a Train is a 1951 American psychological thriller film noir produced and directed by Alfred Hitchcock, and based on the 1950 novel Strangers on a Train by Patricia Highsmith. It was shot in the autumn of 1950 and released by Warner Bros. on June 30, 1951, starring Farley Granger, Ruth Roman, and Robert Walker. The story concerns two strangers who meet on a train, one of whom is a psychopath who suggests that they "exchange" murders so that neither will be caught. The film initially received mixed reviews but has since been regarded as one of Hitchcock's finest films. In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Amateur tennis star Guy Haines wants to divorce his promiscuous wife Miriam so he can marry Anne Morton, the daughter of a US Senator. On a train, wealthy smooth-talking psychopath Bruno Antony recognizes Haines and reveals his idea for a murder scheme: two perfect strangers meet and "swap murders" — Bruno suggests he kill Miriam and Guy kill Bruno's hated father. Each will murder a total stranger, with no apparent motive, so neither will be suspected. Guy humors Bruno by pretending to find his idea amusing, but is so eager to get away from Bruno that he carelessly leaves behind his engraved cigarette lighter, which Bruno keeps. Guy meets with Miriam, who is pregnant by someone else, at her workplace in Metcalf, their hometown. Miriam informs Guy that she no longer wants to end their marriage. She threatens to claim that he is the father, in order to thwart any divorce-attempt. They argue loudly. That evening, Bruno follows Miriam to an amusement park and strangles her to death while Guy is traveling on the train back to Washington. When Guy arrives home, Bruno informs him Miriam is dead and insists that he must now honor their deal, by killing Bruno's father. Guy goes to the Mortons' home, where Anne's father informs Guy that his wife has been murdered. Anne's sister Barbara says that the police will think that Guy is the murderer since he has a motive. The police question Guy, but are unable to confirm his alibi: a professor Guy met on the train was so drunk that he cannot remember their encounter. Instead of arresting Guy, the police assign an around-the-clock escort to watch him. To pressure Guy, Bruno follows him around Washington, introduces himself to Anne, and appears at a party at Senator Morton's house. To amuse another guest, Bruno playfully demonstrates how to strangle someone, by putting his hands around her neck. His gaze falls upon Barbara, whose glasses and physical appearance resemble Miriam's. This triggers a flashback; Bruno compulsively squeezes the woman's neck, and other guests intervene to stop him from strangling the woman to death. Barbara tells Anne that Bruno was looking at her while strangling the other woman, and Anne realizes Barbara's resemblance to Miriam. Her suspicions aroused, Anne confronts Guy, who tells her the truth about Bruno's crazy scheme. Bruno sends Guy a package containing a pistol, a house key, and a map showing the location of his father's bedroom. Guy creeps into Bruno's father's room to warn him of his son's murderous intentions, but instead he finds the suspicious Bruno there waiting for him; the father is not at home. Guy tries to persuade Bruno to seek psychiatric help; Bruno threatens to punish Guy for breaking their deal. Anne visits Bruno's home and unsuccessfully tries to explain to his befuddled mother that her son is a murderer. Bruno mentions Guy's missing cigarette lighter to Anne and claims that Guy asked him to search the murder site for it. Guy correctly infers that Bruno intends to plant it at the scene of the murder, and incriminate him. After winning a tennis match, Guy evades the police-escort, and heads for the amusement park to stop Bruno. Bruno is delayed when he accidentally drops Guy's lighter down a storm drain and must retrieve it. When Bruno arrives at the amusement park, a carnival worker recognizes him from the night of the murder; he informs the police, who mistakenly think he has recognized Guy. After Guy arrives, he and Bruno fight on the park's carousel. Believing that Guy is trying to escape, a police officer shoots at him, but the shot misses, and instead kills the carousel operator, causing the carousel to spin out of control. A carnival worker crawls underneath it and applies the brakes too abruptly, causing the carousel to violently spin off its support, trapping the mortally injured Bruno underneath. The worker who had called the police now tells them that Bruno, not Guy, is the one whom he remembers seeing the night of the murder. As Bruno dies, his fingers open to reveal Guy's lighter in his hand. Realizing that Guy is not the murderer, the police ask him to come to the station the next day to tie up any loose ends. In a final train scene, another stranger attempts to strike up conversation with Guy in the same way as had Bruno. Guy and Anne coldly walk away from him. Cast Farley Granger as Guy Haines Ruth Roman as Anne Morton Robert Walker as Bruno Antony Leo G. Carroll as Senator Morton Patricia Hitchcock as Barbara Morton Kasey Rogers as Miriam Joyce Haines Marion Lorne as Mrs. Antony Jonathan Hale as Mr. Antony Howard St. John as Police Capt. Turley John Brown as Professor Collins Norma Varden as Mrs. Cunningham Robert Gist as Detective Hennessey John Doucette as Detective Hammond (uncredited) Georges Renavent as Monsieur Darville (uncredited) Odette Myrtil as Madame Darville (uncredited) Murray Alper as Boatman who recognizes Bruno (uncredited) Barry Norton as Tennis Match Spectator (uncredited) Alfred Hitchcock's cameo appearance occurs 11 minutes into the film. He is seen carrying a double bass as he climbs onto a train. Hitchcock said that correct casting saved him "a reel of storytelling time", since audiences would sense qualities in the actors that did not have to be spelled out. Hitchcock said that he originally wanted William Holden for the Guy Haines role, but Holden declined. "Holden would have been all wrong—too sturdy, too put off by Bruno", writes critic Roger Ebert. "Granger is softer and more elusive, more convincing as he tries to slip out of Bruno's conversational web instead of flatly rejecting him." Warner Bros. wanted their own stars, already under contract, cast wherever possible. In the casting of Anne Morton, Jack L. Warner got what he wanted when he assigned Ruth Roman to the project, over Hitchcock's objections. The director found her "bristling" and "lacking in sex appeal" and said that she had been "foisted upon him." Perhaps it was the circumstances of her forced casting, but Roman became the target of Hitchcock's scorn throughout the production. Granger described Hitchcock's attitude toward Roman as "disinterest" in the actress, and said he saw Hitchcock treat Edith Evanson the same way on the set of Rope (1948). "He had to have one person in each film he could harass," Granger said. Kasey Rogers (credited as Laura Elliott) noted that she had perfect vision at the time the movie was made, but Hitchcock insisted she wear the character's thick eyeglasses, even in long shots when regular glass lenses would have been undetectable. Rogers was effectively blind with the glasses on and needed to be guided by the other actors. Production Pre-production Hitchcock secured the rights to the Patricia Highsmith novel for just $7,500 since it was her first novel. As usual, Hitchcock kept his name out of the negotiations to keep the purchase price low. Highsmith was quite annoyed when she later discovered who bought the rights for such a small amount. Securing the rights to the novel was the least of the hurdles Hitchcock would have to vault to get the property from printed page to screen. He got a treatment that pleased him on the second attempt, from writer Whitfield Cook, who wove a homoerotic subtext (only hinted at in the novel) into the story and softened Bruno from a coarse alcoholic into a dapper, charming mama's boy — a much more Hitchcockian villain. With treatment in hand, Hitchcock shopped for a screenwriter; he wanted a "name" writer to lend some prestige to the screenplay, but was turned down by eight writers, including John Steinbeck and Thornton Wilder, all of whom thought the story too tawdry and were put off by Highsmith's first-timer status. Talks with Dashiell Hammett got further, but here too communications ultimately broke down, and Hammett never took the assignment. Hitchcock then tried Raymond Chandler, who had earned an Oscar nomination for his first screenplay, Double Indemnity, in collaboration with Billy Wilder. Chandler took the job despite his opinion that it was "a silly little story." But Chandler was a notoriously difficult collaborator and the two men could not have had more different meeting styles: Hitchcock enjoyed long, rambling off-topic meetings where often the film would not even be mentioned for hours, while Chandler was strictly business and wanted to get out and get writing. He called the meetings "god-awful jabber sessions which seem to be an inevitable although painful part of the picture business." Interpersonal relations deteriorated rapidly until finally Chandler became openly combative; at one point, upon viewing Hitchcock struggling to exit from his limousine, Chandler remarked within earshot, "Look at the fat bastard trying to get out of his car!" This would be their last collaboration. Chandler completed a first draft, then wrote a second, without hearing a single word back from Hitchcock; when finally he did get a communication from the director in late September, it was his dismissal from the project. Next, Hitchcock tried to hire Ben Hecht, but learned he was unavailable. Hecht suggested his assistant, Czenzi Ormonde, to write the screenplay. Although Ormonde was without a formal screen credit, she did have two things in her favor: her recently published collection of short stories, Laughter From Downstairs, was attracting good notices from critics, and she was "a fair-haired beauty with long shimmering hair."—always a plus with Hitchcock. With his new writer, he wanted to start from square one: There was not much time though — less than three weeks until location shooting was scheduled to start in the East. Ormonde hunkered down with Hitchcock's associate producer Barbara Keon—disparagingly called "Hitchcock's factotum" by Chandler—and Alma Reville, Hitchcock's wife. Together the three women, working under the boss's guidance and late into most nights, finished enough of the script in time to send the company East. The rest was complete by early November. Three notable additions the trio had made were the runaway merry-go-round, the cigarette lighter, and the thick eyeglasses. There was one point of agreement between Chandler and Hitchcock, although it would come only much later, near the release of the film: they both acknowledged that since virtually none of Chandler's work remained in the final script, his name should be removed from the credits. Hitchcock preferred the writing credit of Whitfield Cook and Czenzi Ormonde, but Warner Bros. wanted the cachet of the Chandler name and insisted it stay on. Even while the torturous writing stage was plodding its course, the director's excitement about the project was boundless. "Hitchcock raced ahead of everyone: the script, the cast, the studio... pieces of the film were dancing like electrical charges in his brain." The more the film resolved in his mind's eye, the more he knew his director of photography would play a critical role in the scenes' execution. He found exactly what he needed right on the Warners lot in the person of staff cameraman Robert Burks, who would continue to work with Hitchcock, shooting every Hitchcock picture through to Marnie (1964), with the exception of Psycho. "Low-keyed, mild mannered", Burks was "a versatile risk-taker with a penchant for moody atmosphere. Burks was an exceptionally apt choice for what would prove to be Hitchcock's most Germanic film in years: the compositions dense, the lighting almost surreal, the optical effects demanding." None was more demanding than Bruno's strangulation of Miriam, shown reflected in her eyeglass lens: "It was the kind of shot Hitchcock had been tinkering with for twenty years—and Robert Burks captured it magnificently." Burks considered his fourteen years with Hitchcock the best of his career: "You never have any trouble with him as long as you know your job and do it. Hitchcock insists on perfection. He has no patience with mediocrity on the set or at a dinner table. There can be no compromise in his work, his food or his wines." Robert Burks received the film's sole Academy Award nomination for its black and white photography. Production With cast nailed down, a script in hand, and a director of photography in tune with Hitchcock's vision on board, the company was ready to commence filming. Hitchcock had a crew shoot background footage of the 1950 Davis Cup finals held August 25–27, 1950 at the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills, New York. While there, the crew had done some other location scouting. Exteriors would be shot on both coasts, and interiors on Warner Brothers' soundstages. Hitchcock and his cast and crew decamped for the East Coast on October 17, 1950. For six days, they shot at Penn Station in New York City, at the railroad station at Danbury, Connecticut—which became Guy's hometown Metcalf—and in spots around Washington, D.C. By month's end, they were back in California. Hitchcock had written exacting specifications for an amusement park, which was constructed on the ranch of director Rowland Lee in Chatsworth, California. The amusement park exteriors were shot there and at an actual Tunnel of Love at a fairground in Canoga Park, California. Hitchcock had already shot the long shots for the tennis match at Forest Hills and would add closer shots with Granger and Jack Cushingham, Granger's tennis coach off-screen and Guy's tennis opponent Fred Reynolds on-screen at a tennis club in South Gate, California. The rest of the shooting would take place on Warner soundstages, including many seemingly exterior and on-location shots that were actually done inside in front of rear-projection screens. Strangers on a Train marked something of a renaissance for Hitchcock, after several years of low enthusiasm for his late-1940s output, and he threw himself into the micromanagement of some of its production. Hitchcock himself designed Bruno's lobster necktie, revealed in a close-up to have strangling lobster claws, and "he personally selected an orange peel, a chewing-gum wrapper, wet leaves, and a bit of crumpled paper that were used for sewer debris" in the scene where Bruno inadvertently drops Guy's lighter down the storm drain. He also showed intense interest in a seldom-considered detail of character delineation: food. One of the most memorable single shots in the Hitchcock canon — it "is studied by film classes", says Laura Elliott, who played Miriam – is her character's strangulation by Bruno on the Magic Isle. "[I]n one of the most unexpected, most aesthetically justified moments in film," the slow, almost graceful, murder is shown as a reflection in the victim's eyeglasses, which have been jarred loose from her head and dropped to the ground. The unusual angle was a more complex proposition than it seems. First Hitchcock got the exterior shots in Canoga Park, using both actors, then later he had Elliott alone report to a soundstage where there was a large concave reflector set on the floor. The camera was on one side of the reflector, Elliott was on the other, and Hitchcock directed Elliott to turn her back to the reflector and "float backwards, all the way to the floor... like you were doing the limbo." The first six takes went badly—Elliott thudded to the floor with several feet yet to go—but on the seventh take, she floated smoothly all the way. Hitchcock's even-strained response: "Cut. Next shot." Hitchcock then had the two elements "ingenious[ly]" double printed, yielding a shot of "oddly appealing originality [with] a stark fusion of the grotesque and the beautiful.... The astheticizing of the horror somehow enables the audience to contemplate more fully its reality." Hitchcock was, above all, the master of great visual setpieces, and "[p]erhaps the most memorable sequence in Strangers on a Train is the climactic fight on a berserk carousel." While Guy and Bruno fight, the ride runs out of control until it tears itself to pieces, flinging wooden horses into the crowd of screaming mothers and squealing children. "The climactic carousel explosion was a marvel of miniatures and background projection, acting close-ups and other inserts, all of it seamlessly matched and blended under film editor William H. Ziegler's eye." The explosion is triggered by the attempts of a carnival man to stop the ride after crawling under the whirling carousel deck to get to the controls in the center. Although Hitchcock admitted to undercranking the shot (artificially accelerating the action), it was not a trick shot: the man actually had to crawl under the spinning ride, just inches from possible injury. "Hitchcock told me that this scene was the most personally frightening moment for him in any of his films", writes biographer Charlotte Chandler. "The man who crawled under the out-of-control carousel was not an actor or a stuntman, but a carousel operator who volunteered for the job. 'If the man had raised his head even slightly", Hitchcock said, "it would have gone from being a suspense film into a horror film." The final scene of the so-called American version of the film has Barbara and Anne Morton waiting for Guy to call on the telephone. Hitchcock wanted the phone in the foreground to dominate the shot, emphasizing the importance of the call, but the limited depth-of-field of contemporary motion picture lenses made it difficult to get both phone and women in focus. So Hitchcock had an oversized phone constructed and placed in the foreground. Anne reaches for the big phone, but actually answers a regular one: "I did that on one take", Hitchcock explained, "by moving in on Anne so that the big phone went out of the frame as she reached for it. Then a grip put a normal-sized phone on the table, where she picked it up." Principal photography wrapped just before Christmas, and Hitchcock and Alma left for a vacation in Santa Cruz, then in late March 1951, on to St. Moritz, for a 25th anniversary European excursion. Music Composer Dimitri Tiomkin was Jack Warner's choice to score Strangers on a Train. While he had previous Hitchcock experience on Shadow of a Doubt (1943), and would go on to score two more consecutive Hitchcock films, the director and composer "simply never developed much of a kinship" and "the Hitchcock films are not Tiomkin's best". Nevertheless, the score does pick up on the ubiquitous theme of doubles — often contrasting doubles — right from the opening title sequence: "The first shot — two sets of male shoes, loud versus conservative, moving toward a train — carries a gruff bass motif set against Gershwin-like riffs, a two-part medley called "Strangers" and "Walking" that is never heard again." The powerful music accurately underscores the visuals of that title sequence — the massive granite edifice of New York's Pennsylvania Station, standing in for Washington's Union Station—because it was scored for an unusually large orchestra, including alto, tenor and baritone saxes, three clarinets, four horns, three pianos and a novachord. Tiomkin's contrasting musical themes continued throughout the film, delineating two characters with substantial differences: "For 'Guy's Theme', Tiomkin created a hesitant, passive idea, made-to-order music for Farley Granger's performance." Bruno, who tells Guy on the train that he admires people "who do things", gets a more vigorous musical treatment from Tiomkin: "Harmonic complexity defines the motifs associated with Bruno: rumbling bass, shocking clusters, and glassy string harmonics. These disturbing sounds, heard to superb effect in cues such as 'The Meeting,' 'Senator's Office,' and 'Jefferson Memorial,' are not just about Bruno, but about how he is perceived by those whose lives he crosses—first Guy, then everyone in Guy's entourage." But perhaps the most memorable music in Strangers is the calliope music, heard first at the fairground and again, later, when Bruno is strangling Mrs. Cunningham at Senator Morton's soirée, and experiences his unfortunate flashback and subsequent fainting spell. It was Hitchcock, not Tiomkin, whose idea brought the four evocative numbers — "The Band Played On", "Carolina in the Morning", "Oh, You Beautiful Doll", and "Baby Face" — to the soundtrack:In one of Hitchcock's most explicit operatic gestures, the characters at the fateful carnival sing the score, giving it full dimension as part of the drama. In a conventional movie, the tune would play in the background as a clever ironic backdrop. But Hitchcock takes music to another level. Miriam and the two boyfriends in her odd ménage à trois bring "The Band Played On" to life by singing it on the merry-go-round, lustily and loudly... Grinning balefully on the horse behind them, Bruno then sings it himself, making it his motto. The band plays on through Bruno's stalking of his victim and during the murder itself, blaring from the front of the screen, then receding into the darkness as an eerie obbligato when the doomed Miriam enters the Tunnel of Love."The Band Played On" makes its final reprise during Guy's and Bruno's fight on the merry-go-round, even itself shifting to a faster tempo and higher pitch when the policeman's bullet hits the ride operator and sends the carousel into its frenzied hyper-drive. Critic Jack Sullivan had kinder words for Tiomkin's score for Strangers than did biographer Spoto: "[S]o seamlessly and inevitably does it fit the picture's design that it seems like an element of Hitchcock's storyboards", he writes. It is a score that "goes largely uncelebrated." Promotion and release With a release scheduled for early summer, the studio press agents swung into high gear early in 1951. Hitchcock, promotionally photographed many times over the years strangling various actresses and other women — some one-handed, others two — found himself in front of a camera with his fingers around the neck of a bust of daughter Patricia; the photo found its way into newspapers nationwide. He was also photographed adding the letter L to Strangers on the official studio poster for the film, thus changing the word to Stranglers. One studio press release gave rise to a myth that still lingers on today. Hitchcock and Patricia both were afraid of heights, and father offered daughter a hundred dollars to ride the Ferris wheel — only to order the power cut, leaving her in the dark at the very top of the ride. The press release embellished the tale, claiming he left her "dangling in total darkness for an hour," only then allowing his "trembling daughter" to be lowered and released. Although that account continues to be published in books to this day, "it just wasn't true", according to Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. First of all, she was not up there alone: flanking her were the actors playing Miriam's two boyfriends — "and I have a picture of us waving." "This was good stuff for press agents paid to stir up thrills and it has been repeated in other books to bolster the idea of Hitchcock's sadism," but "we were [only] up there two or three minutes at the outside.... My father wasn't ever sadistic. The only sadistic part was I never got the hundred dollars." Strangers on a Train previewed on March 5, 1951 at the Huntington Park Theatre, with Alma, Jack Warner, Whitfield Cook and Barbara Keon in the Hitchcock party and it won a prize from the Screen Directors Guild. It premiered in New York on July 3, marking the reopening of the extensively remodeled Strand Theatre as the Warner Theatre, and in a dozen cities around the country. Hitchcock made personal appearances in most of them, and was often accompanied by his daughter. Some audience feedback arriving at Jack Warner's office condemned the film for its sordid story, while just as many others were favorable. Of greater interest to Warner was the box office take, and the "receipts soon told the true story: Strangers on a Train was a success, and Hitchcock was pronounced at the top of his form as master of the dark, melodramatic suspense thriller." Themes and motifs The film includes a number of puns and visual metaphors that demonstrate a running motif of crisscross, double-crossing, and crossing one's double. Talking about the structure of the film, Hitchcock said to Truffaut, "Isn't it a fascinating design? One could study it forever." The two characters, Guy and Bruno, can be viewed as doppelgängers. As with Shadow of a Doubt, Strangers on a Train is one of many Hitchcock films to explore the doppelgänger theme. The pair has what writer Peter Dellolio refers to as a "dark symbiosis." Bruno embodies Guy's dark desire to kill Miriam, a "real-life incarnation of Guy's wish-fulfillment fantasy". Doubles The theme of doubles is "the key element in the film's structure," and Hitchcock starts right off in his title sequence making this point: there are two taxicabs, two redcaps, two pairs of feet, two sets of train rails that cross twice. Once on the train, Bruno orders a pair of double drinks — "The only kind of doubles I play", he says charmingly. In Hitchcock's cameo he carries a double bass. Hitchcock carries the theme into his editing, crosscutting between Guy and Bruno with words and gestures: one asks the time and the other, miles away, looks at his watch; one says in anger "I could strangle her!" and the other, far distant, makes a choking gesture. This doubling has some precedent in the novel; but more of it was deliberately added by Hitchcock, "dictated in rapid and inspired profusion to Czenzi Ormonde and Barbara Keon during the last days of script preparation." It undergirds the whole film because it finally serves to associate the world of light, order, and vitality with the world of darkness, chaos, lunacy and death." Guy and Bruno are in some ways doubles, but in many more ways, they are opposites. The two sets of feet in the title sequence match each other in motion and in cutting, but they immediately establish the contrast between the two men: the first shoes "showy, vulgar brown-and-white brogues; [the] second, plain, unadorned walking shoes." They also demonstrate Hitchcock's gift for deft visual storytelling: For most of the film, Bruno is the actor, Guy the reactor, and Hitchcock always shows Bruno's feet first, then Guy's. And since it is Guy's foot that taps Bruno's under the table, we know Bruno has not engineered the meeting. Roger Ebert wrote that "it is this sense of two flawed characters — one evil, one weak, with an unstated sexual tension — that makes the movie intriguing and halfway plausible, and explains how Bruno could come so close to carrying out his plan." Darkness–light continuum It is those flaws that set up the real themes of Strangers. It was not enough for Hitchcock to construct merely a world of doubles — even contrasting doubles — in a strict polar-opposite structure; for Hitchcock, the good-and-evil, darkness-and-light poles "didn't have to be mutually exclusive." Blurring the lines puts both Guy and Bruno on a good-evil continuum, and the infinite shades of gray in between, became Hitchcock's canvas for telling the story and painting his characters. At first glance, Guy represents the ordered life where people stick to rules, while Bruno comes from the world of chaos, where they get thrown out of multiple colleges for drinking and gambling. Yet both men, like so many of Hitchcock's protagonists, are insecure and uncertain of their identity. Guy is suspended between tennis and politics, between his tramp wife and his senator's daughter, and Bruno is seeking desperately to establish an identity through violent, outré actions and flamboyance (shoes, lobster-patterned tie, name proclaimed to the world on his tiepin)." Bruno tells Guy early on that he admires him: "I certainly admire people who do things", he says. "Me, I never do anything important." Yet as Bruno describes his "theories" over lunch, "Guy responds to Bruno — we see it in his face, at once amused and tense. To the man committed to a career in politics, Bruno represents a tempting overthrow of all responsibility." And at this point the blurring of good and evil accelerates: Guy fails to repudiate Bruno's suggestive statement about murdering Miriam ("What's a life or two, Guy? Some people are better off dead.") with any force or conviction. "When Bruno openly suggests he would like to kill his wife, he merely grins and says 'That's a morbid thought,' but we sense the tension that underlies it." It ratchets up a notch when Guy leaves Bruno's compartment and "forgets" his cigarette lighter. "He is leaving in Bruno's keeping his link with Anne, his possibility of climbing into the ordered existence to which he aspires.... Guy, then, in a sense connives at the murder of his wife, and the enigmatic link between him and Bruno becomes clear. Light and dark onscreen Having given his characters overlapping qualities of good and evil, Hitchcock then rendered them on the screen according to a very strict template, with which he stuck to a remarkable degree. Ebert wrote: Nowhere is this more evident than the scene where Guy arrives home at his D.C. apartment to find Bruno lurking across the street; Bruno killed Miriam that evening in Metcalf, and has her glasses to give to Guy almost as a "receipt" that he has executed his part of their "deal". "On one side of the street, [are] stately respectable houses; towering in the background, on the right of the screen, the floodlit dome of the U.S. Capitol, the life to which Guy aspires, the world of light and order." Bruno tells Guy what he has done and gives him the glasses. "You're a free man now", he says, just as a police car drives up, looking for the husband of a certain recent murder victim. Guy nervously steps into the shadows with Bruno, literally behind the bars of an iron fence; "You've got me acting like I'm a criminal", he says. "The scene gives a beautifully exact symbolic expression to Guy's relationship with Bruno and what he stands for." Hitchcock continues the interplay of light and dark throughout the film: Guy's bright, light tennis attire, versus "the gothic gloominess of [Bruno's] Arlington mansion"; the crosscutting between his game in the sunshine at Forest Hills while Bruno's arm stretches into the dark and debris of the storm drain trying to fish out the cigarette lighter; even a single image where "Walker is photographed in one visually stunning shot as a malignant stain on the purity of the white-marble Jefferson Memorial, as a blot on the order of things." Political subtext Although its first rumblings came in 1947 with the trial and conviction of the "Hollywood Ten," the so-called Red Scare was gathering steam in 1950, with the espionage-related arrests of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and the trial of Alger Hiss. These events were the background to their work, while Hitchcock, Cook, Ormonde and Keon were preparing the script for Strangers, and film scholar Robert L. Carringer has written of a political subtext to the film. Treatment writer Cook used Guy to make the film "a parable quietly defiant of the Cold War hysteria sweeping America." Carringer has argued that the film was crucially shaped by the Congressional inquiries, making Guy the stand-in for victims of the homophobic climate. "To all appearances Guy is the all-American stereotype, an athlete, unassuming despite his fame, conservatively dressed," wrote Carringer; he is "a man of indeterminate sexual identity found in circumstances making him vulnerable to being compromised." Hitchcock, who had drawn gay characters so sharply yet subtly in Rope in 1948, "drafted the left-leaning Cook... expressly because he was comfortable with sexually ambiguous characters." Differences from the novel Even before sewing up the rights for the novel, Hitchcock's mind was whirling with ideas about how to adapt it for the screen. He narrowed the geographic scope to the Northeast corridor, between Washington, D.C. and New York — the novel ranged through the southwest and Florida, among other locales. The scripting team added the tennis match — and the crosscutting with Bruno's storm drain travails in Metcalf — added the cigarette lighter, the Tunnel of Love, Miriam's eyeglasses; in fact, the amusement park is only a brief setting in the novel. Hitchcock's biggest changes were in his two lead characters: The character called Bruno Antony in the film is called Charles Anthony Bruno in the book. "Highsmith's Bruno is a physically repugnant alcoholic... but in [Whitfield Cook's] hands, the film's Bruno became a dandy, a mama's boy who speaks French, and who professes ignorance of women." In the book, Bruno dies in a boating accident far removed from a merry-go-round. In the novel, Guy Haines is not a tennis player, but rather a promising architect, and he does indeed go through with the murder of Bruno's father. In the movie, "Guy became a decent guy who refuses to carry out his part of the crazed bargain..." writes Patrick McGilligan, "to head off the censors." In the novel, Guy is pursued and entrapped by a tenacious detective. The merry-go-round scene is not in the book, but is taken from the climax of Edmund Crispin's 1946 novel The Moving Toyshop. All the major elements of the scene — the two men struggling, the accidentally shot attendant, the out-of-control merry-go-round, the crawling under the moving merry-go-round to disable it — are present in Crispin's account, though he received no screen credit for it. In Raymond Chandler's second draft script — which Hitchcock ceremoniously dropped into the wastebasket while daintily holding his nose — the final shot is Guy Haines, institutionalized, bound in a straitjacket. Reception Critical reception Upon its release in 1951, Strangers on a Train received mixed reviews. Variety praised it, writing: "Performance-wise, the cast comes through strongly. Granger is excellent as the harassed young man innocently involved in murder. Roman's role as a nice, understanding girl is a switch for her, and she makes it warmly effective. Walker's role has extreme color, and he projects it deftly." Conversely, Bosley Crowther of The New York Times criticized the film: "Mr. Hitchcock again is tossing a crazy murder story in the air and trying to con us into thinking that it will stand up without support. ... Perhaps there will be those in the audience who will likewise be terrified by the villain's darkly menacing warnings and by Mr. Hitchcock's sleekly melodramatic tricks. ... But, for all that, his basic premise of fear fired by menace is so thin and so utterly unconvincing that the story just does not stand." Leslie Halliwell felt that Hitchcock was "at his best" and that the film "makes superior suspense entertainment," but called the story "unsatisfactory." In contrast, modern reviews have been overwhelmingly positive. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 98% based on reviews from 52 critics, with an average rating of 8.80/10. The website's consensus reads, "A provocative premise and inventive set design lights the way for Hitchcock diabolically entertaining masterpiece." Roger Ebert has called Strangers on a Train a "first-rate thriller" that he considers one of Hitchcock's five best films. He added the film in his Great Movies list. In 2012, The Guardian praised the film writing "Hitchcock's study of the guilt that taints the human condition is just one cinematic masterstroke after another". David Keyes, writing at Cinemaphile in 2002, saw the film as a seminal entry in its genre: "Aside from its very evident approach as a crowd-pleasing popcorn flick, the movie is one of the original shells for identity-inspired mystery thrillers, in which natural human behavior is the driving force behind the true macabre rather than supernatural elements. Even classic endeavors like Fargo and A Simple Plan seem directly fueled by this concept..." Almar Haflidason was effusive about Strangers on a Train in 2001 at the BBC website: "Hitchcock's favourite device of an ordinary man caught in an ever-tightening web of fear plunges Guy into one of the director's most fiendishly effective movies. Ordinary Washington locations become sinister hunting grounds that mirror perfectly the creeping terror that slowly consumes Guy, as the lethally smooth Bruno relentlessly pursues him to a frenzied climax. Fast, exciting, and woven with wicked style, this is one of Hitchcock's most efficient and ruthlessly delicious thrillers." Patricia Highsmith's opinion of the film varied over time. She initially praised it, writing: "I am pleased in general. Especially with Bruno, who held the movie together as he did the book." Later in life, while still praising Robert Walker's performance as Bruno, she criticized the casting of Ruth Roman as Anne, Hitchcock's decision to turn Guy from an architect into a tennis player, and the fact that Guy does not murder Bruno's father as he does in the novel. Box office According to Warner Bros' records, the film earned $1,788,000 domestically and $1,144,000 in foreign territories. Accolades American Film Institute listed the film as #32 in AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills. Alternative versions An early preview edit of the film, sometimes labeled the "British" version although it was never released in Britain or anywhere else, includes some scenes either not in, or else different from, the film as released. According to biographer Charlotte Chandler (Lyn Erhard), Hitchcock himself did not like either the "British" or the "American" version: In 1997, Warner released the film onto DVD as a double sided disc, with the "British" version on one side, and the "Hollywood" version on the reverse. Between the two versions of the film, the "British" version most prominently omits the final scene on the train. A two-disc DVD edition was released in 2004 containing both versions of the film, this time with the "British" version titled "Preview Version" (102:49 long) and the "Hollywood" version titled "Final Release Version" (100:40 long). The film was later made available on Blu-ray in 2012 with the same contents as the 2004 DVD edition. Legacy Strangers on a Train was adapted for the radio program Lux Radio Theatre on two occasions: on December 3, 1951, with Ruth Roman, Frank Lovejoy, and Ray Milland, and on April 12, 1954, with Virginia Mayo, Dana Andrews, and Robert Cummings. BBC Radio 4's Afternoon Play broadcast on 29 September 2011 was Strangers on a Film by Stephen Wyatt, which gives an imagined account of a series of meetings between Hitchcock (Clive Swift) and Raymond Chandler (Patrick Stewart), as they unsuccessfully attempt to create the screenplay for Strangers on a Train. The 1987 film Throw Momma from the Train by Danny DeVito was inspired by Strangers on a Train, which is also watched by DeVito's character in the film. In 2021, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". See also Influence on Carol Burnett's Star on Hollywood Walk of Fame References Bibliography Further reading Hare, Bill. "Strangers on a Train: Hitchcock's Rich Imagery Reigning Supreme" on Noir of the Week, April 20, 2008. Schneider, Dan. "Strangers On A Train – DVD" on Culturevulture.net. External links Strangers on a Train on Lux Radio Theater: April 12, 1954 1950s crime thriller films 1950s psychological thriller films 1950s mystery films 1951 films American films American black-and-white films American crime thriller films American mystery films American psychological thriller films English-language films Film noir Films about murderers Films about psychopaths Films based on American novels Films based on thriller novels Films based on works by Patricia Highsmith Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock Films produced by Alfred Hitchcock Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin Films set in Washington, D.C. Films set in amusement parks Films shot in Connecticut Films shot in New York City Films shot in Washington, D.C. Films with screenplays by Raymond Chandler Rail transport films Tennis films United States National Film Registry films

261935

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Blassie

Freddie Blassie

Frederick Kenneth Blassman (February 8, 1918 – June 2, 2003), better known as "Classy" Freddie Blassie, was an American professional wrestling villain and manager. Renowned as "The Hollywood Fashion Plate", he was a one-time NWA World Junior Heavyweight Champion, and was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994. Childhood Blassie's parents, Jacob and Anna (née Sind), immigrated to the United States from Germany prior to the start of World War I, settling in St. Louis. Fred was an only child, which he claimed was because he weighed 15 pounds when he was born and his mother didn't want to go through childbirth again. His father was abusive and an alcoholic, and Fred often had to take refuge with his grandparents whenever Jacob would beat his mother. His parents continually separated, then reunited. At the age of 13, after his father hit his mother again, Fred threatened to attack his father with a baseball bat, but didn't do it and stayed with his aunt for six months until his mother asked him to return home. Throughout his life, Fred didn't touch alcohol after seeing what kind of person it turned his father into. As a teenager, Blassie went to McKinley High School; after graduating he got a job at a meatpacking plant, which his family hoped he would turn into a lucrative meat cutting job with the local trade union. However, he started boxing at Seward Community Center and won the heavyweight championship. He was more interested in wrestling, though, and would sneak into the matches whenever he could. He would often go to matches at Harry Cook's Gym to watch the hookers (wrestling shoot fighters) of the day lock up. As they began to recognize him, the wrestlers would teach him a hold here and there. His first wrestling match was actually a shoot fight which he accepted in order to impress a girl he brought to the show. Later, he began to get regular work wrestling at local carnivals. His cousin John Frank Holaus would often referee his matches. Early career Blassie came up with his famous "pencil-neck geek" catchphrase early in his career to describe a fellow carnival performer known as "The Geek", who bit the heads off chickens and snakes. Blassie described this geek as having a neck like a stack of dimes, and that he was a real pencil-neck geek. He soon got work from more established promoters: Tom Packs in St. Louis and George Simpson in Kansas City. Military service After the US entered World War II, Blassie enlisted in the Navy and served in the Pacific Theater for 42 months. He married a Jewish girl named Nettie Needles in California while on shore leave. He achieved the rank of petty officer second class before he was discharged. Career Upon Blassie's return from the war, he was billed as "Sailor" Fred Blassie to capitalize on the wave of war-time patriotism sweeping the country, but that gimmick was unsuccessful. He worked for Jack Pfefer, who he claimed would only employ people who looked like sideshow freaks at his shows, and whose wrestlers included Tor Johnson, who made movies with director Ed Wood, and Lillian Ellison, the Fabulous Moolah. During this time, he went to New York City to work for promoter Jess McMahon. NWA Los Angeles (1952–1953) In 1952, Blassie moved to Los Angeles to work for Jules Strongbow. He teamed with Billy McDaniel as the McDaniel Brothers, but when they went east, they were known as the Blassie Brothers. Georgia (1953–1960) In 1953, he worked in the Atlanta, territory for Paul Jones (the wrestler of the 1930s, not the wrestler/manager of the 1980s). While there, he won the NWA Georgia Southern Heavyweight Championship, the holder of which was generally first in line to challenge the NWA World Heavyweight Champion whenever he passed through the territory. It was also during this period of his career when he dropped his babyface gimmick and became a full-fledged heel. The fans consistently booed him because he was considered a "Yankee". He also bleached his hair at this time, as many of the other stars of the era did, such as Gorgeous George, Johnny Valentine, and "Nature Boy" Buddy Rogers. He was often billed as "The Vampire" during this time for biting his opponents and filing his teeth during interviews and promos. Worldwide Wrestling Associates (1960–1968) In 1960, Blassie returned to Strongbow's promotion in Los Angeles, where he was a big star for Worldwide Wrestling Associates (WWA) of southern California, drawing many fans to the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. He was so hated there that uniformed police officers were regularly brought in to protect him as he made his way to and from the ring. He had main event-level feuds against stars such as The Destroyer. On June 12, 1961, Blassie defeated the "Flying Frenchman" Édouard Carpentier in a best-of-three-falls match for his first WWA World Heavyweight Championship. On July 7, Blassie successfully defended his title against the former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Lou Thesz. During that same title reign, in a match against Lord James Blears a fan threw acid on his back, and he had to return immediately to the locker room to wash it off; he was also stabbed 21 times and lost vision in his right eye after being hit with a hard-boiled egg over the course of his career. Blassie lost the title to Rikidōzan on March 28, 1962. Blassie claims that he made Regis Philbin into the celebrity he is today. When Philbin had a late-night weekend talk show in San Diego, Blassie would routinely show up to yell at the audience, throw furniture, and threaten Philbin; both of them were friends when the camera's weren't rolling. In later years, Blassie also appeared on The Mike Douglas Show when Philbin was a guest host. After regaining the WWA Championship from Rikidōzan on July 25, 1962, Blassie lost the title two days later to the "Masked Destroyer" Dick Beyer. In 1963, Bearcat Wright defeated him to become champion, and it was quite a statement during the fight for civil rights that an African-American had won such a title. In 1964, Dick the Bruiser defeated Blassie to become champion, and Blassie headed east to work for the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). Blassie returned to WWA in 1968 just as promoter Mike LeBell decided to rejoin the NWA. In the early 1970s, Blassie "turned face", or became a good guy, since so many fans were cheering his famous antics. While there, he feuded with Soulman Rocky Johnson, The Sheik, and "The Golden Greek" John Tolos. One of his most famous feuds took place in southern California in 1971, against Tolos. The final match of their series took place in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, and set new California records for both attendance and gate. Japan (1962–1968) In 1962, Blassie had a feud with Japanese wrestling icon Rikidōzan that established his reputation in Japan. After Blassie lost the WWA World Heavyweight Championship to Rikidōzan in Los Angeles, the two had a rematch on live Japanese television. Many of the viewers were horrified by Blassie's treatment of their hero. One of Blassie's gimmicks was to file his teeth, and draw blood from his opponents by biting their foreheads. The sight of the Japanese legend covered in his own blood gave several viewers heart attacks, and some reportedly even died. Blassie divorced his wife after leaving on Christmas to wrestle in Knoxville. He claims he isn't sure if she knew of his philandering ways, but Blassie had repeatedly bragged of his infidelity to his ex-wife Nettie. As a result, of his three children Gary, Cheryl, and Ron, only Ron ever spoke to Blassie on a regular basis. While touring Japan in 1965, Blassie met the woman who would later become his third wife, Miyako Morozumi, at a train station. However, later that year Blassie suffered from kidney stones and had surgery to remove them. While recuperating the following year, he sold cars and married a second time to a woman whose name Blassie claimed not to remember. In 1968, Blassie returned to Japan and was reunited with Miyako. When he asked for her parents' blessing, they were unsure of Blassie because of his reputation with Rikidōzan and because he was 28 years older than she. However, he eventually got their blessing and took her home to the United States; they were married on September 30, 1968. World Wide Wrestling Federation (1964; 1971) In 1964, Blassie feuded with Bruno Sammartino and Bobo Brazil. Blassie came into the WWWF with his own world title belt, claiming to be the Pacific World Champion, and was coming to Sammartino's "back yard" to unify the world title. The series began at Roosevelt Stadium, Jersey City, New Jersey in 1964, with Blassie winning on a technicality, but not a pin. The rematches were held at Madison Square Garden in New York, with Sammartino winning out. He returned to the company in 1971, reaching the final of a tournament in January for the vacant WWWF United States Heavyweight Championship before losing to Pedro Morales. Blassie later challenged Morales for the WWWF Championship, but came up short. During this stint with the company, Blassie was managed by his future nemesis, "Captain" Lou Albano. Management career (1974–86) Blassie retired from active wrestling in 1974, due to a California law that prohibited anyone over 55 from getting a wrestling license. His knees were also in terrible condition, which also contributed to his retirement. Afterwards he became a manager in the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) and its subsequent incarnation the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). He performed for that promotion until his full retirement from professional wrestling in 1986. Blassie, Lou Albano, and The Grand Wizard were named "The Three Wise Men of the East", as the top three heel managers in the company. Among the men he managed were Nikolai Volkoff, The Iron Sheik, Blackjack Mulligan, High Chief Peter Maivia, "The Crippler" Ray Stevens, Adrian Adonis, Jesse Ventura, Dick Murdoch, Swede Hanson, Killer Khan, George 'The Animal' Steele, Professor Tanaka, Mr. Fuji, Ivan Koloff, Tor Kamata, Masa Saito, Lou Albano, Victor Rivera, Kamala, Hercules Hernandez, and Hulk Hogan. Blassie also managed Muhammad Ali in his boxer vs. wrestler match in 1976 against Antonio Inoki. Blassie also publicly represented Ali for media events and interviews for a period in the mid-1970s. One of Blassie's most famous proteges was The Iron Sheik. Blassie led Shiek to the WWF World Heavyweight Championship over Bob Backlund on December 26, 1983, in Madison Square Garden. After Sheik lost the belt to Blassie's former managed wrestler Hulk Hogan, Blassie managed Sheik in various rematches around the country throughout the first half of 1984, culminating into another major televised rematch on December 28, 1984, once again in Madison Square Garden. In this match Hogan was once again victorious. After managing Sheik through a brief feud with Andre the Giant, he also became the manager of Nikolai Volkoff, with Sheik and Volkoff later becoming a tag team. Blassie would gain even more gold when Volkoff and Sheik defeated The US Express for the WWF Tag Team Championship at the first ever Wrestlemania. Blassie got involved when he threw his cane into the ring, with Sheik and Volkoff using it to their advantage to gain the victory. When Gene Okerlund confronted Blassie in an interview after the match, Blassie said, "what cane, I didn't have no cane!" Blassie would continue to manage Sheik and Volkoff even after they lost the tag team titles. Blassie unsuccessfully campaigned along with the other managers to manage "Macho Man" Randy Savage when Savage first entered the WWF in June 1985. Blassie would continue to interfere from ringside in matches, especially during Volkoff's feud with Corporal Kirchner. Blassie's interference at Wrestlemania 2 cost Volkoff his match with Kirchner, when the cane was grabbed by Kirchner instead of Volkoff. In the summer of 1986, Blassie started to slowly phase himself out of the WWF and into retirement. On an episode of WWF Championship Wrestling, Blassie barged into the announcer booth to proclaim that he had sold half of the contracts of Sheik and Volkoff to a mysterious benefactor for a large sum of money. This benefactor was later revealed to be Slick. Blassie appeared alongside Slick to co-manage Sheik and Volkoff for a few television appearances before finally bowing out in November 1986, with Albano, the final member of the Three Wise Men, retiring a few weeks later. Because of his close relationship with Vince McMahon, Sr. and his family, Blassie remained on the WWF payroll until the day he died. He would sporadically return to make brief appearances following his retirement in 1986, mostly in produced video packages hyping the "new generation" of wrestling. He was given a commentary tryout in 1986 and 1987 for WWF Wrestling Challenge, calling a few matches with Gorilla Monsoon. He briefly turned face in 1989, making an appearance on Prime Time Wrestling angry with Bobby Heenan over money Heenan hadn't paid him back. He returned again in 1990 briefly to do color commentary for Prime Time in April with Vince McMahon, as an emergency fill-in after Tony Schiavone quit, playing a heel once again. Guest appearances and death Blassie was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 by Shane McMahon. In 1998, Blassie was the winner at the fourth annual Cauliflower Alley Club East Coast Banquet. In 1999, he was shown making the opening narration of Wrestlemania XV. In 2000, Blassie made an appearance at the Royal Rumble as a judge in the Miss Rumble 2000 Swimsuit contest, which was won by Mae Young. Blassie also appeared in the SummerSlam opening video. In 2001, Blassie appeared in a special July 16, 2001 Raw is War segment for the Invasion storyline, wherein he exhorts a gathering of WWF wrestlers to stand tall against The Alliance – and later gets mocked by Alliance leaders Shane and Stephanie McMahon. Because of this, Blassie is one of, if not the only man to have worked with all four generations of the McMahon family. Images from his Wrestlemania XV promo were also included in the opening of the 2001 Survivor Series. Blassie also appeared in a segment at the Vengeance pay-per-view event in December 2001, where an "undisputed" champion would be crowned. His final wrestling appearance was May 12, 2003 in Philadelphia on Monday Night Raw, three weeks before his death. The segment featured Blassie, his wife, and Raw GM Eric Bischoff, who was about to allow 3 Minute Warning to attack him, until Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Dudley Boyz stepped in. His final words on WWE television were "D-Von, get the table!", to a monstrous applause. His book, Listen You Pencil Neck Geeks, was released on May 13, 2003. On June 2, 2003, Blassie died of heart and kidney failure at the age of 85. His death was announced by Jim Ross, 20 minutes into that same day's episode of Raw. Music career In 1975, Blassie recorded voiceovers for the songs "Blassie, King of Men" and "Pencil Neck Geek", which were performed by Johnny Legend, featuring Billy Zoom on guitar, Jay Phillips on guitar, Lon Osgood on bass and Steve Clark on drums. They received acclaim on the Dr. Demento Radio Show, and the latter song was featured on several albums, including Dr. Demento's 20th Anniversary Collection, "The Very Best of Dr. Demento", and "Dr. Demento Presents the Greatest Novelty CDs of All Time". In 1983, Rhino Records released a 14-track album by Blassie, titled I Bite the Songs. Film career Blassie appeared in an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show that featured a new dance craze called The Twizzle. Rose Marie's character Sally Rogers brought him on at the end of the episode claiming to have discovered another new dance sensation. In the demonstration of the dance, Blassie picked up Rob Petrie and twirled him over his head. Filmed in 1982, My Breakfast with Blassie featured Andy Kaufman and Freddie Blassie eating at a Sambo's in Los Angeles. (The film was referenced by American rock band R.E.M. in their 1992 song about Kaufman, "Man on the Moon".) The movie’s title and premise are parodies of the 1981 art-house classic My Dinner with Andre. "Classy" Freddie Blassie appeared in a live-action segment of the cartoon "Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling." In the segment he is interviewed by "Mean" Gene Okerlund when the two are interrupted by a little old lady in a housekeeper outfit that Blassie claims to be his own mother. "Classy" Freddie Blassie also made a cameo appearance as himself, along with "Wrestling's Living Legend" Bruno Sammartino, and Ric Flair in the 1986 film Body Slam starring Dirk Benedict, "Captain" Lou Albano, and "Rowdy" Roddy Piper. In the early 1990s, the wrestler starred in a documentary directed by Jeff Krulik, titled Mr. Blassie Goes To Washington. In it, Blassie is picked up at the Washington, D.C., airport by a limo full of young women, escorted around the nation's capital, gives his opinions and confronts tourists. When meeting someone, he would ask where they were from, and no matter their response, he would reply with, "Oh, that's God's country!" Championships and accomplishments 50th State Big Time Wrestling NWA North American Heavyweight Championship (Hawaii version) (1 time) Cauliflower Alley Club Other honoree (1998) Championship Wrestling from Florida NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Florida version) (1 time) NWA World Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (1 time) – with Tarzan Tyler Mid-South Sports NWA Georgia Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA International Tag Team Championship (Georgia version) (3 times) – with Kurt von Brauner (1), Bob Shipp (1) and Eric Pederson (1) NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version) (17 times) NWA World Tag Team Championship (Georgia version) (2 times) – with Bill Blassie National Wrestling Alliance NWA Hall of Fame (Class of 2011) NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) North American Wrestling Alliance/Worldwide Wrestling Associates/ NWA Hollywood Wrestling NAWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (4 times) NWA Americas Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Don Carson WWA Americas Heavyweight Championship (1 time) WWA International Television Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Mr. Moto (2) and Don Leo Jonathan (1) WWA World Heavyweight Championship (4 times) WWA World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Mr. Moto (1), and Buddy Austin (1) NWA Mid-America NWA Southern Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI Stanley Weston Award (2000) Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Television Era (Class of 2004) World Wrestling Federation WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1994) Slammy Award (1 time) Lifetime Achievement Award (1996) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Worst Worked Match of the Year (1985) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996) References External links 1853 Shepherd Circle SW, Blassie's Atlanta home (1960) 1950 Campbellton Road SW, Blassies Atlanta home (1966) WWE Hall of Fame Profile of Freddie Blassie The Other Arena biography covering his wrestling years 1918 births 2003 deaths American male professional wrestlers American people of German descent Andy Kaufman Deaths from kidney failure Professional wrestlers from Missouri Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum Professional wrestling managers and valets Sportspeople from St. Louis United States Navy personnel of World War II United States Navy sailors WWE Hall of Fame inductees

263996

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axeman%20of%20New%20Orleans

Axeman of New Orleans

The Axeman of New Orleans was an American serial killer active in New Orleans, Louisiana, and surrounding communities, including Gretna, from May 1918 to October 1919. Press reports during the height of public panic about the killings mentioned similar murders as early as 1911, but recent researchers have called these reports into question. The Axeman was never identified, and the murders remain unsolved. He mainly targeted Italian immigrants and Italian-Americans. Background As the killer's epithet implies, the victims usually were attacked with an axe, which often belonged to the victims themselves. In most cases, a panel on a back door of a home was removed by a chisel, which along with the panel was left on the floor near the door. The intruder then attacked one or more of the residents with either an axe or straight razor. The crimes were not motivated by robbery, and the perpetrator never removed items from his victims' homes. The majority of the Axeman's victims were Italian immigrants or Italian-Americans, leading many to believe that the crimes were ethnically motivated. Many media outlets sensationalized this aspect of the crimes, even suggesting Mafia involvement despite lack of evidence. Some crime analysts have suggested that the killings were related to sex, and that the murderer was perhaps a sadist specifically seeking female victims. Criminologists Colin and Damon Wilson hypothesize that the Axeman killed male victims only when they obstructed his attempts to murder women, supported by cases in which the woman of the household was murdered but not the man. A less plausible theory is that the killer committed the murders in an attempt to promote jazz music, suggested by a letter attributed to the killer in which he stated that he would spare the lives of those who played jazz in their homes. The Axeman was not caught or identified, and his crime spree stopped as mysteriously as it had started. The murderer's identity remains unknown to this day, although various possible identifications of varying plausibility have been proposed. On March 13, 1919, a letter purporting to be from the Axeman was published in newspapers, saying that he would kill again at 15 minutes past midnight on the night of March 19 but would spare the occupants of any place where a jazz band was playing. That night all of New Orleans' dance halls were filled to capacity, and professional and amateur bands played jazz at parties at hundreds of houses around town. There were no murders that night. Hell, March 13, 1919 Esteemed Mortal: They have never caught me and they never will. They have never seen me, for I am invisible, even as the ether that surrounds your earth. I am not a human being, but a spirit and a demon from the hottest hell. I am what you Orleanians and your foolish police call the Axeman. When I see fit, I shall come and claim other victims. I alone know whom they shall be. I shall leave no clue except my bloody axe, besmeared with blood and brains of he whom I have sent below to keep me company. If you wish you may tell the police to be careful not to rile me. Of course, I am a reasonable spirit. I take no offense at the way they have conducted their investigations in the past. In fact, they have been so utterly stupid as to not only amuse me, but His Satanic Majesty, Francis Josef, etc. But tell them to beware. Let them not try to discover what I am, for it were better that they were never born than to incur the wrath of the Axeman. I don't think there is any need of such a warning, for I feel sure the police will always dodge me, as they have in the past. They are wise and know how to keep away from all harm. Undoubtedly, you Orleanians think of me as a most horrible murderer, which I am, but I could be much worse if I wanted to. If I wished, I could pay a visit to your city every night. At will I could slay thousands of your best citizens, for I am in close relationship with the Angel of Death. Now, to be exact, at 12:15 (earthly time) on next Tuesday night, I am going to pass over New Orleans. In my infinite mercy, I am going to make a little proposition to you people. Here it is: I am very fond of jazz music, and I swear by all the devils in the nether regions that every person shall be spared in whose home a jazz band is in full swing at the time I have just mentioned. If everyone has a jazz band going, well, then, so much the better for you people. One thing is certain and that is that some of your people who do not jazz it out on that specific Tuesday night (if there be any) will get the axe. Well, as I am cold and crave the warmth of my native Tartarus, and it is about time I leave your earthly home, I will cease my discourse. Hoping that thou wilt publish this, that it may go well with thee, I have been, am and will be the worst spirit that ever existed either in fact or realm of fantasy. -The Axeman Suspects Crime writer Colin Wilson speculates the Axeman could have been Joseph Momfre, a man shot to death in Los Angeles in December 1920 by the widow of Mike Pepitone, the Axeman's last known victim. Wilson's theory has been widely repeated in other true crime books and websites. However, true crime writer Michael Newton searched New Orleans and Los Angeles public, police and court records as well as newspaper archives, and failed to find any evidence of a man with the name "Joseph Momfre" (or a similar name) having been assaulted or killed in Los Angeles. Newton was also not able to find any information that Mrs. Pepitone (identified in some sources as Esther Albano, and in others simply as a "woman who claimed to be Pepitone's widow") was arrested, tried or convicted for such a crime, or indeed had been in California. Newton notes that "Momfre" was not an unusual surname in New Orleans at the time of the crimes. It appears that there actually may have been an individual named Joseph Momfre or Mumfre in New Orleans who had a criminal history, and who may have been connected with organized crime; however, local records for the period are not extensive enough to allow confirmation of this, or to positively identify the individual. Wilson's explanation is an urban legend, and there is no more evidence now on the identity of the killer than there was at the time of the crimes. Two of the alleged "early" victims of the Axeman, an Italian couple named Schiambra, were shot by an intruder in their Lower Ninth Ward home in the early morning hours of May 16, 1912. The male Schiambra survived while his wife died. In newspaper accounts, the prime suspect is referred to by the name of "Momfre" more than once. While radically different than the Axeman's usual modus operandi, if Joseph Momfre was indeed the Axeman, the Schiambras may well have been early victims of the future serial killer. According to scholar Richard Warner, the chief suspect in the crimes was Frank "Doc" Mumphrey (1875–1921), who used the alias Leon Joseph Monfre/Manfre. Victims Joseph Maggio, an Italian grocer, and his wife Catherine were attacked on May 23, 1918, while sleeping alongside each other, at their home on the corner of Upperline and Magnolia Streets where they conducted a barroom and grocery. The killer broke into the home, and then proceeded to cut the couple's throats with a straight razor. Upon leaving he bashed their heads with an axe, perhaps in order to conceal the real cause of death. Joseph survived the attack, but died minutes after being discovered by his brothers, Jake and Andrew. In the apartment, law enforcement agents found the bloody clothes of the murderer, as he had obviously changed into a clean set of clothes before fleeing the scene. A complete search of the premises was not completed by police after the bodies were removed, yet later the bloody razor was found on the lawn of a neighboring property. Police ruled out robbery as motivation for the attacks, as money and valuables left in plain sight were not stolen by the intruder. The razor used to kill the couple was found to belong to Andrew Maggio, the brother of the deceased who conducted a barber shop on Camp Street. His employee, Esteban Torres, told police that Maggio had removed the razor from his shop two days prior to the murder, explaining that he had wanted to have a nick honed from the blade. Maggio, who lived in the adjoining apartment to his brother's residence, discovered his slain brother and sister-in-law roughly two hours after the gruesome attacks had occurred, upon hearing strange groaning noises through the wall. Maggio blamed his failure to hear any noise related to the attacks that had occurred in the early morning hours on his intoxicated state, as he had returned home after a night of celebration prior to his departure to join the navy; police, however, were nonetheless surprised that he failed to hear the intruder, as he made a forced entry into the home. Andrew Maggio became the police chief's prime suspect in the crime, yet was released after investigators were unable to break down his statement, as well as his account of an unknown man who was supposedly seen lurking near the residence prior to the murders. Catherine Maggio was the wife of Joseph Maggio. Her throat was cut so deeply that her head was nearly severed from her shoulders. Unlike Joseph, Catherine did not survive long after the attack, if at all, and died before her husband's brothers found them. Louis Besumer and his mistress Harriet Lowe were attacked in the early morning hours of June 27, 1918, in the quarters at the back of his grocery which was located at the corner of Dorgenois and Laharpe Streets. Besumer was struck with a hatchet above his right temple, which resulted in a possible skull fracture. Lowe was hacked over the left ear, and found unconscious when police arrived at the scene. The couple was discovered shortly after 7 AM on the morning of the attack by John Zanca, a driver of a bakery wagon who had come to the grocery in order to make a routine delivery. Zanca found both Besumer and Lowe in a puddle of their own blood, both bleeding from their heads. The axe, which had belonged to Besumer himself, was found in the bathroom of the apartment. Besumer later stated to police that he had been sleeping when he was bashed with the hatchet. Almost immediately, police arrested potential suspect Lewis Oubicon, a then 41-year-old African American man who had been employed in Besumer's store just a week before the attacks. No evidence existed which could have proved the man guilty, yet police arrested him nonetheless, stating that Oubicon had offered conflicting accounts of his whereabouts on the morning of the attack. Shortly after the attempted murder Lowe stated that she remembered having been attacked by a mulatto man, yet her statement was discounted by police due to her disillusioned state. Robbery was said to be the only possible explanation for the attacks, yet no money or valuables were removed from the couple's home. Oubicon was later released as police were unable to gather sufficient evidence to hold him accountable for the crimes. Media attention soon turned to Besumer himself, as a series of letters written in German, Russian, and Yiddish were discovered in a trunk at the man's home. Police suspected that Besumer was a German spy, and government officials began a full investigation of his potential espionage. Weeks later, after going in and out of consciousness, Harriet Lowe told police that she thought Besumer was in fact a German spy, which led to his immediate arrest. Two days later Besumer was released, and two lead investigators of the case were demoted due to unacceptable police work. Besumer was once again arrested in August 1918, after Harriet Lowe, who lay dying in Charity Hospital after a failed surgery, stated that it was he who had attacked her more than a month previously with his hatchet. He was charged with murder, and served nine months in prison before being acquitted on May 1, 1919, after a ten-minute jury deliberation. Harriet Lowe was attacked while in bed with Louis Besumer. As is mentioned previously, Lowe was hacked above her left ear and found unconscious at the scene of the crime before she was rushed to Charity Hospital. Lowe became the center of a media circus, as she continually made scandalous and often false statements relating to both the attacks and the character of Louis Besumer, some of which are described in the preceding description. The Times-Picayune sensationalized Lowe and her outspoken nature upon discovering that she was not the wife of Besumer, but his mistress. A Charity Hospital source discovered the scandal, when Besumer asked to be directed to the room of "Mrs. Harriet Lowe," and was inevitably denied access as no woman by that name was a patient. Besumer's legal wife arrived from Cincinnati in the days immediately following the discovery, which further inflamed the ongoing drama. Lowe further gained media attention as she repeatedly made statements which voiced her dislike of the New Orleans chief of police, as well as her reluctance to comply with police questioning. After the truth of her marital status was revealed publicly, Lowe told reporters from the Times-Picayune that she would no longer aid the police in their investigation, as she suspected that it had been Chief Mooney who first informed the press of the scandal. Despite the scandal, and her delirious statements which suggested that Besumer was a German spy, Lowe returned to the home she shared with Besumer weeks after the attack. One side of her face was partially paralyzed due to the severity of the attack. Lowe died August 5, 1918, just two days after doctors performed surgery in an effort to repair her partially paralyzed face. Just prior to her death, Lowe told authorities that she suspected it was Louis Besumer who had attacked her. Anna Schneider was attacked in the early evening hours of August 5, 1918. The 8 months pregnant, 28-year-old of Elmira Street awoke to find a dark figure standing over her and was bashed in the face repeatedly. Her scalp had been cut open, and her face was completely covered in blood. Mrs. Schneider was discovered after midnight by her husband, Ed Schneider, who was returning late from work. Schneider claimed that she remembered nothing of the attack, and gave birth to a healthy baby girl two days after the incident. Her husband told police that nothing was stolen from the home, besides six or seven dollars that had been in his wallet. The windows and doors of the apartment appear to have not been forced open, and authorities came to the conclusion that the woman was most likely attacked with a lamp that had been on a nearby table. James Gleason, who police said was an ex-convict, was arrested shortly after Schneider was found. Gleason was later released due to a complete lack of evidence, and stated that he originally ran from authorities because he had so often been arrested. Lead investigators began to publicly speculate that the attack was related to the previous incidents involving Besumer and Maggio. Joseph Romano was an elderly man living with his two nieces, Pauline and Mary Bruno. On August 10, 1918, Pauline and Mary awoke to the sound of a commotion in the adjoining room where their uncle resided. Upon entering the room, the sisters discovered that their uncle had taken a serious blow to his head, which resulted in two open cuts. The assailant was fleeing the scene as they arrived, yet the girls were able to distinguish that he was a dark-skinned, heavy-set man, who wore a dark suit and slouched hat. Romano, although seriously injured, was able to walk to the ambulance once it arrived, yet died two days later due to severe head trauma. The home had been ransacked, yet no items were stolen from Romano. Authorities found a bloody axe in the back yard and discovered that a panel on the back door had been chiseled away. The Romano murder created a state of extreme chaos in the city, with residents living in constant fear of an axeman attack. Police received a slew of reports, in which citizens claimed to have seen an axeman lurking in New Orleans neighborhoods. A few men even called to report that they had found axes in their back yards. John Dantonio, a then-retired Italian detective, made public statements in which he hypothesized that the man who had committed the axeman murders was the same who had killed several individuals in 1911. The retired detective cited similarities in the manner by which the two sets of homicides had been committed, as reason to assume that they had been conducted by the same individual. Dantonio described the potential killer as an individual of dual personalities, who killed without motive. This type of individual, Dantonio stated, could very likely have been a normal, law-abiding citizen, who was often overcome by an overwhelming desire to kill. He later went on to describe the killer as a real-life "Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde". Charles Cortimiglia was an Italian immigrant who lived with his wife, Rosie, and infant daughter, Mary, on the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Second Street in Gretna, Louisiana, a New Orleans suburb across the Mississippi River. On the night of March 10, 1919, screams were heard coming from the Cortimiglia residence. Grocer Iorlando Jordano rushed across the street to investigate. Upon his arrival, Jordano noticed that Charles Cortimiglia, his wife, and their daughter had all been attacked by the unknown intruder. Rosie stood in the doorway with a serious head wound, clutching her deceased daughter. Charles lay on the floor, bleeding profusely. The couple was rushed to Charity Hospital, where it was discovered that both had suffered skull fractures. Nothing was stolen from the house, but a panel on the back door had been chiseled away and a bloody axe was found on the back porch of the home. Charles was released two days later, while his wife remained in the care of doctors. Upon gaining full consciousness, Rosie made claims that Iorlando Jordano and his 18-year-old son, Frank, were responsible for the attacks. Iorlando, a 69-year-old man, was in too poor of health to have committed the crimes. Frank Jordano, more than six feet tall and weighing over 200 pounds, would have been too large to have fit through the panel on the back door. Charles Cortimiglia vehemently denied his wife's claims, yet police nonetheless arrested the two and charged them with the murder. The men would later be found guilty. Frank was sentenced to hang, and his father to life in prison. Charles Cortimiglia divorced his wife after the trial. Almost a year later, Rosie announced that she had falsely accused the two out of jealousy and spite. Her statement was the only evidence against the Jordanos, and they were released from jail shortly thereafter. Rosie Cortimiglia was the wife of immigrant laborer Charles Cortimiglia. She was attacked alongside her husband on March 10, 1919, while sleeping with her baby in her arms. She was badly wounded by the axeman, but survived the incident. Mary Cortimiglia was the two-year-old daughter of Charles and Rosie Cortimiglia. She was killed while sleeping in her mother's arms with a single blow to the back of the neck when she and her parents were attacked on March 10, 1919. Steve Boca, a grocer, was attacked in his bedroom as he slept by an axe-wielding intruder on August 10, 1919. Boca awoke during the night to find a dark figure looming over his bed. Upon regaining consciousness, Boca ran to the street to investigate the intrusion, and found that his head had been cracked open. The grocer ran to the home of his neighbor, Frank Genusa, where he lost consciousness and collapsed. Nothing had been taken from the home, yet, once again, a panel on the back door of the home had been chiseled away. Boca recovered from his injuries, but could not remember any details of the trauma. This attack took place after the emergence of the infamous axeman letter. Sarah Laumann was attacked on the night of September 3, 1919. Neighbors came to check on the young woman, who had lived alone, and broke into the home when Laumann did not answer. They discovered the 19-year-old lying unconscious on her bed, suffering from a severe head injury and missing several teeth. The intruder had entered the apartment through an open window, and attacked the woman with a blunt object. A bloody axe was discovered on the front lawn of the building. Laumann recovered from her injuries, yet couldn't recall any details from the attack. Mike Pepitone was attacked on the night of October 27, 1919. His wife was awakened by a noise and arrived at the door of his bedroom just as a large, axe-wielding man was fleeing the scene. Mike Pepitone had been struck in the head, and was covered in his own blood. Blood spatter covered the majority of the room, including a painting of the Virgin Mary. Mrs. Pepitone, the mother of six children, was unable to describe any characteristics of the killer. The Pepitone murder was the last of the alleged axeman attacks. In popular culture In 1919, local tune writer Joseph John Davilla wrote the song, "The Mysterious Axman's Jazz (Don't Scare Me Papa)". Published by New Orleans based World's Music Publishing Company, the cover depicted a family playing music with frightened looks on their faces. The 1945 book Gumbo Ya-Ya, A Collection of Louisiana Folk Tales includes a chapter on the Axeman entitled "Axeman's Jazz", which helped spark renewed interest in the murders. The book also reproduced the cover of the 1919 sheet music. The Australian rock band Beasts of Bourbon released an album in 1984 called The Axeman's Jazz. Writer Julie Smith used a fictionalized version of the Axeman events in her 1991 novel The Axeman's Jazz. The Axeman killings are also referred to in the short story "Mussolini and the Axeman's Jazz" by Poppy Z. Brite, published in 1997. In Chuck Palahniuk's 2005 novel Haunted, the Axeman is mentioned in Sister Vigilante's short story. The 2007 song "Deathjazz" by Las Vegas progressive rock band One Ton Project parallels the story of the Axeman. A sentence from the Axeman's letter to The Times-Picayune is spoken at the beginning of Fila Brazillia's song "Tunstall and Californian Haddock." Christopher Farnsworth's 2012 novel Red, White, and Blood centers on a murderous spirit called the Boogeyman, which has inhabited numerous bodies throughout history, including the Axeman of New Orleans. Ray Celestin's 2014 novel The Axeman's Jazz is a fictionalized version of the Axeman of New Orleans's case. In American Horror Story: Coven, starting with episode "The Axeman Cometh", the Axeman is portrayed by Danny Huston. The Axeman is mentioned in Season 3, Episode 5 and Season 4, Episode 6 of The Originals. The Axeman is portrayed in Hildred Rex's short story, A Slinking Agent of the Devil (at 3AM), Opus 1 of the dark fiction anthology, The Egg. My Favorite Murder, a true crime podcast, covered the story of the Axeman on their 60th episode entitled "Jazz It". Stuff You Missed In History Class did a two-part miniseries on the Axeman in which they toyed with the idea of his murderous acts having begun prior to 1918. Unsolved Murders, a true crime podcast, did a three-part miniseries on the Axeman of New Orleans, ending with their opinions of who the hosts think were responsible. And That's Why We Drink, a paranormal and true crime podcast, did an episode on The Axeman on its 39th episode, "A Girl Named German and La La Land 1 1/2." On the 13th Eisregen released the song "Axtmann", who tells of the crime. BuzzFeed Unsolved, a YouTube series that delves into unsolved true crime cases and the supernatural, explored stories and theories regarding the Axeman in S2E1, "The Terrifying Axeman of New Orleans". Alan G. Gauthreaux, author and historian, presented a comprehensive profile of the Axeman Murders in his book, Italian Louisiana: History, Heritage, and Tradition, published in 2014. Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, a news satire program, mentioned The Axeman on episode 13 of season 6, titled "Medical Devices." John Oliver gave a brief history of the Axeman after showing a DePuy sales team celebrating their successful numbers for a hip device, which would later be recalled. The celebration was Mardi Gras themed, and included a man dressed up as The Axeman. Squirrel Nut Zippers, an American Jazz band, released a song called "Axeman Jazz (Don't Scare Me Papa)" on their 2018 album, "Beasts of Burgundy". In the Virtual Reality game The Walking Dead: Saints and Sinners multiple references to the axeman can be found. A character references him in dialogue, and a special ax can be found in a safe with the phrase "the axeman cometh" on the side. There is a reference to him liking jazz, as well as his famous quote from the infamous Axeman's Letter which is used to describe the special axe that can be found, known as the Esteemed Mortal. See also Clementine Barnabet, early 20th century Louisiana voodoo priestess and axe murderer. Shotgun Man General: List of fugitives from justice who disappeared List of serial killers in the United States References Bibliography The Axman Came from Hell External links Vice interview of Miriam C. Davis about the Axeman murders Prairie Ghosts: The Axeman of New Orleans 1919: A serial killer had New Orleans on edge Times-Picayune Fresh Hell Podcast: The Axeman of New Orleans 1918 crimes in the United States 1918 in Louisiana 1919 crimes in the United States 1919 in Louisiana 20th century in New Orleans American murderers of children American serial killers Axe murder Fugitives wanted by the United States History of Louisiana Mass stabbings in the United States Murder in Louisiana People from New Orleans Unidentified serial killers Unsolved murders in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised%20explosive%20device

Improvised explosive device

An improvised explosive device (IED) is a bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional military action. It may be constructed of conventional military explosives, such as an artillery shell, attached to a detonating mechanism. IEDs are commonly used as roadside bombs, or homemade bombs. IEDs are generally seen in terrorist actions or in asymmetric unconventional warfare by insurgent guerrillas or commando forces in a theatre of operations. In the Iraq War (2003–2011) insurgents used IEDs extensively against U.S.-led forces and, by the end of 2007, IEDs were responsible for approximately 63% of coalition deaths in Iraq. They were also used in Afghanistan by insurgent groups, and have caused over 66% of coalition casualties in the 2001–2021 Afghanistan War. IEDs were also used frequently by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka during the Sri Lankan Civil War. Background An IED is a bomb fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy or incapacitate personnel or vehicles. In some cases, IEDs are used to distract, disrupt, or delay an opposing force, facilitating another type of attack. IEDs may incorporate military or commercially sourced explosives, and often combine both types, or they may otherwise be made with homemade explosives (HME). An HME lab refers to a Homemade Explosive Lab, or the physical location where the devices are crafted. An IED has five components: a switch (activator), an initiator (fuse), container (body), charge (explosive), and a power source (battery). An IED designed for use against armoured targets such as personnel carriers or tanks will be designed for armour penetration, by using a shaped charge that creates an explosively formed penetrator. IEDs are extremely diverse in design and may contain many types of initiators, detonators, penetrators, and explosive loads. Antipersonnel IEDs typically also contain fragmentation-generating objects such as nails, ball bearings or even small rocks to cause wounds at greater distances than blast pressure alone could. In the conflicts of the 21st century, anti-personnel improvised explosive devices (IED) have partially replaced conventional or military landmines as the source of injury to dismounted (pedestrian) soldiers and civilians. These injuries were reported in BMJ Open to be far worse with IEDs than with landmines resulting in multiple limb amputations and lower body mutilation. This combination of injuries has been given the name "Dismounted Complex Blast Injury" and is thought to be the worst survivable injury ever seen in war. IEDs are triggered by various methods, including remote control, infrared or magnetic triggers, pressure-sensitive bars or trip wires (victim-operated). In some cases, multiple IEDs are wired together in a daisy chain to attack a convoy of vehicles spread out along a roadway. IEDs made by inexperienced designers or with substandard materials may fail to detonate, and in some cases, they detonate on either the maker or the placer of the device. Some groups, however, have been known to produce sophisticated devices constructed with components scavenged from conventional munitions and standard consumer electronics components, such as mobile phones, consumer-grade two-way radios, washing machine timers, pagers, or garage door openers. The sophistication of an IED depends on the training of the designer and the tools and materials available. IEDs may use artillery shells or conventional high-explosive charges as their explosive load as well as homemade explosives. However, the threat exists that toxic chemical, biological, or radioactive (dirty bomb) material may be added to a device, thereby creating other life-threatening effects beyond the shrapnel, concussive blasts and fire normally associated with bombs. Chlorine liquid has been added to IEDs in Iraq, producing clouds of chlorine gas. A vehicle-borne IED, or VBIED, is a military term for a car bomb or truck bomb but can be any type of transportation such as a bicycle, motorcycle, donkey (), etc. They are typically employed by insurgents in particular, ISIS, and can carry a relatively large payload. They can also be detonated from a remote location. VBIED's can create additional shrapnel through the destruction of the vehicle itself and use vehicle fuel as an incendiary weapon. The act of a person's being in this vehicle and detonating it is known as an SVBIED suicide. Of increasing popularity among insurgent forces in Iraq, is the house-borne IED, or HBIED from the common military practice of clearing houses; insurgents rig an entire house to detonate and collapse shortly after a clearing squad has entered. By warhead The Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (JCS Pub 1-02) includes two definitions for improvised devices: improvised explosive devices (IED) and improvised nuclear device (IND). These definitions address the Nuclear and Explosive in CBRNe. That leaves chemical, biological and radiological undefined. Four definitions have been created to build on the structure of the JCS definition. Terms have been created to standardize the language of first responders and members of the military and to correlate the operational picture. Explosive A device placed or fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract. It may incorporate military stores, but is normally devised from non-military components. Explosively formed penetrator/projectiles (EFPs) IEDs have been deployed in the form of explosively formed projectiles (EFP), a special type of shaped charge that is effective at long standoffs from the target (50 meters or more), however they are not accurate at long distances. This is because of how they are produced. The large "slug" projected from the explosion has no stabilization because it has no tail fins and it does not spin like a bullet from a rifle. Without this stabilization the trajectory can not be accurately determined beyond 50 meters. An EFP is essentially a cylindrical shaped charge with a machined concave metal disc (often copper) in front, pointed inward. The force of the shaped charge turns the disc into a high velocity slug, capable of penetrating the armor of most vehicles in Iraq. Directionally focused charges Directionally focused charges (also known as directionally focused fragmentary charges depending on the construction) are very similar to EFPs, with the main difference being that the top plate is usually flat and not concave. It also is not made with machined copper but much cheaper cast or cut metal. When made for fragmentation, the contents of the charge are usually nuts, bolts, ball bearings and other similar shrapnel products and explosive. If it only consists of the flat metal plate, it is known as a platter charge, serving a similar role as an EFP with reduced effect but easier construction. Chemical A device incorporating the toxic attributes of chemical materials designed to result in the dispersal of toxic chemical materials for the purpose of creating a primary patho-physiological toxic effect (morbidity and mortality), or secondary psychological effect (causing fear and behavior modification) on a larger population. Such devices may be fabricated in a completely improvised manner or may be an improvised modification to an existing weapon. Biological A device incorporating biological materials designed to result in the dispersal of vector borne biological material for the purpose of creating a primary patho-physiological toxic effect (morbidity and mortality), or secondary psychological effect (causing fear and behavior modification) on a larger population. Such devices are fabricated in a completely improvised manner. Incendiary A device making use of exothermic chemical reactions designed to result in the rapid spread of fire for the purpose of creating a primary patho-physiological effect (morbidity and mortality), or secondary psychological effect (causing fear and behavior modification) on a larger population or it may be used with the intent of gaining a tactical advantage. Such devices may be fabricated in a completely improvised manner or may be an improvised modification to an existing weapon. A common type of this is the Molotov cocktail. Radiological A speculative device incorporating radioactive materials designed to result in the dispersal of radioactive material for the purpose of area denial and economic damage, and/or for the purpose of creating a primary patho-physiological toxic effect (morbidity and mortality), or secondary psychological effect (causing fear and behavior modification) on a larger population. Such devices may be fabricated in a completely improvised manner or may be an improvised modification to an existing nuclear weapon. Also called a Radiological Dispersion Device (RDD) or "dirty bomb". Nuclear Improvised nuclear device of most likely gun-type or implosion-type. By delivery mechanism Car A vehicle may be laden with explosives, set to explode by remote control or by a passenger/driver, commonly known as a car bomb or vehicle-borne IED (VBIED, pronounced vee-bid). On occasion the driver of the car bomb may have been coerced into delivery of the vehicle under duress, a situation known as a proxy bomb. Distinguishing features are low-riding vehicles with excessive weight, vehicles with only one passenger, and ones where the interior of the vehicles look as if they have been stripped down and built back up. Car bombs can carry thousands of pounds of explosives and may be augmented with shrapnel to increase fragmentation. The U.S. State Department has published a guide on car bomb awareness. ISIS has used truck bombs with devastating effects. Boat Boats laden with explosives can be used against ships and areas connected to water. An early example of this type was the Japanese Shinyo suicide boats during World War II. The boats were filled with explosives and attempted to ram Allied ships, sometimes successfully, having sunk or severely damaged several American ships by war's end. Suicide bombers used a boat-borne IED to attack the USS Cole; US and UK troops have also been killed by boat-borne IEDs in Iraq. The Tamil Tigers Sea Tigers have also been known to use SWBIEDs during the Sri Lankan Civil War. Animal Monkeys and war pigs were used as incendiaries around 1000 AD. More famously the "anti-tank dog" and "bat bomb" were developed during World War II. In recent times, a two-year-old child and seven other people were killed by explosives strapped to a horse in the town of Chita in Colombia The carcasses of certain animals were also used to conceal explosive devices by the Iraqi insurgency. Collar IEDs strapped to the necks of farmers have been used on at least three occasions by guerrillas in Colombia, as a way of extortion. American pizza delivery man Brian Douglas Wells was killed in 2003 by an explosive fastened to his neck, purportedly under duress from the maker of the bomb. In 2011 a schoolgirl in Sydney, Australia had a suspected collar bomb attached to her by an attacker in her home. The device was removed by police after a ten-hour operation and proved to be a hoax. Suicide Suicide bombing usually refers to an individual wearing explosives and detonating them to kill others including themselves, the bomber will conceal explosives on and around their person, commonly using a vest, and will use a timer or some other trigger to detonate the explosives. The logic behind such attacks is the belief that an IED delivered by a human has a greater chance of achieving success than any other method of attack. In addition, there is the psychological impact of child soldiers prepared to deliberately sacrifice themselves for their cause. Surgically implanted In May 2012 American counter-terrorism officials leaked their acquisition of documents describing the preparation and use of surgically implanted improvised explosive devices. The devices were designed to evade detection. The devices were described as containing no metal, so they could not be detected by X-rays. Security officials referred to bombs being surgically implanted into suicide bombers' "love handles". According to the Daily Mirror UK security officials at MI-6 asserted that female bombers could travel undetected carrying the explosive chemicals in otherwise standard breast implants. The bomber would blow up the implanted explosives by injecting a chemical trigger. Robot Robots could also be used to carry explosives. First such documented case was during the aftermath of 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers when a bomb disposal robot was used to deliver explosives to kill Micah Xavier Johnson, who was hiding in a place inaccessible to police snipers. As well, drones carrying explosives were used in a suspected assassination attempt against Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro in 2018. Tunnel ISIS and Al-Nusra have used bombs detonated in tunnels dug under targets. Improvised rocket In 2008, rocket-propelled IEDs, dubbed Improvised Rocket Assisted Munitions, Improvised Rocket Assisted Mortars and (IRAM) by the military, came to be employed in numbers against U.S. forces in Iraq. They have been described as propane tanks packed with explosives and powered by 107 mm rockets. They are similar to some Provisional IRA barrack buster mortars. New types of IRAMs including Volcano IRAM and Elephant Rockets, are used during the Syrian Civil War. Improvised mortar Improvised mortars have been used by many insurgent groups including during the civil war in Syria and Boko Haram insurgency. IRA used improvised mortars called barrack busters. Improvised artillery including hell cannons are used by rebel forces during Syrian Civil War. By trigger mechanism Wire Command-wire improvised, explosive devices (CWIED) use an electrical firing cable that affords the user complete control over the device right up until the moment of initiation. Radio The trigger for a radio-controlled improvised explosive device (RCIED) is controlled by radio link. The device is constructed so that the receiver is connected to an electrical firing circuit and the transmitter operated by the perpetrator at a distance. A signal from the transmitter causes the receiver to trigger a firing pulse that operates the switch. Usually the switch fires an initiator; however, the output may also be used to remotely arm an explosive circuit. Often the transmitter and receiver operate on a matched coding system that prevents the RCIED from being initiated by spurious radio frequency signals or jamming. An RCIED can be triggered from any number of different radio-frequency based mechanisms including handheld remote control transmitters, car alarms, wireless door bells, cell phones, pagers and portable two-way radios, including those designed for the UHF PMR446, FRS, and GMRS services. Mobile phone A radio-controlled IED (RCIED) incorporating a mobile phone that is modified and connected to an electrical firing circuit. Mobile phones operate in the UHF band in line of sight with base transceiver station (BTS) antennae sites. In the common scenario, receipt of a paging signal by phone is sufficient to initiate the IED firing circuit. Victim-operated Victim-operated improvised explosive devices (VOIED), also known as booby traps, are designed to function upon contact with a victim. VOIED switches are often well hidden from the victim or disguised as innocuous everyday objects. They are operated by means of movement. Switching methods include tripwire, pressure mats, spring-loaded release, push, pull or tilt. Common forms of VOIED include the under-vehicle IED (UVIED), improvised landmines, and mail bombs. Infrared The British accused Iran and Hezbollah of teaching Iraqi fighters to use infrared light beams to trigger IEDs. As the occupation forces became more sophisticated in interrupting radio signals around their convoys, the insurgents adapted their triggering methods. In some cases, when a more advanced method was disrupted, the insurgents regressed to using uninterruptible means, such as hard wires from the IED to detonator; however, this method is much harder to effectively conceal. It later emerged however, that these "advanced" IEDs were actually old IRA technology. The infrared beam method was perfected by the IRA in the early '90s after it acquired the technology from a botched undercover British Army operation. Many of the IEDs being used against the invading coalition forces in Iraq were originally developed by the British Army who unintentionally passed the information on to the IRA. The IRA taught their techniques to the Palestine Liberation Organisation and the knowledge spread to Iraq. Counterefforts Counter-IED efforts are done primarily by military, law enforcement, diplomatic, financial, and intelligence communities and involve a comprehensive approach to countering the threat networks that employ IEDs, not just efforts to defeat the devices themselves. Detection and disarmament Because the components of these devices are being used in a manner not intended by their manufacturer, and because the method of producing the explosion is limited only by the science and imagination of the perpetrator, it is not possible to follow a step-by-step guide to detect and disarm a device that an individual has only recently developed. As such, explosive ordnance disposal (IEDD) operators must be able to fall back on their extensive knowledge of the first principles of explosives and ammunition, to try and deduce what the perpetrator has done, and only then to render it safe and dispose of or exploit the device. Beyond this, as the stakes increase and IEDs are emplaced not only to achieve the direct effect, but to deliberately target IEDD operators and cordon personnel, the IEDD operator needs to have a deep understanding of tactics to ensure they are neither setting up any of their team or the cordon troops for an attack, nor walking into one themselves. The presence of chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) material in an IED requires additional precautions. As with other missions, the EOD operator provides the area commander with an assessment of the situation and of support needed to complete the mission. Military and law enforcement personnel from around the world have developed a number of render-safe procedures (RSPs) to deal with IEDs. RSPs may be developed as a result of direct experience with devices or by applied research designed to counter the threat. The supposed effectiveness of IED jamming systems, including vehicle- and personally-mounted systems, has caused IED technology to essentially regress to command-wire detonation methods. These are physical connections between the detonator and explosive device and cannot be jammed. However, these types of IEDs are more difficult to emplace quickly, and are more readily detected. Military forces and law enforcement from India, Canada, United Kingdom, Israel, Spain, and the United States are at the forefront of counter-IED efforts, as all have direct experience in dealing with IEDs used against them in conflict or terrorist attacks. From the research and development side, programs such as the new Canadian Unmanned Systems Challenge will bring student groups together to invent an unmanned device to both locate IEDs and pinpoint the insurgents. Historical use The fougasse was improvised for centuries, eventually inspiring factory-made land mines. Ernst Jünger mentions in his war memoir the systematic use of IEDs and booby traps to cover the retreat of German troops at the Somme region during World War I. Another early example of coordinated large-scale use of IEDs was the Belarusian Rail War launched by Belarusian guerrillas against the Germans during World War II. Both command-detonated and delayed-fuse IEDs were used to derail thousands of German trains during 1943–1944. Afghanistan Starting six months before the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR on 27 December 1979, the Afghan Mujahideen were supplied by the CIA, among others, with large quantities of military supplies. Among those supplies were many types of anti-tank mines. The insurgents often removed the explosives from several foreign anti-tank mines, and combined the explosives in tin cooking-oil cans for a more powerful blast. By combining the explosives from several mines and placing them in tin cans, the insurgents made them more powerful, but sometimes also easier to detect by Soviet sappers using mine detectors. After an IED was detonated, the insurgents often used direct-fire weapons such as machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades to continue the attack. Afghan insurgents operating far from the border with Pakistan did not have a ready supply of foreign anti-tank mines. They preferred to make IEDs from Soviet unexploded ordnance. The devices were rarely triggered by pressure fuses. They were almost always remotely detonated. Since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the Taliban and its supporters have used IEDs against NATO and Afghan military and civilian vehicles. This has become the most common method of attack against NATO forces, with IED attacks increasing consistently year on year. A brigade commander said that sniffer dogs are the most reliable way of detecting IEDs. However, statistical evidence gathered by the US Army Maneuver Support Center at Fort Leonard Wood, MO shows that the dogs are not the most effective means of detecting IEDs. The U.S. Army's 10th Mountain Division was the first unit to introduce explosive detection dogs in southern Afghanistan. In less than two years the dogs discovered 15 tons of illegal munitions, IED's, and weapons. In July 2012 it was reported that "sticky bombs", magnetically adhesive IED's that were prevalent in the Iraq War, showed up in Afghanistan. By 2021 there was at least one sticky bomb attack a day in Kabul. They are used in both traditional assassinations and targeted killings and as terror weapons against the population at large. ISAF troops stationed in Afghanistan and other IED prone areas of operation would commonly "BIP" (blow in place) IED's and other explosives that were considered too dangerous to defuse. Egypt IEDs are being used by insurgents against government forces during the insurgency in Egypt (2013–present) and the Sinai insurgency. India IEDs are increasingly being used by Maoists in India. On 13 July 2011, three IEDs were used by the Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir to carry out a coordinated attack on the city of Mumbai, killing 19 people and injuring 130 more. On 21 February 2013, two IEDs were used to carry out bombings in the Indian city of Hyderabad. The bombs exploded in Dilsukhnagar, a crowded shopping area of the city, within 150 metres of each other. On 17 April 2013, two kilos of explosives used in Bangalore bomb blast at Malleshwaram area, leaving 16 injured and no fatalities. Intelligence sources have said the bomb was an Improvised Explosive Device or IED. On 21 May 2014, Indinthakarai village supporters of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant were targeted by opponents using over half a dozen crude "country-made bombs". It was further reported that there had been at least four similar bombings in Tamil Nadu during the preceding year. On 28 December 2014, a minor explosion took place near the Coconut Grove restaurant at Church Street in Bangalore on Sunday around 8:30 pm. One woman was killed and another injured in the blast. During the 2016 Pathankot attack, several casualties came from IEDs. On 14 February 2019 in 2019 Pulwama attack, several casualties were reported due to IED blast. Iraq In the 2003–2011 Iraq War, IEDs have been used extensively against Coalition forces and by the end of 2007 they have been responsible for at least 64% of Coalition deaths in Iraq. Since the detonation of the first IED in Iraq in 2003, more than 81,000 IED attacks have occurred in the country, killing and wounding 21,200 Americans. Beginning in July 2003, the Iraqi insurgency used IEDs to target invading coalition vehicles. According to the Washington Post, 64% of U.S. deaths in Iraq occurred due to IEDs. A French study showed that in Iraq, from March 2003 to November 2006, on a global deaths in the US-led invading coalition soldiers, were caused by IEDs, i.e. 41%. That is to say more than in the "normal fights" (1027 dead, 34%). Insurgents now use the bombs to target not only invading coalition vehicles but Iraqi police as well. Common locations for placing these bombs on the ground include animal carcasses, soft drink cans, and boxes. Typically, they explode underneath or to the side of the vehicle to cause the maximum amount of damage. However, as vehicle armour was improved on military vehicles, insurgents began placing IEDs in elevated positions such as on road signs, utility poles, or trees, to hit less protected areas. IEDs in Iraq may be made with artillery or mortar shells or with varying amounts of bulk or homemade explosives. Early during the Iraq war, the bulk explosives were often obtained from stored munitions bunkers to include stripping landmines of their explosives. Despite the increased armor, IEDs are killing military personnel and civilians with greater frequency. May 2007 was the deadliest month for IED attacks thus far, with a reported 89 of the 129 invading coalition casualties coming from an IED attack. According to the Pentagon, 250,000 tons (out of 650,000 tons total) of Iraqi heavy ordnance were looted, providing a large supply of ammunition for the insurgents. In October 2005, the UK government charged that Iran was supplying insurgents with the technological know-how to make shaped charge IEDs. Both Iranian and Iraqi government officials denied the allegations. During the Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017), ISIL has made extensive use of suicide VBIEDs, often driven by children, elderly and disabled. Ireland and the United Kingdom Throughout The Troubles, the Provisional IRA made extensive use of IEDs in their 1969–97 campaign. They used barrack buster mortars and remote controlled IEDs. Members of the IRA developed and counter-developed devices and tactics. IRA bombs became highly sophisticated, featuring anti-handling devices such as a mercury tilt switch or microswitches. These devices would detonate the bomb if it was moved in any way. Typically, the safety-arming device used was a clockwork Memopark timer, which armed the bomb up to 60 minutes after it was placed by completing an electrical circuit supplying power to the anti-handling device. Depending on the particular design (e.g., boobytrapped briefcase or car bomb) an independent electrical circuit supplied power to a conventional timer set for the intended time delay, e.g. 40 minutes. However, some electronic delays developed by IRA technicians could be set to accurately detonate a bomb weeks after it was hidden, which is what happened in the Brighton hotel bomb attack of 1984. Initially, bombs were detonated either by timer or by simple command wire. Later, bombs could be detonated by radio control. Initially, simple servos from radio-controlled aircraft were used to close the electrical circuit and supply power to the detonator. After the British developed jammers, IRA technicians introduced devices that required a sequence of pulsed radio codes to arm and detonate them. These were harder to jam. Roadside bombs were extensively used by the IRA. Typically, a roadside bomb was placed in a drain or culvert along a rural road and detonated by remote control when British security forces vehicles were passing. As a result of the use of these bombs, the British military stopped transport by road in areas such as South Armagh, and used helicopter transport instead to avoid the danger. Most IEDs used commercial or homemade explosives, although the use of Semtex-H smuggled in from Libya in the 1980s was also common from the mid-1980s onward. Bomb Disposal teams from 321 EOD manned by Ammunition Technicians were deployed in those areas to deal with the IED threat. The IRA also used secondary devices to catch British reinforcements sent in after an initial blast as occurred in the Warrenpoint Ambush. Between 1970 and 2005, the IRA detonated 19,000 improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in the Northern Ireland and Britain, an average of one every 17 hours for three and a half decades, arguably making it "the biggest terrorist bombing campaign in history". In the early 1970s, at the height of the IRA campaign, the British Army unit tasked with rendering safe IEDs, 321 EOD, sustained significant casualties while engaged in bomb disposal operations. This mortality rate was far higher than other high risk occupations such as deep sea diving, and a careful review was made of how men were selected for EOD operations. The review recommended bringing in psychometric testing of soldiers to ensure those chosen had the correct mental preparation for high risk bomb disposal duties. The IRA came up with ever more sophisticated designs and deployments of IEDs. Booby Trap or Victim Operated IEDs (VOIEDs), became commonplace. The IRA engaged in an ongoing battle to gain the upper hand in electronic warfare with remote controlled devices. The rapid changes in development led 321 EOD to employ specialists from DERA (now Dstl, an agency of the MOD), the Royal Signals, and Military Intelligence. This approach by the British army to fighting the IRA in Northern Ireland led to the development and use of most of the modern weapons, equipment and techniques now used by EOD Operators throughout the rest of the world today. The bomb disposal operations were led by Ammunition Technicians and Ammunition Technical Officers from 321 EOD, and were trained at the Felix Centre at the Army School of Ammunition. Israel IEDs have been used in many attacks by Palestinians and continue to be used in recent attacks. Lebanon The Lebanese National Resistance Front, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, other resistance groups in Lebanon, and later Hezbollah, made extensive use of IEDs to resist Israeli forces after Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Israel withdrew from Beirut, Northern Lebanon, and Mount Lebanon in 1985, whilst maintaining its occupation of Southern Lebanon. Hezbollah frequently used IEDs to attack Israeli military forces in this area up until the Israeli withdrawal, and the end of the invasion of Lebanon in May 2000. One such bomb killed Israeli Brigadier General Erez Gerstein on 28 February 1999, the highest-ranking Israeli to die in Lebanon since Yekutiel Adam's death in 1982. Also in the 2006 War in Lebanon, a Merkava Mark II tank was hit by a pre-positioned Hezbollah IED, killing all 4 IDF servicemen on board, the first of two IEDs to damage a Merkava tank. Libya Homemade IEDs are used extensively during the post-civil war violence in Libya, mostly in the city of Benghazi against police stations, cars or foreign embassies. Nepal IEDs were also widely used in the 10-years long civil war of the Maoists in Nepal, ranging from those bought from illicit groups in India and China, to self-made devices. Typically used devices were pressure cooker bombs, socket bombs, pipe bombs, bucket bombs, etc. The devices were used more for the act of terrorizing the urban population rather than for fatal causes, placed in front of governmental offices, street corners or road sides. Mainly, the home-made IEDs were responsible for destruction of majority of structures targeted by the Maoists and assisted greatly in spreading terror among the public. Nigeria Boko Haram are using IEDs during their insurgency. Pakistan Taliban and other insurgent groups use IEDs against police, military, security forces, and civilian targets. Russia IEDs have also been popular in Chechnya, where Russian forces were engaged in fighting with rebel elements. While no concrete statistics are available on this matter, bombs have accounted for many Russian deaths in both the First Chechen War (1994–1996) and the Second (1999–2009). Somalia Al Shabaab is using IEDs during the Somali Civil War. Syria During the Syrian Civil War, militant insurgents were using IEDs to attack buses, cars, trucks, tanks and military convoys. Additionally, the Syrian Air Force has used barrel bombs to attack targets in cities and other areas. Such barrel bombs consist of barrels filled with high explosives, oil, and shrapnel, and are dropped from helicopters. Along with mines and IEDs, ISIL also used VBIEDs in Syria, including during 2017 Aleppo suicide car bombing. Uganda On 16 November 2021, suicide bombers set off two powerful explosions in the center of Uganda's capital Kampala during rush hour in an attack later claimed by Islamic State. There have been a number of bomb explosions in 2021. In October, a 20-year-old waitress was killed after a device, left in a shopping bag, detonated in a bar in the city. Days later several people were injured when a suicide bomber blew himself up in a bus near Kampala. United States In the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols built an IED with ammonium nitrate fertilizer, nitromethane, and stolen commercial explosives in a rental truck, with sandbags used to concentrate the explosive force in the desired direction. McVeigh detonated it next to the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people, 19 of whom were children. High school students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold used multiple IEDs during the Columbine High School massacre on 20 April 1999, including two large propane bombs that were placed in the cafeteria, powerful enough to kill or injure everyone inside the room, along with pipe bombs, molotov cocktails, and also two car bombs, designed to attack first responders and news reporters responding to the initial bombing. Both propane bombs and both car bombs failed to detonate correctly. They then went on to shoot and kill 13 people before committing suicide. If all bombs detonated, there could have been hundreds killed in the massacre, but nobody was injured by any of the explosives during the massacre. The pair had planned to exceed the death count during the Oklahoma City bombing four years earlier. In January 2011, a shaped pipe bomb was discovered and defused at a Martin Luther King Jr. memorial march in Spokane, Washington. The FBI said that the bomb was specifically designed to cause maximum harm as the explosive device was, according to the Los Angeles Times, packed with fishing weights covered in rat poison, and may have been racially motivated. No one was injured during the event. On 15 April 2013, as the annual Boston Marathon race was concluding, two bombs were detonated seconds apart close to the finish line. Initial FBI response indicated suspicion of IED pressure cooker bombs. On 17–19 September 2016, several explosions occurred in Manhattan and New Jersey. The sources of the explosions were all found to be IEDs of various types, such as pressure cooker bombs and pipe bombs. Many IED-related arrests are made each year in circumstances where the plot was foiled before the device was deployed, or the device exploded but no one was injured. Ukraine IEDs are in use in the ongoing War in Donbass and have also been used there for assassinations. Vietnam IEDs were used during the Vietnam War by the Viet Cong against land- and river-borne vehicles as well as personnel. They were commonly constructed using materials from unexploded American ordnance. Thirty-three percent of U.S. casualties in Vietnam and twenty-eight percent of deaths were officially attributed to mines; these figures include losses caused by both IEDs and commercially manufactured mines. The Grenade in a Can was a simple and effective booby trap. A hand grenade with the safety pin removed and safety lever compressed was placed into a container such as a tin can, with a length of string or tripwire attached to the grenade. The can was fixed in place and the string was stretched across a path or doorway opening and firmly tied down. In alternative fashion, the string could be attached to the moving portion of a door or gate. When the grenade was pulled out of the can by a person or vehicle placing tension on the string, the spring-loaded safety lever would release and the grenade would explode. The rubber band grenade was another booby trap. To make this device, a Viet Cong guerrilla would wrap a strong rubber band around the spring-loaded safety lever of a hand grenade and remove the pin. The grenade was then hidden in a hut. American and South Vietnamese soldiers would burn huts regularly to prevent them from being inhabited again, or to expose foxholes and tunnel entrances, which were frequently concealed within these structures. When a hut with the booby trap was torched, the rubber band on the grenade would melt, releasing the safety lever and blowing up the hut. This would often wound the soldiers with burning bamboo and metal fragments. This booby trap was also used to destroy vehicles when the modified grenade was placed in the fuel tank. The rubber band would be eaten away by the chemical action of the fuel, releasing the safety lever and detonating the grenade. Another variant was the Mason jar grenade. The safety pin of hand grenades would be pulled and the grenades would be placed in glass Ball Mason jars, which would hold back the safety lever. The safety lever would release upon the shattering of the jar and the grenade would detonate. This particular variant was popular with helicopter warfare, and were used as improvised anti-personnel cluster bombs during air raids. They were easy to dump out of the flight door over a target, and the thick Ball Mason glass was resistant to premature shattering. They could also be partially filled with gasoline or jellied gasoline, Napalm, to add to their destructive nature. Yemen Houthis are using IEDs against Saudi-led coalition and Hadi's forces during Yemeni Civil War (2015–present), Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and Saudi–Yemeni border conflict. Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula and ISIL in Yemen are also known to use IEDs. See also Acetone peroxide Blast bomb Blast fishing Dragon Runner Fertilizer bomb Improvised firearm JIEDDO List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts Nail bomb Satchel charge Sidolówka grenade Time bomb (explosive) TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook References External links Area denial weapons Bombs Explosives Explosive weapons Tactics of the Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011) Improvised weapons

266079

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enn%20Reitel

Enn Reitel

Enn Reitel is a Scottish actor who specializes in voice work. He is known for his voice-over work in video games, movies and TV shows. He is also known for providing additional voices for The Getaway: Black Monday, The Lord of the Rings: Aragorn's Quest, Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning, The Secret World and Star Wars: The Old Republic – Rise of the Hutt Cartel. Early life Reitel's family arrived in Scotland as refugees from Estonia and Germany. He trained as an actor at the Central School of Speech and Drama. Career Acting In 1982 Reitel starred in The Further Adventures of Lucky Jim, a sitcom on BBC Two written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. Reitel played Jim Dixon, based on the character created by Kingsley Amis. He appeared on stage in Me and My Girl at the Adelphi Theatre in 1986. On television he worked as an impressionist on the satirical puppet show Spitting Image and starred in the ITV sitcom Mog as a burglar who spent his days in a psychiatric hospital, pretending to be insane. He played the lead role in the UK TV comedy series The Optimist which ran from 1983 for two series. The programme was almost entirely silent. In each episode 'The Optimist' wandered through life doing his best to look on the bright side. He was usually thwarted in his endeavours by the people he encountered. He also appeared in the first series of the UK comedy show Whose Line Is It Anyway?. In 2001 he appeared in a short film called Coconuts with Michael Palin, in which they did a demonstration on how coconuts can be used in place of horses. This film can be seen on the second disk of the collector's edition of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. He played the lead role in the 2007 film Trust Me, a comedy about a pair of con men. Reitel was the second choice to play Del Boy Trotter in Only Fools and Horses (behind Jim Broadbent aka Roy Slater in the series), but was busy with other projects (the role ultimately went to David Jason). He also played two roles in different episodes of long-running sitcom One Foot in the Grave. In the first Christmas special, he played "Mr. Starkey", a down and out who holds Victor Meldrew (Richard Wilson) and his neighbour Pippa's father, Reverend Croker (Geoffrey Chater) at gunpoint to wait for Armageddon on Christmas Day. In the second episode of series 3, "Dreamland", he played a tramp who took a fancy to Victor's shoes, but drew the line at his Noel Edmonds-esque sweater. Voiceovers Reitel does voiceovers for The X Factor. He played the Town Crier and The Maggot in Tim Burton's Corpse Bride and played Auric Goldfinger in the 2004 video game GoldenEye: Rogue Agent. It is his voice that provides the vocals on Lemon Jelly's "Nice Weather For Ducks" in 2002. He narrated the in-game promo spot for the Praying Mantis PMC in Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots. He also does Lorenzo Belli's voice from Capcom's survival horror game Haunting Ground. He was also the voice of Billy the ventriloquist dummy in James Wan's movie Dead Silence. He also provided voice performance for the audiobook of the sixth book in Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl series, The Time Paradox. Reitel also provided the voice for Delvin Mallory in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and the Wizard Zabodon in The Big Knights. He also provided the voice of Ost Ordura in Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning and Alfred Pennyworth in Batman: The Telltale Series. He also played Male Altmer and Dunmer in The Elder Scrolls Online. He also provided voices of The Time Keeper in Skylanders: Swap Force, Laufey in Hulk and the Agents of SMASH, Master Ding in Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, Sebastian Oliver in Adr1ft, Olgan in Baten Kaitos Origins, Bootstrap Bill Turner in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest, A Male Pedestrian in Infamous, Deraegis in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, Five Leaf Clover Guy, Japanese Deputy, Robertson, Boss Guraji and Fox in TripTank, Edwin Jarvis in Marvel Heroes, An English Spy in American Dad!, Billy in Dead Silence and The Dreamer in The Secret World. In May 2014, Reitel replaced Ade Edmondson as the voice of the Animal in the Peperami adverts. Filmography Film Animal Madness – Various Bedrooms – Walter Bob's Weekend – Voice of Man on Television Carrott U Like - Additional voices Chicanery – Windsor Silcox Corpse Bride – Maggot, Town Crier Dead Silence – Billy Foodfight! – Kung Tofu, Fracois Fromage Forgotten Daughters - Liam Gobble – Voice over artist Just Another Secret (1989) – Dietrich Labyrinth – Goblin (uncredited) Made in Estonia – NATO general Original Gangster – Cleaner Postman Pat: The Movie – PC Arthur Selby, Reverend Timms, Pat Wannabe 2, Raed Quackerz – Emperor Peng Lee Secret History of Religion: Doomsday - Book of Revelation – Narrator Secret History of Religion: Knights Templar – Narrator Splitting Image: Down and Out in the White House - Additional voices The Adventures of Tintin – Nestor, Mr. Crabtree The Best Years – Father Jude Best The Cannibal in the Jungle – Jan Voorhees The Full Monty – Narrator (uncredited) The Judge – Mourner The Lime Grove Story The Merchant of Venice – Launcelot Gobbo The Prestige – Workman 1 The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause – (uncredited) The Willows in Winter – Otter The Wind in the Willows – Otter, Rabbit, Policeman, Gaoler Throne of Elves – Blacksmith Tiny Revolutions – Secret policeman Trust Me – Joe Shorts Couples and Robbers – Keith Day After Yesterday – The Dad Doppelganger – Dowdsley Ogri – Sweeney Splitting Image: The Ronnie and Nancy Show - Additional voices The Band Parts – Harry Documentaries Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey – Albert Einstein, hyde Park Gent Heroes of Comedy How to Use Your Coconuts – Assistant Inside the Two Worlds of 'The Corpse Bride' – Maggot (uncredited) I Love 1980's – Himself Monkey Business – PG Tips Chimp Science of the Bible – Narrator TV Specials Comic Relief – Himself TV series 2DTV – Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jack Straw, John Prescott, Michael Jackson, Anthony McPartlin, Jeremy Clarkson, Michael Howard, Simon Cowell, Gordon Ramsay, Prince Harry, Tom Cruise, Lawrence Llewelyn-Bowen, Pope John Paul II, Johnny Vegas, Will Young, Tim Henman, Justin Hawkins, Jack Osbourne, Phil Spencer, David Dimbleby, Peter Andre, Frank Skinner, Des Lynham, Robbie Williams, Gareth Gates, Uri Geller, David Blunkett, Charles Kennedy, Dick Cheney, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Prince Philip, Prince Edward, Prince William, Osama Bin Laden, Wayne Rooney, Various voices American Dad! – English Spy Archer - Additional voices Art Ninja - Narrator Barney – Narrator Batman: The Brave and the Bold – Deraegis Boston Legal – Father Kevin Maher Bremner, Bird and Fortune Comedy Playhouse – Narrator Canned Carrott – Narrator Coronation Street – Photographer Cribb – Mr. Strange Drop the Dead Donkey – Voice-Over Family Guy - Mickey Rooney, Additional voices Fanboy & Chum Chum – Wizard Tooth Fairy General Hospital – Policeman Grey's Anatomy – Gerhardt Strauss Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. – Laufey ITV Sunday Night Drama – The Reporter Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness – Master Ding Minoriteam – Jewcano, Narrator Misfits – Skinner Mog – Mog Monkey Dust – Additional voices Mr. Bean: The Animated Series – Additional voices Nature Cat – Hal (UK version) One Foot in the Grave – The Tramp, Starkey Pallas - Actor Percy the Park Keeper – Male animals Peter Panzerfaust – Older Gilbert Phineas and Ferb - Additional voices Roadies – Edgar Cumberland Hughes Rory Bremner – Various Round the Bend! - Additional voices Screen One – Rick Spitting Image – Geoffrey Howe, Cecil Parkinson, Robert Maxwell, Dustin Hoffman, Denis Thatcher, Norman Fowler, Konstantin Chernenko, Prince Philip, Paddy Ashdown, Chris Patten, Michael Jackson, Denis Healey, Nelson Mandela, Julian Clary, Winston Churchill, Donald Sinden, Lester Piggott, Peter Snow, David Owen, Mark Phillips, Robert Armstrong, Alec Guinness, Ian St. John, OJ Simpson, Gary Barlow, Prince William, Paul Condon, Jack Straw, Satan, Paul Keating, Kenneth Baker, Mike Smith, Phil Cool, Paul Channon, Pope John Paul II, Donald Coggan, Jesse Jackson, David Attenborough, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nicholas Witchell, David Icke, Steve Jones, West Midlands Police Sergeant, Norman Tebbit, Polish advertiser, Neil Kinnock, Kenneth Clarke, George Younger, Elton John, Matt Aitken, Laurence Olivier, Frank Bruno, Prince Harry, Frank Bough, Richard Branson, Robert Maclennan, Mark Knopfler, Caspar Weinberger, John Hunt, Rick Rickerson, Q, Desmond Wilcox, Ray Cooney, Nicholas Fairbairn, David Gergen, Vincent Price, Bobby Robson, Ian MacGregor, Roy Jenkins, Paul McCartney, Kieran Prendiville, Translator, Prince Squirrel Boy – Manzio The Adventures of Dodo - Dodo (Voice) The Almost Complete History of the 20th Century – Various Characters The Big Knights – Wizard Zabodon The Bill – Nigel Doughtie The Gentle Touch – TDC Power The Ghosts of Motley Hall – Assistant Director The Imaginatively Titled Punt & Dennis Show The Further Adventures of Lucky Jim – Jim Dixon The Optimist – The Optimist The Staggering Stories of Ferdinand de Bargos - Actor The Thundermans - Basil Healy Hutchinson The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends – Robin, Mr. Bouncer, Cock Robin, Insects, Grocer, Animals, Kep, Mr. Drake Puddle-Duck, Sparrows Tractor Tom - Narrator TripTank – Five Leaf Clover Guy, Japanese Deputy, Boss Guraji, Robertson, Fox Union Jackass – George Virtual Murder – Jed Frewin TV Mini-series Ashenden – Radio Disc Jockey If You See God, Tell Him – With the voices of Videos The Beano Video - Dogs, Narrator #2, Teacher, Headmaster, Ted, Horse, Shark, Scorcher, Hare The Beano Videostars - Rasher, Walter the Softy (Flutterby and Dennis Meets His Match), Alien #1, Birds, Cats, Female Alien, Fatty Fudge, Danny (singing), 'Erbert, Fatty, Spotty, Wilfrid, Janitor, Winston, Elephant, Woodworm, Hairdresser, Mr. Robot, Ted, Snake, Chicken, Chick, Ma’s Porridge Narrator, Monkey, Pedestrian #1, Pedestrian #2, Poolgoer #1, Poolgoer #4, Child, Ivy's Toys Video games 007: Quantum of Solace – Mr. White Adr1ft – Sebastian Oliver Avatar: The Game – Additional voices Baten Kaitos Origins – Olgan Cold Winter – Amenkoht Ali-Salah Dishonored – Nurse Trimble – The Brigmore Witches DLC Driver Epic Mickey - Additional voices Infamous – Male Pedestrian Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning – Ost Ordura, additional voices Legendary – LeFey Meet the Robinsons Original War - Additional voices Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest – Bootstrap Bill Turner Resistance: Fall of Man - Additional voices SpongeBob Moves In! - Mermaid Man Skylanders: Swap Force – Time Keeper Star Wars: The Old Republic: Galactic Starfighter – Writch Hurley Star Wars: The Old Republic: Rise of the Hutt Cartel – Additional voices The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian - Additional voices The Elder Scrolls Online – Male Altmer, Male Dunmer The Getaway: Black Monday – Additional voices The Lord of the Rings: Aragorn's Quest – Additional voices The Secret World – The Dreamer, additional voices The Weakest Link – Contestants (UK version) Warhammer Online: Wrath of Heroes – Archivist World in Conflict - Additional voices World in Conflict: Soviet Assault - Additional voices References External links Living people Alumni of the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama People from Forfar Scottish male television actors Scottish male video game actors Scottish male voice actors Scottish people of German descent Scottish people of Estonian descent 20th-century Scottish male actors 21st-century Scottish male actors 1950 births

271749

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Trinian%27s%20School

St Trinian's School

St Trinian's is a British gag cartoon comic strip series, created and drawn by Ronald Searle from 1946 until 1952. The cartoons all centre on a boarding school for girls, where the teachers are sadists and the girls are juvenile delinquents. The series was Searle's most famous work and inspired a popular series of comedy films. Concept Searle published his first St Trinian's School cartoon in 1941 in the magazine Lilliput. Shortly afterward he entered the military as World War II raged on. He was captured at Singapore and spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of the Japanese. After the war, in 1946 Searle started making new cartoons about the girls, but the content was much darker compared to the earlier years. The school is the antithesis of the type of posh girls' boarding school depicted by Enid Blyton or Angela Brazil; its female pupils are bad and often well armed, and mayhem is rife. The schoolmistresses are also disreputable. Cartoons often showed dead bodies of girls who had been murdered with pitchforks or succumbed to violent team sports, sometimes with vultures circling; girls drank, gambled and smoked. It is reputed that the gymslip style of dress worn by the girls was closely modelled on the school uniform of James Allen's Girls' School (JAGS) in Dulwich, which Searle's daughter Kate attended. In the 1950s, films were developed that were based on the cartoon series. These comedies implied that the girls at the school were the daughters of dubious characters, such as gangsters, crooks, and shady bookmakers. The institution is often referred to as a "female borstal", as if it were a reform school. The inspiration During 1941 Searle had gone to the artists' community in the village of Kirkcudbright. Whilst visiting the family Johnston, he made a drawing to please their two schoolgirl daughters, Cécilé and Pat, (their school had been evacuated to New Gala House in Galashiels in the Scottish Borders owing to the war). Searle was puzzled as to why two schoolgirls should seem so keen to return to their school, an Academy for Young Ladies in Dalkeith Road known as St Trinnean's. The school was of the experimental sort, and allowed its pupils a certain degree of freedom and autonomy in their own educational choices. The school's original building is now part of the University of Edinburgh. Searle's St Trinian's was based on two independent girls' schools in Cambridge – Perse School for Girls, now known as the co-educational Stephen Perse Foundation, and St Mary's School for girls, formerly a convent. Growing up in Cambridge, Searle regularly saw the girls on their way to and from school; they originally inspired his cartoons and characters. The Perse School for Girls' Archive area holds several original St Trinian's books, given to the school by Ronald Searle. He also based the school partly on the former Cambridgeshire High School for Girls (now Long Road Sixth Form College). During his BBC interview Searle agreed that the cruelty depicted at St Trinian's derived partly from his captivity during World War II but stressed that he included it only because the ignoble aspect to warfare in general had become more widely known. Books Hurrah for St Trinian's (1948) The Female Approach (1950) Back to the Slaughterhouse (1952) The Terror of St Trinians or Angela's Prince Charming (1952; text by Timothy Shy, pen-name for D. B. Wyndham-Lewis) Souls in Torment (1953) Film adaptations In the 1950s, a series of St Trinians comedy films was made, featuring well-known British actors, including Alastair Sim (in drag as the headmistress, and also playing her brother); George Cole as spiv "Flash Harry", Joyce Grenfell as Sgt Ruby Gates, a beleaguered policewoman; and Richard Wattis and Eric Barker as the civil servants at the Ministry of Education for whom the school is a source of constant frustration and nervous breakdowns. Searle's cartoons appeared in the films' main title design. In the films the school became embroiled in various shady enterprises, thanks mainly to Flash, and, as a result, was always threatened with closure by the Ministry. (In the last of the original four, this became the "Ministry of Schools", possibly because of fears of a libel action from a real Minister of Education.) The first four films form a chronological quartet, and were produced by Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat. They had earlier produced The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950), a stylistically similar school comedy, starring Alastair Sim, Joyce Grenfell, George Cole, Richard Wattis, Guy Middleton, and Bernadette O'Farrell, all of whom later appeared in the St Trinian's series, often playing similar characters. Barchester and Barset were used as names for the fictional towns near which St Trinian's School was supposedly located in the original films. In Blue Murder at St Trinian's, a signpost was marked as 2 miles to Barset, 8 miles to Wantage, indicating a location in Oxfordshire. St Trinian's is depicted as an unorthodox girls' school where the younger girls wreak havoc and the older girls express their femininity overtly, turning their shapeless schoolgirl dress into something sexy and risqué by the standards of the times. St Trinian's is often invoked in discussions about groups of schoolgirls running amok. The St Trinian's girls themselves come in two categories: the Fourth Form, most closely resembling Searle's original drawings of ink-stained, ungovernable pranksters, and the much older Sixth Form, sexually precocious to a degree that may have seemed alarming to some in 1954. In the films, the Fourth Form includes a number of much younger girls who are the most ferocious of them all. It is something of a rule of thumb that the smaller a St Trinian's is, the more dangerous she is—especially when armed, most commonly with a lacrosse or hockey stick—though none of them can ever be considered harmless. In the first two films, St Trinian's is presided over by the genial Miss Millicent Fritton (Sim in drag), whose philosophy is summed up as: "In other schools girls are sent out quite unprepared into a merciless world, but when our girls leave here, it is the merciless world which has to be prepared." Later other headmistresses included Dora Bryan in The Great St Trinian's Train Robbery. In December 2007, a new film, St Trinian's, was released. The cast included Rupert Everett, Colin Firth, Russell Brand, Lily Cole, Talulah Riley, Stephen Fry, and Gemma Arterton. Reviews were mixed. A second new St Trinian's film, St Trinian's 2: The Legend of Fritton's Gold, was released in 2009. The first series The Belles of St Trinian's (1954) Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957) The Pure Hell of St Trinian's (1960) The Great St Trinian's Train Robbery (1966) The first reboot The Wildcats of St Trinian's (1980, with Maureen Lipman taking on the Joyce Grenfell role) The second reboot St Trinian's (2007) St Trinian's 2: The Legend of Fritton's Gold (2009) Coat of arms The school's coat of arms was originally shown as a black skull-and-crossbones on a field of white. This was later changed to a white tau cross (symbolising the "T" in Trinian's) on a black field bordered white. School motto The school has no fixed motto but has had several suggested ones. The school's motto is depicted in the original movies from the 1950s and 1960s as In flagrante delicto ("Caught in the Act"). This can be seen on the trophy shelf, above the stairs in The Belles of St Trinian's (1954). The lyrics of the original theme song by Sidney Gilliat (c. 1954) imply that the school's motto is "Get your blow in first" (Semper debeatis percutis ictu primo). A poem in one of Searle's books called "St Trinian's Soccer Song", by D. B. Wyndham Lewis and Johnny Dankworth, states that the motto is Floreat St Trinian's ("May St Trinian's Bloom/Flourish"), a reference to the motto of Eton (Floreat Etona—"May Eton Flourish"). School songs The musical score for the St Trinian films was written by Malcolm Arnold and included the school song, with words accredited to Sidney Gilliat (1954). In the 2007 film, a new school song, written by Girls Aloud, was called "Defenders of Anarchy". The school also has a fight song. In popular culture Between 1968 and 1972, the British comic-book The Beano ran a series entitled The Belles of St. Lemons, which was inspired by the original St Trinian's cartoons by Ronald Searle. The gauge 0 model train manufacturer ACE Trains produce an "unorthodox" model of a British Schools Class steam locomotive (which were named after British schools), numbered 1922 and named "St Trinneans" (sic). This model is bright pink and has a pair of uniformed schoolgirls as driver and fireman. In 1990, Chris Claremont and Ron Wagner paid tribute to both Searle and St Trinian's in a story arc in the Marvel comic book Excalibur, in which Kitty Pryde became a student at "St Searle's School for Young Ladies". Towards the end of the arc, Commandere Dai Thomas exclaims, "I took a look at the Special Branch records. Have you any notion what this school's done in the past? With them about, who needs the perishing SAS?" See also :Category:St Trinian's films References External links Ronald Searle and the St Trinians Cartoons Link to the first movie About the creator St Trinians animated by Uli Meyer Studios Retrieved January 2013 British comic strips Gag cartoon comics Gag-a-day comics Fictional schools Fictional locations in comics 1946 comics debuts 1952 comics endings Child characters in comics British comics characters British comics adapted into films Fictional tricksters School-themed comics Comics set in the United Kingdom Comics about women Female characters in comics Comics characters introduced in 1941 Boarding school fiction Fictional buildings and structures originating in comic books

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20revolutions%20of%201848%E2%80%931849

German revolutions of 1848–1849

The German revolutions of 1848–1849 (), the opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution (), were initially part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire after its dismantlement as a result of the Napoleonic Wars. This process began in the mid 1840s. The middle-class elements were committed to liberal principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters. Many emigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas. Events leading up to the revolutions The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the Hambacher Fest of 1832, when public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours used on today's national flag of Germany as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the German-speaking people. Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the German states, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations of workers and artisans led in Paris, France, from February 22 through 24, 1848, which resulted in the abdication by King Louis-Philippe of France and his exile in Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution. The revolutions spread from France across Europe; they erupted soon thereafter in Austria and Germany, beginning with the large demonstrations on March 13, 1848, in Vienna. This resulted in the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, and his going into exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions in Germany are usually called the March Revolution (German: Märzrevolution). Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, and a parliament. Austria In 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved by Napoleon in 1806, it was succeeded by a similarly loose coalition of states known as the German Confederation at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Austria served as President ex officio of this confederation. German Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848. On March 13, 1848, university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against royal mistress Lola Montez in Bavaria on February 9, 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on March 13, 1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of Anton Füster, a liberal priest, on Sunday, March 12, 1848, in their university chapel. The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the palace, the troops fired on the students, killing several. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London. Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848. The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from May 26 through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare for an army attack. Ferdinand and his family fled to Innsbruck, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the Tyrol. Ferdinand issued two manifestos on May 16, 1848, and June 3, 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the Imperial Diet into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people. Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany. Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on August 12, 1848. Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on August 21 to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On August 23, 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and shot several. In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a democratic rebellion there. On September 29, 1848, the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On October 6 through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on October 7, 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of Olomouc in Moravia. On December 2, 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew Franz Joseph. Baden Baden had a liberal constitution from 1811 until reaction resulted in aristocratic rulers revoking the constitution in 1825. In 1830, Leopold of Baden became Grand Duke. His reign brought liberal reforms in constitutional, civil and criminal law, and in education. In 1832 Baden joined the (Prussian) Customs Union. After news broke of revolutionary victories in February 1848 in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including Austria and the German states. Baden was the first state in Germany to have popular unrest, despite the liberal reforms. Baden happened to be one of the most liberal states in Germany. After the news of the February Days in Paris reached Baden, there were several unorganized instances of peasants burning the mansions of local aristocrats and threatening them. On February 27, 1848, in Mannheim, an assembly of people from Baden adopted a resolution demanding a bill of rights. Similar resolutions were adopted in Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and other German states. The surprisingly strong popular support for these movements forced rulers to give in to many of the Märzforderungen (demands of March) almost without resistance. The March Revolution in Vienna was a catalyst to revolution throughout the German states. Popular demands were made for an elected representative government and for the unification of Germany. Fear on the part of the princes and rulers of the various German states caused them to concede in the demand for reform. They approved a pre parliament, which was convened from March 31, 1848, until April 4, 1848, in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main, charged with the task of drafting a new constitution, to be called the "Fundamental Rights and Demands of the German People." The majority of the delegates to the preparliament were constitutional monarchists. Baden sent two democrats, Friedrich Karl Franz Hecker and Gustav von Struve, to the pre parliament. In the minority and frustrated with the lack of progress, Hecker and Struve walked out in protest on April 2, 1848. The walkout and the continuing revolutionary upsurge in Germany spurred the preparliament to action; they passed a resolution calling for an All-German National Assembly to be formed. On April 8, 1848, a law allowing universal suffrage and an indirect (two-stage) voting system was agreed to by the assembly. A new National Assembly was selected, and on May 18, 1848, 809 delegates (585 of whom were elected) were seated at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to convene the Frankfurt National Assembly. Karl Mathy, a right-center journalist, was among those elected as deputy to the Frankfurt National Assembly. Disorder fomented by republican agitators continued in Baden. Fearing greater riots, the Baden government began to increase the size of its army and to seek assistance from neighboring states. The Baden government sought to suppress the revolts by arresting Joseph Fickler, a journalist who was the leader of the Baden democrats. The arrests caused outrage and a rise in protests. A full-scale uprising broke out on April 12, 1848. The Bavarian government suppressed the revolutionary forces led by Friedrich Hecker with the aid of Prussian troops at Kandern on April 20, 1848, ending what became known as the Hecker Uprising. In May 1849, a resurgence of revolutionary activity occurred in Baden. As this was closely connected to the uprising in the German Palatinate, it is described below, in the section titled, "The Palatinate." The Palatinate When the revolutionary upsurge revived in the spring of 1849, the uprisings started in Elberfeld in the Rhineland on May 6, 1849. However, the uprisings soon spread to the state of Baden, when a riot broke out in Karlsruhe. The state of Baden and the Palatinate (then part of the Kingdom of Bavaria) were separated only by the Rhine. The uprising in Baden and the Palatinate took place largely in the Rhine Valley along their mutual border, and are considered aspects of the same movement. In May 1849, the Grand Duke was forced to leave Karlsruhe, Baden and seek help from Prussia. Provisional governments were declared in both the Palatinate and Baden. In Baden conditions for the provisional government were ideal: the public and army were both strongly in support of constitutional change and democratic reform in the government. The army strongly supported the demands for a constitution; the state had amply supplied arsenals, and a full exchequer. The Palatinate did not have the same conditions. The Palatinate traditionally contained more upper-class citizens than other areas of Germany, and they resisted the revolutionary changes. In the Palatinate, the army did not support the revolution, and it was not well supplied. When the insurrectionary government took over in the Palatinate, they did not find a fully organized state or a full exchequer. Arms in the Palatinate were limited to privately held muskets, rifles and sporting guns. The provisional government of the Palatinate sent agents to France and Belgium to purchase arms but they were unsuccessful. France banned sales and export of arms to either Baden or the Palatinate. The provisional government first appointed Joseph Martin Reichard, a lawyer, democrat and deputy in the Frankfurt Assembly, as the head of the military department in the Palatinate. The first Commander in Chief of the military forces of the Palatinate was Daniel Fenner von Fenneberg, a former Austrian officer who commanded the national guard in Vienna during the 1848 uprising. He was soon replaced by Felix Raquilliet, a former Polish staff general in the Polish insurgent army of 1830–1831. Finally Ludwik Mieroslawski was given supreme command of the armed forces in the Palatinate, and Franz Sznayde was given field command of the troops. Other noteworthy military officers serving the provisional government in the city of Kaiserlautern, were Friedrich Strasser, Alexander Schimmelpfennig, Captain Rudolph von Manteuffel, Albert Clement, Herr Zychlinski, Friedrich von Beust, Eugen Oswald, Amand Goegg, Gustav von Struve, Otto Julius Bernhard von Corvin-Wiersbitzki, Joseph Moll, Johann Gottfried Kinkel, Herr Mersy, Karl Emmermann, Franz Sigel, Major Nerlinger, Colonel Kurz, Friedrich Karl Franz Hecker and Hermann von Natzmer. Hermann von Natzmer was the former Prussian officer who had been in charge of the arsenal of Berlin. Refusing to shoot insurgent forces who stormed the arsenal on June 14, 1848, Natzmer became a hero to insurgents across Germany. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for refusing orders to shoot, but in 1849, he escaped prison and fled to the Palatinate to join its insurgent forces. Gustav Adolph Techow, a former Prussian officer, also joined Palatinate forces. Organizing the artillery and providing services in the ordnance shops was Lieutenant Colonel Freidrich Anneke. He was a member of the Communist League and one of the founders of the Cologne Workers Association in 1848, editor of the Neue Kölnische Zeitung and a Rhenish District Committee of Democrats. Democrats of the Palatinate and across Germany considered the Baden-Palatinate insurrection to be part of the wider all-German struggle for constitutional rights. Franz Sigel, a second lieutenant in the Baden army, a democrat and a supporter of the provisional government, developed a plan to protect the reform movement in Karlsruhe and the Palatinate. He recommended using a corps of the Baden army to advance on the town of Hohenzollern and declare the Hohenzollern Republic, then to march on Stuttgart. After inciting Stuttgart and the surrounding state of Württemberg, the military corps would march to Nuremberg and set up camp in the state of Franconia. Sigel failed to account for dealing with the separate Town of Frankfurt, the home of the Frankfurt Assembly, in order to establish an All-German character to the military campaign for the German constitution. Despite Sigel's plan, the new insurgent government did not go on the offensive. The uprising in Karlsruhe and the state of Baden was eventually suppressed by the Bavarian Army. Lorenz Peter Brentano, a lawyer and democrat from Baden, headed its government, wielding absolute power. He appointed Karl Eichfeld as War Minister. Later, Eichfeld was replaced as War Minister by Rudolph Mayerhofer. Florian Mördes was appointed as Minister of the Interior. Other members of the provisional government included Joseph Fickler, a journalist and a democrat from Baden. Leaders of the constitutional forces in Baden included Karl Blind, a journalist and a democrat in Baden; and Gustav von Struve, another journalist and democrat from Baden. John Phillip Becker was placed in charge of the peoples' militia. Ludwik Mieroslawski, a Polish-born national who had taken part in the military operations during the Polish uprising of 1830–1831, was placed in charge of the military operation on the Palatinate side of the Rhine River. Brentano ordered the day-to-day affairs of the uprising in Baden, and Mieroslawski directed a military command on the Palatinate side. They did not coordinate well. For example, Mieroslawski decided to abolish the long-standing toll on the Mannheim-Ludwigshaven bridge over the Rhine River. It was not collected on the Palatinate side, but Brentano's government collected it on the Baden side. Due to the continued lack of coordination, Mieroslawski lost battles in Waghausle and Ubstadt in Baden. He and his troops were forced to retreat across the mountains of southern Baden, where they fought a last battle against the Prussians in the town of Murg, on the frontier between Baden and Switzerland. Mieroslawski and the other survivors of the battle escaped across the frontier to Switzerland, and the commander went into exile in Paris. Frederick Engels took part in the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate. On May 10, 1848, he and Karl Marx traveled from Cologne, Germany, to observe the events of the region. From June 1, 1848, Engels and Marx became editors of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Less than a year later, on May 19, 1849, the Prussian authorities closed down the newspaper because of its support for constitutional reforms. In late 1848, Marx and Engels intended to meet with Karl Ludwig Johann D'Ester, then serving as a member of the provisional government in Baden and the Palatinate. He was a physician, democrat and socialist who had been a member of the Cologne community chapter of the Communist League. D'Ester had been elected as a deputy to the Prussian National Assembly in 1848. D'Ester had been elected to the Central committee of the German Democrats, together with Reichenbach and Hexamer, at the Second Democratic Congress held in Berlin from October 26 through October 30, 1848. Because of his commitments to the provisional government, D'Ester was unable to attend an important meeting in Paris on behalf of the German Central Committee. He wanted to provide Marx with the mandate to attend the meeting in his place. Marx and Engels met with D'Ester in the town of Kaiserlautern. Marx obtained the mandate and headed off to Paris. Engels remained in the Palatinate, where in 1849 he joined citizens at the barricades of Elberfeld in the Rhineland, preparing to fight the Prussian troops expected to arrive against the uprising. On his way to Elberfeld, Engels took two cases of rifle cartridges which had been gathered by the workers of Solingen, Germany, when those workers had stormed the arsenal at Gräfrath, Germany. The Prussian troops arrived and crushed the uprising in August 1849. Engels and some others escaped to Kaiserlautern. While in Kaiserlautern on June 13, 1849, Engels joined an 800-member group of workers being formed as a military corps by August Willich, a former Prussian military officer. He was also a member of the Communist League and supported revolutionary change in Germany. The newly formed Willich Corps combined with other revolutionary groups to form an army of about 30,000 strong; it fought to resist the highly trained Prussian troops. Engels fought with the Willich Corps for their entire campaign in the Palatinate. The Prussians defeated this revolutionary army, and the survivors of Willichs Corps crossed over the frontier into the safety of Switzerland. Engels did not reach Switzerland until July 25, 1849. He sent word of his survival to Marx and friends and comrades in London, England. A refugee in Switzerland, Engels began to write about his experiences during the revolution. He published the article, "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution." Due to the Prussian Army's ease in crushing the uprising, many South German states came to believe that Prussia, not Austria, was going to be the new power in the region. The suppression of the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate was the end of the German revolutionary uprisings that had begun in the spring of 1848. Prussia In March 1848, crowds of people gathered in Berlin to present their demands in an "address to the king". King Frederick William IV, taken by surprise, verbally yielded to all the demonstrators' demands, including parliamentary elections, a constitution, and freedom of the press. He promised that "Prussia was to be merged forthwith into Germany." On March 13, after warnings by the police against public demonstrations went unheeded, the army charged a group of people returning from a meeting in the Tiergarten, leaving one person dead and many injured. On March 18, a large demonstration occurred. After two shots were fired, fearing that some of the 20,000 soldiers would be used against them, demonstrators erected barricades, and a battle ensued until troops were ordered 13 hours later to retreat, leaving hundreds dead. Afterwards, Frederick William attempted to reassure the public that he would proceed with reorganizing his government. The King also approved arming the citizens. In his memoirs, Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee, who in March 1848 was a sixteen-year-old student at the Royal Prussian Cadet Corps, gave a vivid description of the revolutionary events in Berlin: Those March days of 1848 left the most lasting impression on us young soldiers. From the so-called Spielhof alongside the Spree we could see the erection of the barricades on the Marschallbrücke. The outbreak began at different parts of the city at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 18th, our attention being called to it by the circumstance that shots were fired at the sentinels in front of the Franz Regiment's barracks, which adjoined those of the Cadet Corps. The report went that the Cadet Corps, that breeding place of reaction, was to be up rooted [sic]! This put our superior officers in a very awkward predicament; all connection with the outer world was cut off, and the Franz Regiment, which had been quartered next door to us, had been moved away, so we had to decide for ourselves what to do. General von Below was a feeble old man, Lieut.-Colonel Richter and our company commanders were all elderly–most of them had taken part in the War of Liberation–and some of them were no good as officers, so it was small wonder if a lack of vigour or decision was displayed. It was under debate whether we should not abstain from any attempt at resistance, when the senior lieutenant, Besserer von Dahlfingen, of my company, an exceptionally small man, spoke out at the Council of War and declared that it would be a disgrace if we surrendered to the Revolutionaries without a blow. Thereupon it was resolved to put up a fight. Our main position was to be on the first floor, led, up to by four stone staircases, each of which was allotted to a company. Our firearms, which had been placed in hiding already, were taken out again, and we began to block up the entrances to the staircases. Unfortunately we had no ammunition! This lack was in some degree made good by such officers as were sportsmen and had some powder and shot to distribute, so that firing might have been done by each of the companies; percussion-caps we secured from the Franz Regiment's barracks. However, things were not to become serious, for a battalion of the 1st Regiment of Guards pushed forward to the Marschallbrücke and averted all possibility of danger for us. The noise of the fighting died down now a little, only to revive again in the evening. The Leibregiment advanced to the Alexanderplatz from the Frankfurter Gate, amidst the same kind of continuous but unsystematic fighting which the Guards also had encountered. Early in the morning of the 19th–it may have been about 4 o'clock, the shooting had been followed by silence throughout the city–we were given the alarm and had to don our cloaks and fall in with our guns and march to the Schloss (the Royal Palace in Berlin), by order of General von Prittwitz. We set out just as day was breaking. In the Königstrasse we passed three or four deserted barricades; we could see that most of the windows in the street were broken and that all the houses showed marks of bullets. Arrived at the Schloss, led by General von Below, himself afoot, we were ushered through “Portal No. I” into the Castle Yard, where General von Prittwitz was to be seen mounted on a chestnut with some officers round about him. We had now to down arms and we began almost to freeze in the cold morning air. It was very pleasant for us, therefore, when we were taken, troop by troop, into the kitchen, and given coffee. There was now a lively va-et-vient of mounted aides-de-camp, and others in the Castle Yard. The streets through which we had passed, and the open places outside the Schloss, had, of course, been empty. Now we saw many waggons [sic] and bodies of troops bivouacking. Prisoners were being brought in every now and again and taken into the Castle cellars. After a wait of two hours or so we were given orders to march back to Potsdam. On March 21, the King proceeded through the streets of Berlin to attend a mass funeral at the Friedrichshain cemetery for the civilian victims of the uprising. He and his ministers and generals wore the revolutionary tricolor of black, red, and gold. Polish prisoners, who had been jailed for planning a rebellion in formerly Polish territories now ruled by Prussia, were liberated and paraded through the city to the acclaim of the people. The 254 persons killed during the riots were laid out on catafalques on the Gendarmenmarkt. Some 40,000 people accompanied these fallen demonstrators to their burial place at Friedrichshain. A Constituent National Assembly was elected from various German states in late April and early May 1848 and gathered in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main on May 18, 1848. The deputies consisted of 122 government officials, 95 judges, 81 lawyers, 103 teachers, 17 manufacturers and wholesale dealers, 15 physicians, and 40 landowners. A majority of the Assembly were liberals. It became known as the "professors' parliament", as many of its members were academics in addition to their other responsibilities. The one working-class member was Polish and, like colleagues from the Tyrol, not taken seriously. Starting on May 18, 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly worked to find ways to unite the various German states and to write a constitution. The Assembly was unable to pass resolutions and dissolved into endless debate. On May 22, 1848, another elected assembly sat for the first time in Berlin. They were elected under the law of April 8, 1848, which allowed for universal suffrage and a two-stage voting system. Most of the deputies elected to the Berlin Assembly, called the Prussian National Assembly, were members of the burghers or liberal bureaucracy. They set about the task of writing a constitution "by agreement with the Crown". King Frederick William IV of Prussia unilaterally imposed a monarchist constitution to undercut the democratic forces. This constitution took effect on December 5, 1848. On December 5, 1848, the Berlin Assembly was dissolved and replaced with the bicameral legislature allowed under the monarchist Constitution. This legislature was composed of a Herrenhaus and a Landtag. Otto von Bismarck was elected to the first Landtag elected under the new monarchical constitution. Saxony In Dresden, the capital of the Kingdom of Saxony, the people took to the streets asking King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony to engage in electoral reform, social justice and for a constitution. German composer Richard Wagner passionately engaged himself in the revolution in Dresden, supporting the democratic-republican movement. Later during the May Uprising in Dresden from May 3–9, 1849, he supported the provisional government. Others participating in the Uprising were the Russian revolutionary Michael Bakunin and the German working-class leader Stephen Born. In all, about 2,500 combatants manned the barricades during the May Uprising. On May 9, 1849, together with the leaders of the uprising, Wagner left Dresden for Switzerland to avoid arrest. He spent a number of years in exile abroad, in Switzerland, Italy, and Paris. Finally the government lifted its ban against him and he returned to Germany. Since the revolutionary events of 1830, Saxony had been ruled as a constitutional monarchy with a two-chamber legislature and an accountable ministry. This constitution continued to serve as the basis of the Saxon government until 1918. The Revolution of 1848 brought more popular reforms in the government of Saxony. In 1849, many Saxon residents emigrated to the United States, including Michael Machemehl. They landed in Galveston, Texas and created what became the German Texan community. In mid-century, some lived in cities, but many developed substantial farms to the west in Texas. The Rhineland or Rhenish Prussia The Rhineland shared a common history with the Rhenish Hesse, Luxembourg and the Palatinate of having been under the control of Revolutionary and then Napoleonic France from 1795. His rule established social, administrative and legislative measures taken that broke up the feudal rule that the clergy and the nobility had exercised over the area previously. The soil of the Rhineland is not the best for agriculture, but forestry has traditionally been a strong industry there. The relative lack of agriculture, late 18th-century elimination of the feudal structure, and the strong logging industry contributed to the industrialization of the Rhineland. With nearby sources of coal in the Mark, and access via the Rhine to the North Sea, the west bank of the Rhine in the Rhineland became the premier industrial area in Germany in the 19th century. By 1848, the towns of Aachen, Cologne and Düsseldorf were heavily industrialized, with a number of different industries represented. At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 90% of the population of the Rhineland was engaged in agriculture (including lumbering), but by 1933, only 12% were still working in agriculture By 1848, a large industrial working class, the proletariat, had developed and, owing to Napoleonic France, the level of education was relatively high and it was politically active. While in other German states the liberal petty bourgeoisie led the uprisings of 1848, in the Rhineland the proletariat was asserting its interests openly against the bourgeoisie as early as 1840. In 1848, Prussia controlled the Rhineland as part of "Western Prussia", having first acquired territory in this area in 1614. During the Napoleonic Era, as noted above, the Rhineland west of the Rhine had been incorporated into France and its feudal structures dismantled. But, following the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Prussia took over the west bank of the Rhineland. Its government treated the Rhinelanders as subjects and alien peoples, and it began to reinstate the hated feudal structures. Much of the revolutionary impulse in the Rhineland in 1848 was colored by a strong anti-Prussian feeling. The Rhinelanders took careful note of the announcement by King Frederick William IV on March 18, 1848, in Berlin that a United Diet would be formed and that other democratic reforms would be instituted. Elections for the United Diet were indirect. The elections were conducted on the basis of universal male suffrage, and they were to choose the members of the United Diet. Rhinelanders remained hopeful regarding this progress and did not participate in the early round of uprisings that were occurring in other parts of Germany. The Prussian government mistook this quietude in the Rhineland for loyalty to the autocratic Prussian government. The Prussian government began offering military assistance to other states in suppressing the revolts in their territories and cities, i.e. Dresden, the Palatinate, Baden, Wűrttemberg, Franconia, etc. Soon the Prussians discovered that they needed additional troops in this effort. Taking the loyalty of the Rhineland for granted, in the spring of 1849 the Prussian government called up a large portion of the army reserve—the Landwehr in Westphalia and the Rhineland. This action was opposed: the order to call up the Landwehr affected all males under the age of 40 years, and such a call up was to be done only in time of war, not in peacetime, when it was considered illegal. The Prussian King dissolved the Second Chamber of the United Diet because on March 27, 1849 it passed an unpopular constitution. The entire citizenry of the Rhineland, including the petty bourgeoisie, the grand bourgeoisie and the proletariat, rose up to protect the political reforms which they believed were slipping away. On May 9, 1849, uprisings occurred in the Rhenish towns of Elberfeld, Düsseldorf, Iserlohn and Solingen. The uprising in Düsseldorf was suppressed the following day on May 10, 1849. In the town of Elberfeld, the uprising showed strength and persistence, as 15,000 workers took to the streets and erected barricades; they confronted the Prussian troops sent to suppress the unrest and to collect a quota of Landwehr conscripts. In the end, the troops collected only about 40 conscripts from Elberfeld. A Committee of Public Safety was formed in the town, to organize the citizens in revolt. Members of the Committee included Karl Nickolaus Riotte, a democrat and a lawyer in Elberfeld; Ernst Hermann Höchster, another lawyer and democrat, elected as chairman of the Committee, and Alexis Heintzmann, a lawyer and a liberal who was also the public prosecutor in Elberfeld. Members of the Palatinate provisional government included Nikolaus Schmitt, serving as Minister of the Interior, and Theodor Ludwig Greiner. Karl Hecker, Franz Heinrch Zitz and Ludwig Blenker were among the other of the leaders of the Elberfeld uprising. The members of the Committee for Public Safety could not agree on a common plan, let alone control the various groups taking part in the uprising. The awakened working classes were pursuing their goals with single-minded determination. Citizen-military forces (paramilitary) organized to support the uprising. Military leaders of these forces included August Willich and Feliks Trociński and Captain Christian Zinn. On May 17 through 18, 1849, a group of workers and democrats from Trier and neighboring townships stormed the arsenal at Prüm to obtain arms for the insurgents. Workers from Solingen stormed the arsenal at Gräfrath and obtained arms and cartridges for the insurgents. (As noted above under the heading on "The Palatinate") Frederick Engels was active in the uprising in Elberfeld from May 11, 1849 until the end of the revolt. On May 10, 1849, he was in Solingen and making his way toward Elberfeld. He obtained two cases of cartridges from the arsenal at Gräfrath and carried them to Elberfeld. The upper bourgeoisie were frightened by the armed working classes taking to the streets. They began to separate themselves from the movement for constitutional reform and the Committee of Public Safety, describing the leaders as bloodthirsty terrorists. Leaders of the Committee, who were mostly petty bourgeoisie, were starting to vacillate. Rather than working to organize and direct the various factions of protests, they began to draw back from the revolutionary movement, especially the destruction of property. The Committee of Public Safety tried to calm the reformist movement and quell the demonstrations. Bavaria In Bavaria, King Ludwig I lost prestige because of his open relationship with his favourite mistress Lola Montez, a dancer and actress unacceptable to the aristocracy or the Church. She tried to launch liberal reforms through a Protestant prime minister, which outraged the state's Catholic conservatives. On February 9, conservatives came out onto the streets in protest. This February 9, 1848, demonstration was the first in that revolutionary year. It was an exception among the wave of liberal protests. The conservatives wanted to be rid of Lola Montez, and had no other political agenda. Liberal students took advantage of the Lola Montez affair to stress their demands for political change. All over Bavaria, students started demonstrating for constitutional reform, just as students were doing in other cities. Ludwig tried to institute a few minor reforms but they proved insufficient to quell the storm of protests. On March 16, 1848, Ludwig I abdicated in favor of his eldest son Maximilian II. Ludwig complained that "I could not rule any longer, and I did not want to give up my powers. In order to not become a slave, I became a lord." Although some popular reforms were introduced, the government regained full control. Greater Poland While technically Greater Poland was not a German state, the roughly corresponding territory of the Grand Duchy of Posen had been under Prussian control since the First and Second Partition of Poland in the late 18th century. The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, also known as the Poznań () Uprising, was an unsuccessful military insurrection of Polish troops under Ludwik Mierosławski against the Prussian forces. It began on March 20, 1848, and resulted in Prussia annexing the Greater Polish region as the Province of Posen. National Assembly in Frankfurt In Heidelberg, in the state of Baden (southwest Germany), on March 6, 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This prototype Parliament met on March 31, in Frankfurt's St. Paul's Church. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for all of Germany – and the German states agreed. Finally, on May 18, 1848, the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 586 delegates of the first freely elected German parliament, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a "professors' parliament" ("Professorenparlament"). There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of political factions – usually named after their meeting places: Café Milani – Right/Conservative (40) Casino – Right centre/Liberal-conservative (120) Landsberg – Centre/Liberal (40) Württemberger Hof – Left centre (100) Deutscher Hof – Left/Liberal democrats (60) Donnersberg – Far left/Democrats (40) Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician Heinrich von Gagern, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany. From the beginning the main problems were regionalism, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. Archduke Johann of Austria was chosen as a temporary head of state ("Reichsverweser" i.e. imperial vicar). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the Schleswig-Holstein Question without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discrediting occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force. Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were: Should the new united Germany include the German-speaking areas of Austria and thus separate these territories constitutionally from the remaining areas of the Habsburg Empire ("greater German solution", Großdeutschland), or should it exclude Austria, with leadership falling to Prussia ("smaller German solution", Kleindeutschland)? Finally, this question was settled when the Austrian Prime Minister introduced a centralised constitution for the entire Austrian Empire, thus delegates had to give up their hopes for a "Greater Germany". Should Germany become a hereditary monarchy, have an elected monarch, or even become a republic? Should it be a federation of relatively independent states or have a strong central government? Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate Robert Blum had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on November 9, despite his claim to immunity from prosecution as a member of the National Assembly. Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with society. In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On March 28, 1849, the draft of the Paulskirchenverfassung constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a constitutional monarchy, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover and Saxony. Backlash in Prussia By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, but had only retreated temporarily. General von Wrangel led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King Frederick William IV of Prussia immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the new Prussian parliament and put forth a constitution of his own which was based upon the work of the assembly, yet maintaining the ultimate authority of the king. Elaborated in the following years, the constitution came to provide for an upper house (Herrenhaus), and a lower house (Landtag), chosen by universal suffrage but under a three-class system of voting ("Dreiklassenwahlrecht"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80% of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats. On April 2, 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King Frederick William IV in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution. Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. But later, in a letter to a relative in England, he wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered a crown "from the gutter", "disgraced by the stink of revolution, defiled with dirt and mud". Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, which was little more than a debating club. The radical members were forced to go to Stuttgart, where they sat from June 6–18 as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by Württemberg troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the Palatinate and Baden were short-lived, as the local military, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms. The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces. Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably Carl Schurz, Franz Sigel and Friedrich Hecker. Such emigrants became known as the Forty-Eighters. Failure of the revolution The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because the Frankfurt Assembly reflected the many different interests of the German ruling classes. Its members were unable to form coalitions and push for specific goals. The first conflict arose over the goals of the assembly. The moderate liberals wanted to draft a constitution to present to the monarchs, whereas the smaller group of radical members wanted the assembly to declare itself as a law-giving parliament. They were unable to overcome this fundamental division, and did not take any definitive action toward unification or the introduction of democratic rules. The assembly declined into debate. While the French revolution drew on an existing nation state, the democratic and liberal forces in Germany of 1848 were confronted with the need to build a nation state and a constitution at the same time, which overtaxed them. When the Frankfurt Assembly opened on May 18, 1848, the deputies elected Heinrich von Gagern as the first President of the Assembly. He had strong support from the Center-Right Unionist party and some influence with moderates of the left, such that he could control perhaps 250 of the deputies of the Frankfurt Assembly. Gagern strongly supported unification of the German states. He insisted, however, that the Assembly needed to gain agreement of the monarchs, who were highly reactionary. In addition, only the Kingdom of Prussia had the military force necessary to effect this unification. Many in the Assembly, including Gagern, distrusted the intentions of the Prussian state and its absolutist government. Fearful of losing their positions as servants of the monarchs, the moderate liberals quickly concluded that only negotiations would lead to political progress. The Prussian army ignored the demands for reforms and chased the rump assembly out of Frankfurt in 1849. The Frankfurt Assembly had no powers to raise taxes and relied completely on the goodwill of the monarchs. As many of the members held influential provincial positions, their reluctance to call for radical reforms or annoy their employers meant that they could not raise funds for armed forces, nor enforce laws they might pass. The hundred or so radicals, who believed that an armed uprising was necessary, lost interest and left the assembly to try to raise forces at a local level to bring about a 'real' revolution. Without a bureaucracy, they could not raise any money. The Assembly members were highly motivated for reform, but the major divides among them became obvious and inhibited progress; for instance, advocates of Grossdeutschland versus advocates of Kleindeutschland, Catholics versus Protestants, supporters of Austria versus supporters of Prussia. The major conflict that caused the collapse of the Assembly was the stand-off between demands of the moderates to write a democratic constitution and liberals' reliance on negotiation with reactionary monarchs to produce reforms. The various interest groups began to gather outside the Assembly to decide on their tactics. Meanwhile, the rulers of the German states gradually realised that their positions were no longer under threat. The King of Bavaria had stepped down, but that was only partly the result of pressure from below. As the threat of an armed uprising receded, the monarchs realized unification would not be realized. They were unwilling to give up any power in its pursuit. As princes quelled rebellions in their territories, they followed the example of Prussia, recalling their elected deputies from the Assembly. Only Prussia, with its overwhelming military might, was able to protect the Frankfurt Assembly from military attack by the princes. But Prussia had its own interests in mind. The Frankfurt National Assembly did agree to found the Reichsflotte, the German Navy, on June 14, 1848, which was significant to Germany's future power and reach. The powerlessness of the Frankfurt Assembly, however, was reflected in the debate over the Danish Conflict of 1848. Like many other events of 1848, the Danish conflict was sparked by a street demonstration. On March 21, 1848, the people of Copenhagen protested in the streets to demand a liberal Constitution. The majority in the Duchy of Holstein and in the southern part of the Duchy of Schleswig were German-speaking. However, the Duke of both duchies was King Frederick VII of Denmark, the last absolute monarch of Denmark. The citizens of Kiel and Holstein were unsure of what was occurring in Copenhagen. They revolted to found a separate and autonomous province with closer relations with the German states. On March 24, 1848, they set up a new provisional, autonomous government in Holstein and raised a Schleswig-Holstein army of 7,000 soldiers. Unification opinion in the German states supported annexing the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia sent an army to support this independence movement, and ignored the Frankfurt National Assembly when Great Britain and Russia applied international pressure to end the war. The Prussians signed a peace at Malmö, requiring them to remove all Prussian troops from the two duchies and agree to all other Danish demands. The Armistice of Malmö was greeted with great consternation in Germany, and debated in the Assembly, but it was powerless to control Prussia. On September 16, 1848, the Frankfurt National Assembly approved of the Malmö Treaty by a majority vote. Public support for the National Assembly declined sharply following this vote, and the Radical Republicans publicly stated their opposition to the Assembly. After many diversions, the Frankfurt National Assembly took up the issue of a German constitution. In October 1848, King Frederick William IV of Prussia unilaterally issued a monarchist constitution. Under this new monarchist constitution, a Prussian Assembly was established. The Assembly was a bicameral legislature, consisting of a Herrenhaus (House of Lords) or upper house, whose members were selected by the provincial governments, and a Landtag (Country Diet), whose members were elected by male suffrage but were seated only through a complicated system of electoral committees. Otto von Bismarck was elected to this first Landtag. The Landtag was founded to undercut the authority of the Frankfurt National Assembly. In an attempt to regain some authority, in April 1849, the Frankfurt Assembly offered King Frederick William IV the crown as German emperor. He turned it down, saying he would accept a crown only by the grace of God, not "from the gutter". The Frankfurt National Assembly had been founded partly following the revolutionary events in Vienna, Austria, which resulted in the fall of Prince Metternich. Its strongest support came from the southern provinces, where there was a tradition of opposition to the local tyrants. After Austria crushed the Italian revolts of 1848/1849, the Habsburgs were ready to deal with the German states. Unable to muster an army and lacking broader support, the Assembly could not resist Austrian power. The Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved on May 31, 1849. Peasant success of the revolution Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising states across Europe until after World War I. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation were peasants. Most of them suffered the indignity of serfdom or some lingering elements of the system of forced labor. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and Prussia. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was Hans Kudlich, subsequently revered as Bauernbefreier ('liberator of peasants'). In popular culture The second half of Max Ophüls' 1955 film Lola Montès lavishly depicts the famous courtesan's affair with Bavarian King Ludwig I, and his eventual downfall in the 1848 uprisings. References Citations Bibliography Hamerow, Theodore S. "History and the German Revolution of 1848." American Historical Review 60.1 (1954): 27-44. online. External links German Confederation Conflicts in 1848 Conflicts in 1849 Protests in Germany Rebellions in Germany Revolutions of 1848 Revolutions Revolutions 1848 in the Austrian Empire 1849 in the Austrian Empire Revolution 1840s in Germany 1840s in the Austrian Empire 19th-century revolutions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20military%20company

Private military company

A private military company (PMC) is a private company providing armed combat or security services for financial gain. PMCs refer to their operationally deployed personnel as "security contractors" or "private military contractors". The services and expertise offered by PMCs are typically similar to those of governmental security, military or police forces, most often on a smaller scale. While PMCs often provide services to train or supplement official armed forces in service of governments, they can also be employed by private companies to provide bodyguards for key staff or protection of company premises, especially in hostile territories. However, contractors who use armed force in a war zone can be considered unlawful combatants, in reference to a concept outlined in the Geneva Conventions and explicitly specified by the 2006 American Military Commissions Act. The services of private contractors are used around the world. P. W. Singer, author of Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry, says "In geographic terms, it operates in over 50 countries. It’s operated in every single continent but Antarctica." Singer states that in the 1990s there used to be 50 military personnel for every 1 contractor, and now the ratio is 10 to 1. He also points out that these contractors have a number of duties depending on whom they are hired by. In developing countries that have natural resources, such as oil refineries in Iraq, they are hired to guard the area. They are also hired to guard companies that contract services and reconstruction efforts such as General Electric. Apart from securing companies, they secure officials and government affiliates. Private military companies carry out many missions and jobs. Some examples include close protection for the Afghan president Hamid Karzai and piloting reconnaissance airplanes and helicopters as a part of Plan Colombia. According to a study from 2003 the PMC industry was worth over $100 billion a year at that time. According to a 2008 study by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, private contractors make up 29% of the workforce in the United States Intelligence Community and cost the equivalent of 49% of their personnel budgets. History Modern PMCs trace their origins back to a group of ex-SAS veterans in 1965 who, under the leadership of the founder of the SAS, Sir David Stirling and John Woodhouse, founded WatchGuard International (formerly with offices in Sloane Street before moving to South Audley Street in Mayfair) as a private company that could be contracted out for security and military purposes. The company's first assignment was to go to Yemen to report on the state of the royalist forces when a cease-fire was declared. At the same time Stirling was cultivating his contacts in the Iranian government and exploring the chances of obtaining work in Africa. The company eventually operated in Zambia and in Sierra Leone, providing training teams and advising on security matters. Stirling also organised deals to sell weapons and military personnel to other countries for various privatised foreign policy operations. Contracts were mainly with the Gulf States and involved weapons supply and training. The company was also linked with a failed attempt to overthrow Colonel Muammar Gaddafi from power in Libya in 1971. Woodhouse resigned as Director of Operations after a series of disagreements and Stirling himself ceased to take an active part in 1972. Stirling also founded KAS International (aka KAS Enterprises) and was involved in a collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature to forcibly reduce the illegal poaching and smuggling of elephant tusks in various countries of Southern Africa. Other groups formed by ex-SAS servicemen were established in the 1970s and 80s, including Control Risks Group and Defence Systems, providing military consultation and training. Dramatic growth in the number and size of PMCs occurred at the end of the Cold War, as Western governments increasingly began to rely on their services to bolster falling conventional military budgets. Some of the larger corporations are: Vinnell and Military Professional Resources Inc. in the United States; G4S and Keeni-Meeny Services in the United Kingdom; Lordan-Levdan in Israel and Executive Outcomes in South Africa. The exodus of over 6 million military personnel from Western militaries in the 1990s expanded the recruiting pool for PMCs. Some commentators have argued that there was an exodus from many special operations forces across the globe towards these private military corporations. Units that were allegedly severely affected included the British Special Air Service, the US Special Operations Forces and the Canadian Joint Task Force 2. Finding work in the industry is not difficult for most former soldiers as their personal network of fellow and ex-soldiers is enough to keep them informed of available contracts. In 1985, Logistics Civil Augmentation Program (LOGCAP) was established in the United States, primarily to plan for contingencies and to leverage the existing civilian resources. However, it was three years later before it was first used. In support of a United States Third Army mission, the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) used LOGCAP to contract for the construction and maintenance of two petroleum pipelines systems in Southwest Asia. Later, USACE awarded the first contract under LOGCAP to Brown and Root Services (now KBR) in August 1992 as a cost-plus-award-fee contract, which was used in December that year to support the United Nations forces in Somalia. Some contractors have served in advisory roles, that help train local militaries to fight more effectively, instead of intervening directly. Much of the peacekeeper training Western governments have provided to African militaries was done by private firms, and with the increasing absence of Western military support to international peace operations, the private sector was commonly utilized to provide services to peace and stability operations from Haiti to Darfur. The Center for Public Integrity reported that since 1994, the Defense Department entered into 3,601 contracts worth $300 billion with 12 U.S. based PMCs, specifically during the initial response after Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Domestic operations are generally under the auspice of state or federal agencies such as the Department of Energy or the Department of Homeland Security rather than the Department of Defense. Driven by increasingly greater fears of domestic terror attacks and civil unrest and disruption in the wake of disasters, more conventional security companies are moving into operations arenas that would fall within the definition of a PMC. The United States State Department also employs several companies to provide support in danger zones that would be difficult for conventional U.S. forces. The October 2000 USS Cole bombing proved a pivotal moment for private military companies at sea, and directly led to the first contract between Blackwater and the US military. PMCs in Iraq In December 2006, there were estimated to be at least 100,000 contractors working directly for the United States Department of Defense in Iraq which was a tenfold increase in the use of private contractors for military operations since the Persian Gulf War, just over a decade earlier. The prevalence of PMCs led to the foundation of trade group the Private Security Company Association of Iraq. In Iraq, the issue of accountability, especially in the case of contractors carrying weapons, was a sensitive one. Iraqi laws do not hold over contractors. U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld justified the use of PMCs in Iraq on the basis that they were cost effective and useful on the ground. He also affirmed that they were not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Two days before he left Iraq, L. Paul Bremer signed "Order 17" giving all Americans associated with the CPA and the American government immunity from Iraqi law. A July 2007 report from the American Congressional Research Service indicates that the Iraqi government still had no authority over private security firms contracted by the U.S. government. In 2007, the Uniform Code of Military Justice was amended to allow for prosecution of military contractors who are deployed in a "declared war or a contingency operation." PMCs supplied support to U.S. military bases throughout the Persian Gulf, from operating mess halls to providing security. They supplied armed guards at a U.S. Army base in Qatar, and they used live ammunition to train soldiers at Camp Doha in Kuwait. They maintained an array of weapons systems vital to the invasion of Iraq. They also provided bodyguards for VIPs, guard installations, and escort supply convoys from Kuwait. All these resources were called upon constantly. List of occurrences Employees of private military company CACI and Titan Corp. were involved in the Iraq Abu Ghraib prison scandal in 2003, and 2004. The U.S. Army "found that contractors were involved in 36 percent of the [Abu Ghraib] proven incidents and identified 6 employees as individually culpable", although none have faced prosecution unlike US military personnel. On March 31, 2004, four American private contractors belonging to the company Blackwater USA were killed by insurgents in Fallujah as they drove through the town. They were dragged from their car in one of the most violent attacks on U.S. contractors in the conflict. Following the attack, an angry mob mutilated and burned the bodies, dragging them through the streets before they were hung on a bridge. (See also: 31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush, Operation Vigilant Resolve) On March 28, 2005, 16 American contractors and three Iraqi aides from Zapata Engineering, under contract to the US Army Corps of Engineers to manage an ammunition storage depot, were detained following two incidents in which they allegedly fired upon U.S. Marine checkpoint. While later released, the contractors have levied complaints of mistreatment against the Marines who detained them. On June 5, 2005, Colonel Theodore S. Westhusing committed suicide, after writing a report exonerating US Investigations Services of allegations of fraud, waste and abuse he received in an anonymous letter in May. On October 27, 2005, a "trophy" video, complete with post-production Elvis Presley music, appearing to show private military contractors in Baghdad shooting Iraqi civilians sparked two investigations after it was posted on the Internet. The video has been linked unofficially to Aegis Defence Services. According to the posters, the man who is seen shooting vehicles on this video in Iraq was a South African employee of Aegis Victory team named Danny Heydenreycher. He served in the British military for six years. After the incident the regional director for Victory ROC tried to fire Heydenreycher, but the team threatened to resign if he did. Aegis, the U.S. Army, and the U.S. State Department each conducted a formal inquiry into the issue. The Army determined that there was no "probable cause to believe that a crime was committed." On September 17, 2007, the Iraqi government announced that it was revoking the license of the American security firm Blackwater USA over the firm's involvement in the deaths of seventeen Iraqis in a firefight that followed a car bomb explosion near a State Department motorcade. The company was allowed to continue to operate in Iraq until January 2009 when the U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement took effect. Blackwater was one of the most high-profile firms operating in Iraq, with around 1,000 employees as well as a fleet of helicopters in the country. In 2014, four Blackwater employees were tried and convicted in U.S. federal court over the incident; one of murder, and the other three of manslaughter and firearms charges. President Donald Trump, before he left office, pardoned the four security guards from the private military firm Blackwater who were serving jail sentences for killing 14 civilians including two children. On March 12, 2017, Sallyport Global fired two investigators who alleged sex trafficking, alcohol smuggling, and security lapses by Sallyport employees at Balad Air Base in Iraq. PMCs in Somalia Another area that saw a large involvement of Private Military Companies over the past decades was Somalia and the seas surrounding it. While having less publicity and scrutiny compared to PMC involvement in Iraq, in the Western media, the role of the PMCs in this area should not be underestimated. Up till today PMCs are active in this region to both provide support for the UN AMISOM mission, and provide security for private shipping organizations that sail through the Gulf of Aden. At the seas the PMCs are hired to deter pirates from attacking vessels and taking the shipping crew and their transport hostage. While, a large variety of international naval missions with the same goals (such as EU's Atalanta, NATO's Ocean Shield, and one by CTF 150) are and were active in this region, it is still necessary for the shipping companies to have security personnel on-deck. This is a service that could almost solely be provided by PMCs. While these PMCs seem to be successful in providing this de-centralized form of security, it also has a large downside since, inherent to its de-centralized nature, it is very hard for the UN or other international organizations to provide effective oversight over what happens at the seas. Whereas, the UN showed that between 2010 and 2015 there were over 50 encounters between the national sovereign Navies, that participated in the missions, resulting in over 1200 detained pirates, only one PMC published information over this period. Since the PMCs are so much more active in this area, and covering a larger part of it through it activities on board of trading ships, this seems to be a very low estimate. PMC presence in Somalia is an example of two violent non-state actors at sea engaged in combat with each other. Fatalities By the end of 2012, the number of contractors who had died in Iraq, Afghanistan and Kuwait had reached 3,000. Scholars have studied whether contractor deaths have an effect on the public's "casualty sensitivity" when substituted for military fatalities. Casualty sensitivity refers to the inverse relationship between military deaths and public support for a sustained military engagement. Contractor deaths may account for nearly 30% of total US battlefield losses since the beginning of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. International legal issues In October 2007, the United Nations released a two-year study that reported that, although hired as "security guards", private contractors performed military duties. Many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, are not signatories to the 1989 United Nations Mercenary Convention banning the use of mercenaries. A spokesman for the American mission to the U.N. office in Geneva (UNOG) said that "Accusations that U.S. government-contracted security guards, of whatever nationality, are mercenaries is inaccurate." An observer noted that the difficulty in separating private from public troops means that legal proceedings against these violent non-state actors can be complicated, and stated that contracted combatants carry the legitimacy of the state that hires them. There is currently no globally accepted norms or legal framework applied to these firms. PMC activities elsewhere In 1994 and 1995 South African based PMC Executive Outcomes was involved in two military actions in Africa. In the first conflict, EO fought on the behalf of the Angolan government against UNITA after a UN brokered peace settlement broke down. In the second action EO was tasked with containing a guerrilla movement in Sierra Leone called the Revolutionary United Front. Both missions involved personnel from the firm training four to five thousand combat personnel for the Angolan government and retaking control of the diamond fields and forming a negotiated peace in Sierra Leone. In 1995, both Croatia and Bosnia hired Military Professional Resources Inc. (M.P.R.I.) to equip, train and professionalize their armed forces. In 1999, an incident involving DynCorp in Bosnia was followed by a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) lawsuit being filed against DynCorp employees stationed in Bosnia. It alleged that: "employees and supervisors from DynCorp were engaging in perverse, illegal and inhumane behavior and were illegally purchasing women, weapons, forged passports and participating in other immoral acts." In 2000, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's ABC Television international affairs program "Foreign Correspondent" broadcast a special report "Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune", focusing on the exploits of South African pilot Neall Ellis and his MI-24 Hind gunship. The report also investigated the failures of the UN Peacekeeping Force, and the involvement of mercenaries/private military contractors in providing vital support to UN operations and British military Special Operations in Sierra Leone in 1999-2000. On April 5, 2005, Jamie Smith, CEO of SCG International Risk announced the expansion of services from the traditional roles of PMCs of protection and intelligence to military aviation support. SCG International Air would provide air support, medevac (medical evacuation), rotary and fixed-wing transportation, heavy-lift cargo, armed escort and executive air travel to "any location on earth." This marked a unique addition and expansion of services to rival the capabilities of some country's armies and air forces. On March 27, 2006, J. Cofer Black, vice chairman of Blackwater USA announced to attendees of a special operations exhibition in Jordan that his company could now provide a brigade-size force for low intensity conflicts. According to Black, "There is clear potential to conduct security operations at a fraction of the cost of NATO operations". These comments were later denied. In mid-May 2006, police in the Democratic Republic of the Congo arrested 32 alleged mercenaries of different nationalities; 19 South Africans, 10 Nigerians and three Americans. Half of them worked for a South African company named Omega Security Solutions and the Americans for AQMI Strategy Corp. The men were accused of plotting to overthrow the government but charges were not pressed. The men were deported to their home countries. In 2006, a U.S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other companies from different countries, including Israel, have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities. In December 2009, the Congressional Research Service, which provides background information to members of the United States Congress, announced that the deployment of 30,000 extra U.S. troops into Afghanistan could be accompanied by a surge of "26,000 to 56,000" contractors. This would expand the presence of personnel from the U.S. private sector in Afghanistan "to anywhere from 130,000 to 160,000". The CRS study said contractors made up 69 percent of the Pentagon's personnel in Afghanistan in December 2008, a proportion that "apparently represented the highest recorded percentage of contractors used by the Defense Department in any conflict in the history of the United States." In September 2008 their presence had dropped to 62 percent, while the U.S. military troop strength increased modestly. Also in December 2009, a House oversight subcommittee said that it had begun a wide-ranging investigation into allegations that American private security companies hired to protect Defense Department convoys in Afghanistan would be paying off warlords and the Taliban to ensure safe passage. That would mean that the United States unintentionally and indirectly engaged in a protection racket and may be indirectly funding the very insurgents it is trying to fight. A preliminary inquiry determined that the allegations warranted a deeper inquiry, focused initially on eight trucking companies that share a $2.2 billion Defense Department contract to carry goods and material from main supply points inside Afghanistan (primarily Bagram air base) to more than 100 forward operating bases and other military facilities in the country. In 2015, STTEP International, (Specialised Tasks, Training, Equipment & Protection) was credited with providing support to the Nigerian military that has proved decisive in containing Boko Haram activities in Nigeria. The chairman of STTEP, Eeben Barlow, is the former CEO and founder of Executive Outcomes. Since 2015, the United Arab Emirates have hired an estimated 1,800 Latin American contractors and 400 Eritrean troops for training and combat to support the Yemeni government’s efforts against the Houthi rebels in the Yemeni Civil War. Contractors from the Frontier Services Group (FSG) have established close ties with Chinese state-owned firms since 2014, providing security, logistics, and aviation for Chinese companies in dozens of countries across Asia, Africa, and Europe in connection with China’s Belt and Road initiative. In February 2019, FSG signed a preliminary deal with the Chinese government to establish a training base in Kashgar, Xinjiang. PMC in wildlife preservation The Central African based park-ranger organization African Wildlife Defence Force is contracting former servicemen and law enforcement personnel to protect national parks and private game ranches in Africa. Candidates must undergo additional retraining to become a park ranger. These are also referred to as Private Ranger Contractors or PRC. Relation to non-governmental organizations The use of private security contractors by NGOs in dangerous regions is a highly sensitive subject. Many NGOs have sought the services of private security contractors in dangerous areas of operation, such as Afghanistan, Somalia and Sudan due to the following reasons: Lack of knowledge/skills and time to adequately meet the challenges of deteriorating security environments; and Administrative costs of managing security in-house and potential to outsource the liability. Quite often the contractors hired are local companies and mostly are unarmed personnel guarding facilities, only very rarely are international contractors or mobile armed security personnel used. However, there are a great many voices against their use who cite the following problems: Outsourcing security left NGOs reliant on contractors and unable to develop their own security thinking and make their own decisions Perceived association of PSPs with state security, police or military services in turn compromises the ability of NGOs to claim neutrality, leading to increased risk; Outsourcing may not necessarily lead to lower costs, and the cost of middlemen may result in more poorly paid and poorly trained personnel who turn over frequently and cannot adequately perform the job; and NGOs have obligations beyond strictly legal liability that include political, ethical and reputational implications – if the organisation's responsibility to prevent and mitigate any possible negative outcomes is better achieved through in-house security, this should be their choice. The result is that many NGOs are not open about their use of PSPs and researchers' at the Overseas Development Institute studies have found that sometimes statements at NGOs central headquarters contradict those given by local staff. This prevents informative knowledge-sharing and debate on the subject needed to improve NGOs decisions regarding this issue, though there have been some notable exceptions (Afghanistan NGO Security Office (ANSO) and the NGO Coordination Committee in Iraq (NCCI)). The Private Security Contractor fulfills many different needs in the private and public sectors. While some nations rely heavily on the input of governments such as the US, other countries do not trust the US, so they tend to look for private contractors who will have a fiduciary obligation them. According to Joel Vargas, Director of Operations for Contingent Security Services, Ltd and Assistant Director for InterPort Police, it will be impossible to build democracies without having the assistance from the private sector performing activities for clients. Future After the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq, the U.S. State Department is reportedly planning to more than double the number of its private security guards, up to as many as 7,000. Defending five fortified compounds across the country, the security contractors would operate radars to warn of enemy rocket attacks, search for roadside bombs, fly reconnaissance drones and even staff quick reaction forces to aid civilians in distress. Its helicopter fleet, which will be piloted by contractors, will grow from 17 to 29. Due to strain of United States Armed Forces, the U.S. State Department and The Pentagon has also outsourced the expanded military training in Africa to three companies: Military Professional Resources Inc. (M.P.R.I), DFI International and Logicon (Now owned by Northrop Grumman). Regulation Demands for specific PSC services have grown to record levels in recent decades, and private firm's capabilities now include an array of services that are vital to the success of on-the-ground war fighting as well as other more traditional stability operations and contingency contracting. While past calls for corporate responsibility have heralded successes such as the Kimberley Process and the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative in widespread international operations, there has also been a move within the PSC and contingency contracting industries to call for accountability and to implement a code of ethics for the retention of services and operations of such service providers. Existing credible accountability initiatives form a skeleton for governing the conduct of contractors, but much remains to be fleshed out to form a coherent and standardized framework from which to oversee such organizations and activities. Over the last decade there have been a number of initiatives to regulate the private security industry. These include the ISO/PAS 28007:2012 Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies and the ANSI/ASIS PSC.1 and PSC.4 standards. ASIS Commission on Standards Founded in 1955, ASIS is a society of individual security professionals dedicated to increasing the effectiveness and productivity of security professionals by developing educational programs and materials. ASIS is an ANSI-accredited Standards Developing Organization, and within ASIS the ASIS Commission on Standards and Guidelines works with national and international standards-setting organizations and industry representatives to develop voluntary standards and guidelines for security professionals. With funding from the U.S. Department of Defense, the ASIS Commission on Standards is currently promulgating four sets of standards for private security companies. PSC.1 – MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR QUALITY OF PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY OPERATIONS-REQUIREMENTS WITH GUIDANCE This Standard provides auditable criteria for quality assurance of Private Security Company (PSC) operations and services, consistent with pertinent legal and human rights obligations and good practices recognized in the Montreux Document and the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers. The development of this Standard was facilitated by the U.S. Department of Defense through a consensus-based process. The DOD was required by Congress through Section 833 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 2011 to begin using business and operational standards in contracting and management of PSCs, with the intent of raising the overall standard of performance of these companies. This Standard fulfills that mandate. It has also been recognized by the American National Standards Institute and are achieving international recognition. PSC.2 – CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT AND AUDITING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR QUALITY OF PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY OPERATION This Standard provides requirements and guidance for conducting conformity assessment of the Management System for Quality of Private Security Company Operations (PSC) Standard. It provides requirements for bodies providing auditing and third party certification of Private Security Company Operations – private security providers working for any client. It provides requirements and guidance on the management of audit programs, conduct of internal or external audits of the management system and PSC operations, as well as on competence and evaluation of auditors. PSC.3 – MATURITY MODEL FOR THE PHASED IMPLEMENTATION OF A QUALITY ASSURANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR PRIVATE SECURITY SERVICE PROVIDERS Standard PSC.3 development is complete and has been approved in January 2013. PSC.3 will benefit private security service providers in improving their quality of services consistent with respect for human rights and legal and contractual obligations. It will provide a basis for managing risk while reducing costs, demonstrating legal compliance, enhancing stakeholder relations, and meeting client expectations. The model standard outlines six phases ranging from no process in place for quality assurance management, to going beyond the requirements of the standard. Criteria based on core elements of ANSI/ASIS PSC.1-2012 Standard can be used to demonstrate continual improvement and are compatible with rewards and recognition programs. PSC.4 – QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SECURITY MANAGEMENT FOR PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY'S OPERATING IN THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT This Standard provides guidance for PMSCs to implement the ANSI/ASIS PSC.1-2012 for private maritime security companies. It establishes guidance on quality assurance in all security related activities and functions while demonstrating accountability to law and respect for human rights. The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers In 2008, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Swiss government, and contributors from private security companies and the civil society/NGO sector developed and proposed the Montreux Document on Private Military and Security Companies. The document details international legal obligations and lists specific recommendations related to PSC services procurement practices and operational oversight, and clarifies the obligations of States pertaining to the hiring of such entities during armed conflicts. Cultural references Private military companies are explored extensively in the Metal Gear video game franchise, with several games (particularly Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots, and Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain) featuring the command of fictional PMCs. In the video game storyline, which takes place in the 20th and 21st centuries, traditional militaries eventually collapse as the world becomes run by PMCs. They were also parodied in the Grand Theft Auto series, specifically Grand Theft Auto V as "Merryweather Security", which is possibly a parody of the controversial PMC Blackwater. In Contract Wars and its sequels, Hired Ops and Escape from Tarkov, the armed conflict erupts between two fictional PMCs, the Russian BEAR and the western USEC. In Marvel Television's The Punisher on Netflix a PMC by the name of ANVIL is heavily featured. ANVIL's founder, Billy Russo, being one of the primary antagonists of the series. Much like real PMCs, ANVIL provides training spaces for U.S. forces on American and foreign soil. In Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege one playable CTU is a private military company called NIGHTHAVEN. See also List of private military contractors List of private security companies List of non-governmental paramilitary units Private security company Private police Company police Private army Command responsibility Condottieri Mercenary Defense contractor Law of war Military–industrial complex Personal Security Detachment Private defense agency Private intelligence agency Privateer Wagner Group Resources Academic publications Arnold, Guy. Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Third World. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. Deborah D. Avant. The Market for Force: The Consequences of Privatizing Security. George Washington University, August 2005. Deborah D. Avant and Kara Kingma Neu. 2019. "The Private Security Events Database." Journal of Conflict Resolution. Brillstein, Arik: Antiterrorsystem. Engel Publishing 2005 Brooks, Doug/ Rathgeber, Shawn Lee: The Industry Role in Regulating Private Security Companies, in: Canadian Consortium on Human Security - Security Privatization: Challenges and Opportunities, Vol. 6.3, University of British Columbia, March 2008. Simon Chesterman & Chia Lehnardt, eds. From Mercenaries to Market: The Rise and Regulation of Private Military Companies. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Niccolò Machiavelli. The Prince. 1532. See ch. 12. Amy E. Eckert, Outsourcing War: The Just War Tradition in the Age of Military Privatization, Cornell University Press, 2016. Robert Mandel. Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. Fred Schreier & Marina Caparini. "Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance of Private Military and Security Companies", DCAF Occasional Paper 6, The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, March 2005. Filipa Guinote. "Private Military Firms and the State: Sharing Responsibility for Violations of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law", Collection Ricerche, "Series E.MA Awarded thesis", vol. 7, Venice: Marsilio Editori, 2006. David Shearer. Private Armies and Military Intervention, April 1998. P. W. Singer. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. Cornell University Press, March 2004. Stephan Maninger. "Soldiers of Misfortune – Is the Demise of National Armies a Core Contributing Factor in the Rise of Private Security Companies?", Private Security and Military Companies: Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects, eds. Gerhard Kümmel & Thomas Jäger. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007. Hin-Yan Liu. "Leashing the Corporate Dogs of War: The Legal Implications of the Modern Private Military Company", Journal of Conflict and Security Law 15(1) 2010: 141-168. Woolley, Peter J. "Soldiers of Fortune," The Common Review, v. 5, no. 4 (2007), pp. 46–48. Petrovic Predrag, Milosevic Marko, Unijat Jelena & Stojanovic Sonja. Private Security Companies – a Friend or a foe? . Centre for Civil-Military Relations, 2008. Non-academic publications Making A Killing, James Ashcroft. Virgin Books. Licensed to Kill : Privatizing the War on Terror, Robert Young Pelton Three Worlds Gone Mad: Dangerous Journeys through the War Zones of Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific, Robert Young Pelton, August 2006. An Unorthodox Soldier, Tim Spicer, September 2000. Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, Jeremy Scahill, Nation Books. February 2007. Contractor, Giampiero Spinelli Mursia Editore 2009 Guns For Hire: The Inside Story of Freelance Soldiering, Tony Geraghty, Portrait. 2007. Private Security Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan: Legal Issues, Jennifer K. Elsea, Congressional Research Service, January 7, 2010 Irak, terre mercenaire : les armées privées remplacent les troupes américaines [Iraq, mercenary land: private armies replace US troops], by Georges-Henri Bricet des Vallons, Favre (Lausanne:Switzerland), January 2010. . Only in French. Dirty Deeds Done Cheap: The Incredible Story of My Life from the SBS to a Hired Gun in Iraq, by Mike Mercer, John Blake. 2009. References External links Military–industrial complex Types of military forces Types of business entity Military Company

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom

Culture of the United Kingdom

British culture is influenced by the combined nations' history; its historically Christian religious life, its interaction with the cultures of Europe, the traditions of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland, and the impact of the British Empire. Although British culture is a distinct entity, the individual cultures of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness. British literature is particularly esteemed. The modern novel was invented in Britain, and playwrights, poets, and authors are among its most prominent cultural figures. Britain has also made notable contributions to music, cinema, art, architecture and television. The UK is also the home of the Church of England, the state church and mother church of the Anglican Communion, the third-largest Christian denomination. Britain contains some of the world's oldest universities, has made many contributions to philosophy, science, technology and medicine, and is the birthplace of many prominent scientists and inventions. The Industrial Revolution began in the UK and had a profound effect on the family socio-economic and cultural conditions of the world. As a result of the British Empire significant British influence can be observed in the language, law, culture and institutions of its former colonies, most of which are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. A subset of these states form the Anglosphere, and are among Britain's closest allies. British colonies and dominions influenced British culture in turn, particularly British cuisine. Sport is an important part of British culture, and numerous sports originated in the country including football and rugby. The UK has been described as a "cultural superpower", and London has been described as a world cultural capital. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw the UK ranked the third most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany and Canada) in 2013 and 2014. Language First spoken in early medieval England, the English language is the de facto official language of the UK, and is spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the British population. Seven other languages are recognised by the British Government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages – Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Cornish, Irish, Ulster Scots, and British Sign Language. In Wales, all pupils at state schools must either be taught through the medium of Welsh or study it as an additional language until age 16, and the Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages should be treated equally in the public sector, so far as is reasonable and practicable. Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act, passed by the Scottish Parliament in 2005, recognised Gaelic as an official language of Scotland and required the creation of a national plan for Gaelic to provide strategic direction for the development of the Gaelic language. The Cornish language is a revived language that became extinct as a first language in Cornwall in the late 18th century. Regional accents Dialects and regional accents vary heavily amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves. This is partially the result of the long history of immigration to the UK, for example Northern English dialects contain many words with Old Norse roots. Scottish English, Welsh English, and Hiberno-Irish are varieties of English distinct from both English English and the native languages of those countries. Received Pronunciation is the Standard English accent in England and Wales, while in Scotland Scottish Standard English is a distinct dialect. Although these accents have a high social prestige, since the 1960s a greater permissiveness toward regional English varieties has taken hold in education. The great variety of British accents is often noted, with nearby regions often having highly distinct dialects and accents, for example there are large differences between Scouse and Mancunian despite Liverpool and Manchester being only 35 miles (56 km) apart. Dialectal English is often found in literature, for example Emily Brontë's novel Wuthering Heights contains Yorkshire dialect. Arts Literature The United Kingdom inherited the literary traditions of England, Scotland and Wales. These include Arthurian literature and its Welsh origins, Norse-influenced Old English literature, the works of English authors Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare, and Scots works such as John Barbour's The Brus. The early 18th century period of British literature is known as the Augustan Age and included the development of the novel. Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders (1722) are often seen as the first English novels, however the development of the novel took place in a wider literary context that included the rise of prose satires – which reached a high point with Gulliver's Travels – and earlier foreign works like the Spanish Don Quixote. Also linked to the Augustan period is Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language. Published in 1755, it was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later. The subsequent Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance 200 years earlier, and a revival of interest in vernacular literature. In Scotland the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in Scots literature, and the Weaver Poets of Ulster were influenced by literature from Scotland. In Wales the late 18th century saw the revival of the eisteddfod tradition, inspired by Iolo Morganwg. The period also saw the publication of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), by Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. The late Georgian and Victorian era saw a renewed focus on the novel. A key theme of these novels was social commentary. Early in the period Jane Austen satirised the lifestyle of the gentry and nobility, while the later novels of Charles Dickens often used humour and keen observations to criticise poverty and social stratification. The three Brontë sisters and George Eliot commented on Northern England and the Midlands respectively, though all four women wrote under male pen names during their lifetimes, partly to deflect anti-feminist criticism. Nevertheless, openly female authors achieved considerable success in the period, such as the predominantly religious poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Christina Rossetti. Rudyard Kipling exemplifies the British Empire's influence on British literature. His novels The Jungle Book and The Man Who Would Be King are both set in British India, the poem If— evokes the concept of the "stiff upper lip", while The White Man's Burden demonstrates a white supremacist Imperialist outlook. World War I gave rise to British war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert Brooke, who wrote (often paradoxically) of their expectations of war, and their experiences in the trenches. Initially idealistic and patriotic in tone, as the war progressed the tone of the movement became increasingly sombre and pacifistic. The beginning of the twentieth century also saw the Celtic Revival stimulate a new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, while the Scottish Renaissance brought modernism to Scottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and it remains today the dominant English literary form. The contemporary British literary scene is marked by awards such as the Man Booker Prize, created in 1969, and festivals including the Welsh Hay Festival, held since 1988. The prominent status of children's literature in the UK was demonstrated in the opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games, which contained sequence dedicated to prominent children's literary characters. In 2003 the BBC carried out a British survey entitled The Big Read in order to find the "nation's best-loved novel", with works by English novelists J. R. R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Philip Pullman, Douglas Adams and J. K. Rowling making up the top five on the list. More than 75% of the British public read at least one book annually. The UK is also among the largest publishers of books. , six firms in the United Kingdom rank among the world's biggest publishers of books in terms of revenue: Bloomsbury, Cambridge University Press, Informa, Oxford University Press, Pearson, and RELX Group. Theatre From its formation in 1707 the United Kingdom has had a vibrant tradition of theatre, much of it inherited from England, Scotland and Wales. The Union of the Crowns coincided with the decline of highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy in favour of sentimental comedy, domestic tragedy such as George Lillo's The London Merchant (1731), and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera. Popular entertainment became more important in this period than ever before, with fair-booth burlesque and mixed forms that are the ancestors of the English music hall. These forms flourished at the expense of other forms of English drama, which went into a long period of decline. In Scotland the opposite occurred, with the emergence of specifically Scottish plays including John Home's Douglas and the works of Walter Scott, which included original plays as well as adaptations of his Waverley novels. The late 19th century saw revival of English theatre with arrival of Irishmen George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde, who influenced domestic English drama and revitalised it. Their contemporaries Gilbert and Sullivan had a similar impact on musical theatre with their comic operas. The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre was opened in Shakespeare's birthplace Stratford upon Avon in 1879 and Herbert Beerbohm Tree founded an Academy of Dramatic Art at Her Majesty's Theatre in 1904. The early twentieth century was dominated by drawing-room plays produced by the likes of Noël Coward, which were then challenged by the kitchen sink realism and absurdist drama influenced by Irishman Samuel Beckett in the 1950s and 60s. Conversely 1952 saw the first performance of Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap, a drawing-room murder mystery that has seen over 25,000 performances and is the longest-running West End show. At the same time the performing arts theatre Sadler's Wells, under Lilian Baylis, nurtured talent that led to the development of an opera company, which became the English National Opera (ENO); a theatre company, which evolved into the National Theatre; and a ballet company, which eventually became the English Royal Ballet. Elsewhere the Royal Shakespeare Company was founded in 1959 at Stratford-upon-Avon, and continues to mainly stage Shakespeare's plays. Contemporary British theatre is focused on the West End, London's major theatre district. The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in the City of Westminster dates back to 1663, making it the oldest London theatre, however the Theatre Royal at the Bristol Old Vic is the oldest continually-operating theatre in the English speaking world, opening in 1768. The musicals of Andrew Lloyd Webber have dominated the West End since the late 20th century, leading him to be dubbed "the most commercially successful composer in history". A National Theatre of Scotland was set up in 2006. Music Classical music British Baroque music was heavily influenced by continental fashions. This is exemplified by George Frideric Handel, a German-born naturalised British citizen whose choral music set British taste for the next two centuries. His operas also helped Britain challenge Italy as a centre of operatic production. Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. Beyond this, the establishment of the London Philharmonic Society in 1813, Royal Academy of Music in 1822, and Irish Academy of Music in 1848 aided the professionalisation of British classical music and patronage of composers. The Philharmonic Society was a strong supporter of the German Felix Mendelssohn, an early Romantic composer who also strongly influenced British music. In Ireland, John Field invented the nocturne and may have been an influence on Chopin and Liszt. A notable development of the mid- to late-nineteenth century was the resurgence of English-language opera and the establishment of several prominent orchestras, including the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic in 1840, Manchester-based Hallé in 1858, the Scottish Orchestra in 1891 and the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra in 1920. The most notable trend in classical music at the turn of the century was the nationalistic trend that developed. This was initially seen in works like The Masque at Kenilworth, which reconstructed an Elizabethan masque, but later took a pastoral turn under the influence of the British folk revival. Examplars of this period are Ralph Vaughan Williams' English Folk Song Suite, and Sir Alexander Mackenzie's Scottish Rhapsodies. Modern and contemporary classical music takes a variety of forms. Composers such as Benjamin Britten developed idiosyncratic and avant-garde styles, while the likes of William Walton produced more conventional ceremonial and patriotic music. The UK now has several major orchestras, including the BBC Symphony Orchestra, and the Philharmonia, while the establishment of the Opera North in 1977 sought to redress the balance of operatic institutions away from London. There are several classical festivals, such as Aldeburgh and Glydebourne, while the BBC Proms are an important annual fixture in the classical calendar. Popular music Popular commercial music in Britain can be traced back at least as far as the seventeenth-century broadside ballad, and also encompasses brass band music and music hall. Popular music in the modern sense began to emerge in the 1950s, as the American styles of jazz and rock and roll became popular. The skiffle revival was an early attempt to create a British form of American music, but it was the emergence of British rock and roll by the early 1960s that established a viable British popular music industry. Genres such as beat and British blues were re-exported to America by bands such as the Beatles and Rolling Stones, in a move that came to be called the British Invasion. In the 1960s saw the development of heavy metal out of Birmingham and the wider area. The development of blues rock helped differentiate rock and pop music, leading to the emergence of several sub-genres of rock in the 1970s. Glam rock was a particularly British genre that emphasised outrageous costumes, while the end of the decade saw the rise of punk, new wave, and post-punk bands. The influence of immigration could also be seen in the increased prominence of World music, particularly Jamaican music. The 1980s were a successful decade in British pop, as a second British Invasion was witnessed and new technology enabled genres such as synthpop to form. Jazz saw a resurgence as black British musicians created new fusions such as Acid Jazz. Indie rock was a reaction to the perceived saturation of the music industry by pop, exemplified by Stock Aitken Waterman's domination of the charts. This continued in the 1990s, as boy bands, all-female and mixed groups dominated the singles chart, while the Madchester scene helped drive alternative rock and Britpop to the mainstream. British soul saw a rise that continued into the 2000s, including the global success of Adele. Dance music also saw innovation, with genres such as dubstep and new rave emerging. Folk and sub-national music In contrast to the comparatively homogenous classical and pop genres, each nation of the UK has retained a distinct tradition of folk music. The traditional folk music of England has contributed to several genres, such as sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities, while musical Morris dancing is an English folk dance known to have existed at least as early as the mid-15th century. The bagpipes have long been a national symbol of Scotland, and the Great Highland Bagpipe is widely recognised. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, are ballads of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century, demonstrating great regional variety, particularly local traditions such as the Border ballads, which include the particularly influential Ballad of Chevy Chase.British folk groups, such as Fairport Convention, have drawn heavily from these ballads. Similarly, while the national anthem "God Save the Queen" and other patriotic songs such as "Rule, Britannia!" represent the United Kingdom, each of the four individual countries of the UK has its own patriotic hymns. For example, Jerusalem, Scotland the Brave, Land of My Fathers, and Danny Boy pertain exclusively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland respectively. These songs are often used at sporting events where each nation competes individually. Cinema Britain has had a significant film industry for over a century. While many films focus on British culture, British cinema is also marked by its interaction and competition with American and continental European cinema. The UK was the location of the oldest surviving moving picture, Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), which was shot in Roundhay, Leeds by French inventor Louis Le Prince, while the first British film, Incident at Clovelly Cottage was shot in 1895. The world's first colour motion picture was shot by Edward Raymond Turner in 1902. British film production suffered in the 1920s in face of competition from American imports and a legal requirement for cinemas to show a set quota of British films, which encouraged poor-quality, low-cost productions to meet this demand. This had changed by the 1940s, when the government encouraged fewer, higher-quality films to be made. This era also saw the rise of Alfred Hitchcock, who soon moved to the US and become one of the twentieth century's most influential directors. During World War II the Crown Film Unit established a reputation for documentaries, while Powell and Pressburger began their influential and innovative collaboration. The post-war period was a particular high point for British filmmaking, producing The Third Man and Brief Encounter, which the British Film Institute consider the best and second-best British films respectively. Laurence Olivier's 1948 Hamlet was the first British film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. The 1950s saw a focus on popular domestic topics such as comedies, including the enduring Carry On series, and World War II epics such as The Dam Busters. At the end of the decade Hammer Films took advantage of relaxed censorship laws to begin their series of successful horror films. The beginning of the 1960s saw the British New Wave style develop, influenced by its French counterpart, that sought to depict a wider strata of society in a realistic manner. The 1960s also saw renewed American financial interest in British film, which particularly manifested itself in the development of historical epics, such as Best Picture winners Lawrence of Arabia and A Man for All Seasons; spy thrillers, including the first films in the James Bond franchise; and films based on 'swinging London' scene. The 1970s saw a withdrawal of American support and a retrenchment in British cinema, though the decade did see culturally important productions such as the horror The Wicker Man and Monty Python's comedic films. The decade also saw the Commonwealth influence British film, as Pressure and A Private Enterprise are considered the first Black British and British Asian films respectively. 1981's Chariots of Fire and 1982's Gandhi both won the Best Picture Oscar, the latter winning eight awards, prompting a resurgence in period films. 1982 also saw the creation of Channel 4, which had a remit to promote films for minority audiences. Films with racial and LGBT themes were produced, while Channel 4's involvement saw television stars move into feature films. American investment again increased in the 1990s, and the success of Four Weddings and a Funeral saw romantic comedies rise in popularity. Merchant Ivory Productions, boosted by the Oscars success of the previous decade's period pieces, continued to produce films in the same vein. American studios also began to base the production of Hollywood films in the UK, encouraged by tax incentives. 1996's Trainspotting led to increased interest in regional, particularly Scottish, cinema. While American-funded films continued their influence in the 2010s, domestic European co-productions also received acclaim. The Queen was British-French production for which Helen Mirren won Best Actress, while the UK Film Council funded The King's Speech, which won Best Picture in 2011. Asian British cinema has risen in prominence since 1999, when East is East was a mainstream success on a low budget. Broadcasting The UK has been at the forefront of developments in film, radio and television. Broadcasting in the UK has historically been dominated by the taxpayer-funded but independently run British Broadcasting Corporation (commonly known as the BBC), although other independent radio and television (ITV, Channel 4, Five) and satellite broadcasters (especially BSkyB which has over 10 million subscribers) have become more important in recent years. BBC television, and the other three main television channels are public service broadcasters who, as part of their licence allowing them to operate, broadcast a variety of minority interest programming. The BBC and Channel 4 are state-owned, though they operate independently. Launched in 1955, ITV is the oldest commercial television network in the UK. Director Ridley Scott's evocative 1973 Hovis bread television commercial captured the public imagination. Filmed on Gold Hill, Shaftesbury in Dorset, Scott's advert was voted the UK's favourite television advertisement of all time in 2006. Other notable British commercials include the 1989 British Airways face advertisement, the 2005 noitulovE advert for Guinness, the 2007 Gorilla advertisement by Cadbury chocolate featuring a gorilla playing drums with Phil Collins' track "In the Air Tonight" playing in the background, and a 2013 advert for Galaxy chocolate bar featuring a computer-generated image of Audrey Hepburn. Christmas commercials are screened from early November in the UK, with campaigns including the John Lewis Christmas advert for the department store chain. International football tournaments, such as the World Cup, are historically the most viewed sports events among the public, while Match of the Day is the most popular weekly football show. The 1966 FIFA World Cup Final and the Funeral of Princess Diana are the two most watched television events ever in the UK. Satire has been a prominent feature in British comedy for centuries. The British satire boom of the 1960s, which consisted of writers and performers such as Peter Cook, Dudley Moore, Alan Bennett, David Frost and Jonathan Miller, has heavily influenced British television, including the sketch comedy series Monty Python's Flying Circus created in 1969 by Monty Python. Regarded as the leading figure of the satire boom, Peter Cook was ranked number one in the Comedians' Comedian poll. The puppet show Spitting Image was a satire of the royal family, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the 1980s up to the mid-1990s. Have I Got News for You and Mock the Week are the two longest running satirical panel shows. Satire also features heavily in the Grand Theft Auto video game series which has been ranked among Britain's most successful exports. The slapstick and double entendre of Benny Hill also achieved very high ratings on British television, as did the physical humour of Mr. Bean. Popular comedy duos in television include The Two Ronnies and Morecambe and Wise, with both shows featuring memorable sketches. Jeeves and Wooster starred Hugh Laurie as Bertie Wooster, an airy, nonchalant, gormless, idle young gentleman and Stephen Fry as Jeeves, his calm, well-informed, and talented valet. Created by and starring Rik Mayall as Richie and Adrian Edmondson as Eddie, Bottom features two crude, perverted flatmates with no jobs and little money, which is noted for its chaotic, nihilistic humour and violent comedy slapstick. Steve Coogan created the character Alan Partridge, a tactless and inept television presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to shameless self-promotion. Da Ali G Show starred Sacha Baron Cohen as a faux-streetwise poseur Ali G from west London, who would conduct real interviews with unsuspecting people, many of whom are celebrities, during which they are asked absurd and ridiculous questions. Animator Nick Park created the Wallace and Gromit characters at Aardman Animations studio in Bristol. They feature in A Grand Day Out (1989), The Wrong Trousers (1993) and A Close Shave (1995), which all have 100% positive ratings on the aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, while A Matter of Loaf and Death was the most watched television programme in the UK in 2008. Aardman also produce the kid's show Shaun the Sheep. Popular pre-school shows include Teletubbies, Thomas the Tank Engine and Bob the Builder. First airing in 1958, Blue Peter is famous for its arts and crafts "makes". The show has been a staple for generations of British children. Popular live action TV shows include The Borrowers (based on Mary Norton books on little people), The Adventures of Black Beauty, The Famous Five (based on Enid Blyton books), The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (based on the C. S. Lewis novel), and Pride and Prejudice (starring Colin Firth as Mr. Darcy). The actor David Jason has voiced a number of popular characters in children's animation, including The Wind in the Willows (based on the children's book by Kenneth Grahame), Danger Mouse and Count Duckula. Other children's shows include Where's Wally? (a series based on books by author Martin Handford where readers are challenged to find Wally who is hidden in the group), Dennis the Menace and Gnasher, while Thunderbirds and Terrahawks by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson have been praised for creating Supermarionation. Debuting in 1982, The Snowman (featuring the festive song "Walking in the Air") is annually screened at Christmas. Shown on the BBC, the UK holds two high-profile charity telethon events, Children in Need, held annually in November, and Comic Relief, which alternates with Sports Relief, every March. The 2011 edition of Comic Relief saw the first appearance of James Corden's Carpool Karaoke sketch when he drove around London singing songs with George Michael. British programmes dominate the list of TV's most watched shows in the UK, with the kitchen sink dramas, ITV's Coronation Street and BBC's EastEnders, both often ranking high on the ratings list compiled by BARB. The major soap operas each feature a pub, and these pubs have become household names throughout the UK. The Rovers Return is the pub in Coronation Street, the Queen Vic (short for the Queen Victoria) is the pub in EastEnders, and the Woolpack in ITV's Emmerdale. The pub being a prominent setting in the three major television soap operas reflects the role pubs have as the focal point of the community in many towns and villages across the UK. Espionage and detective shows have long been a staple of British television, such as the 1960s series The Avengers featuring lady spy adventurer and cultural (and feminist) icon Emma Peel. The United Kingdom has a large number of national and local radio stations which cover a great variety of programming. The most listened to stations are the five main national BBC radio stations. BBC Radio 1, a new music station aimed at the 16–24 age group. BBC Radio 2, a varied popular music and chat station aimed at adults is consistently highest in the ratings. BBC Radio 4, a varied talk station, is noted for its news, current affairs, drama and comedy output as well as The Archers, its long running soap opera, and other unique programmes, including Desert Island Discs (1942–present), an interview programme in which a famous guest (called a "castaway") chooses eight pieces of music, a book and a luxury item that they would take with them to a desert island. Currently presented by Lauren Laverne, it is the longest running music radio programme in British history. The idea for a Christmas message was conceived by one of the founders of the BBC. Delivered annually by the monarch, it was first broadcast on BBC Radio in 1932. An alternative Christmas message was first broadcast on Channel 4 in 1993. Broadcast from 1951 to 1960, radio comedy The Goon Show, starring Peter Sellers, Spike Milligan and Harry Secombe, mixed ludicrous plots with surreal humour, puns, catchphrases and an array of bizarre sound effects. The show has exerted considerable influence on British comedy and culture. As a film star Sellers in particular became influential to film actors by using different accents and guises and assuming multiple roles in the same film. Comedian Marty Feldman co-created the acclaimed BBC Radio comedy programme Round the Horne in 1965. The long running radio comedy Just a Minute first aired on BBC Radio 4 in 1967. Panellists must talk for sixty seconds on a given subject, "without hesitation, repetition or deviation". Guests over the years have included Stephen Fry, Eddie Izzard and Sue Perkins. First broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1978, the science fiction comedy radio series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy was innovative in its use of music and sound effects. The BBC, as a public service broadcaster, also runs minority stations such as BBC Asian Network, BBC Radio 1Xtra and BBC Radio 6 Music, and local stations throughout the country. Rock music station Absolute Radio, and sports station Talksport, are among the biggest commercial radio stations in the UK. List of radio stations in the United Kingdom List of television stations in the United Kingdom Print Freedom of the press was established in Great Britain in 1695. Popular national newspapers include The Times, Financial Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and The Independent. Founded by publisher John Walter in 1785, The Times is the first newspaper to have borne that name, lending it to numerous other papers around the world, and is the originator of the widely used Times Roman typeface, created by Victor Lardent and commissioned by Stanley Morison in 1931. Newspaper and publishing magnate Alfred Harmsworth played a major role in "shaping the modern press" – Harmsworth introduced or harnessed "broad contents, exploitation of advertising revenue to subsidize prices, aggressive marketing, subordinate regional markets, independence from party control" – and was called "the greatest figure who ever strode down Fleet Street." The Economist was founded by James Wilson in 1843, and the daily Financial Times was founded in 1888. Founding The Gentleman's Magazine in 1731, Edward Cave coined the term "magazine" for a periodical, and was the first publisher to successfully fashion a wide-ranging publication. Founded by Thomas Gibson Bowles, Vanity Fair featured caricatures of famous people for which it is best known today. A pioneer of children's publishing, John Newbery made children's literature a sustainable and profitable part of the literary market. The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes was published by Newbery in 1765. Founded by Sir Allen Lane in 1935, Penguin Books revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its inexpensive paperbacks, bringing high-quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market. Formed in 1940, Puffin Books is the children's imprint of Penguin Books. Barbara Euphan Todd's scarecrow story, Worzel Gummidge, was the first Puffin story book in 1941. The Guinness Book of Records was the brainchild of Sir Hugh Beaver. On 10 November 1951 he became involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe, and realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated throughout the world, but there was no book with which to settle arguments about records. He realised that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. His idea became reality when an acquaintance of his recommended University friends Norris and Ross McWhirter who were then commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records in August 1954. E. L. James' erotic romance trilogy Fifty Shades of Grey, Fifty Shades Darker, and Fifty Shades Freed, have sold over 125 million copies globally, and set the record in the United Kingdom as the fastest selling paperback. Copyright laws originated in Britain with the Statute of Anne (also known as the Copyright Act 1709), which outlined the individual rights of the artist. A right to benefit financially from the work is articulated, and court rulings and legislation have recognised a right to control the work, such as ensuring that the integrity of it is preserved. The Statute of Anne gave the publishers rights for a fixed period, after which the copyright expired. Visual arts From the creation of the United Kingdom, the English school of painting is mainly notable for portraits and landscapes, and indeed portraits in landscapes. Among the artists of this period are Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792), George Stubbs (1724–1806), and Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788). Pictorial satirist William Hogarth pioneered Western sequential art, and political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Following the work of Hogarth, political cartoons developed in England in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of James Gillray. Regarded as being one of the two most influential cartoonists (the other being Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals to account. The late 18th century and the early 19th century was perhaps the most radical period in British art, producing William Blake (1757–1827), John Constable (1776–1837) and J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), three of the most influential British artists, each of whom have dedicated spaces allocated for their work at the Tate Britain. Named after Turner, the Turner Prize (created in 1984) is an annual award presented to a British visual artist under the age of 50. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB) achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, and genre subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. PRB artists included John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and subsequently Edward Burne-Jones. Also associated with it was the designer William Morris, whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable (or even free) for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining the Victorian aesthetic and instigating the Arts and Crafts movement. Visual artists from the UK in the 20th century include Lucian Freud, Francis Bacon, David Hockney, Bridget Riley, and the pop artists Richard Hamilton and Peter Blake. Also prominent amongst 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general. Sir Jacob Epstein was a pioneer of modern sculpture. In 1958 artist Gerald Holtom designed the protest logo for the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), the peace movement in the UK, which became a universal peace symbol. As a reaction to abstract expressionism, pop art emerged in England at the end of the 1950s. The 1990s saw the Young British Artists, Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin. The auction was revived in 17th- and 18th-century England when auctions by candle began to be used for the sale of goods and leaseholds, some of which were recorded in Samuel Pepys's diary in 1660. Headquartered in King Street, London, Christie's, the world's largest auction house, was founded in 1766 by auctioneer James Christie in London. Known for his thickly impasted portrait and figure paintings, Lucian Freud was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time. Freud was depicted in Francis Bacon's 1969 oil painting, Three Studies of Lucian Freud, which was sold for $142.4 million in November 2013, the highest price attained at auction to that point. Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway, John Tenniel, Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, Arthur Rackham, John Leech, George Cruikshank and Beatrix Potter were notable book illustrators. Posters have played a significant role in British culture. Designed by Alfred Leete in 1914 as a recruitment poster for the British Army, "Lord Kitchener Wants You" is the most famous British recruitment poster ever produced and an iconic and enduring image of World War I. Produced by the British government in 1939 for World War II, the Keep Calm and Carry On motivational poster is now seen as "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis". In the late 1960s, British graphic designer Storm Thorgerson co-founded the graphic art group Hipgnosis, who have designed many iconic single and album covers for rock bands. His works were notable for their surreal elements, with perhaps the most famous being the cover for Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon. Designed by David Bowie, the Aladdin Sane album cover features a lightning bolt across his face which is regarded as one of the most iconic images of Bowie. The subversive political artwork of Banksy (pseudonym of English graffiti artist whose identity is concealed) can be found on streets, walls and buildings in the UK and the rest of the world. Arts institutions include the Royal College of Art, Royal Society of Arts, New English Art Club, Slade School of Art, Royal Academy, and the Tate Gallery (founded as the National Gallery of British Art). Design In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was named the winner of the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating other British design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-Type, Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire. The Spitfire featured in Christopher Nolan's 2017 action-thriller film Dunkirk. Sir Morien Morgan led research into supersonic transport in 1948 that culminated in the Concorde passenger aircraft. In November 1956 he became Chairman of the newly formed Supersonic Transport Aircraft Committee which funded research into supersonic transport at several British aviation firms though the 1950s. By the late 1950s, the committee had started the process of selecting specific designs for development, and after the forced merger of most aviation firms in 1960, selected the Bristol Type 223, designed by Archibald Russell, as the basis for a transatlantic design. The Brit Awards statuette for the BPI's annual music awards, which depicts Britannia, the female personification of Britain, is regularly redesigned by some of the best known British designers, stylists and artists, including Dame Vivienne Westwood, Damien Hirst, Tracey Emin, Sir Peter Blake, Zaha Hadid and Sir Anish Kapoor. Performing arts, carnivals, parades Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury (the largest greenfield festival in the world), V Festival, Reading and Leeds Festivals. The UK was at the forefront of the illegal, free rave movement from the late 1980s, which led to pan-European culture of teknivals mirrored on the British free festival movement and associated travelling lifestyle. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Gardens. The Proms, a season of orchestral classical music concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall, is a major cultural event held annually. The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton. Irish dancing is popular in Northern Ireland and among the Irish diaspora throughout the UK; its costumes feature patterns taken from the medieval Book of Kells. A staple of British seaside culture, the quarrelsome couple Punch and Judy made their first recorded appearance in Covent Garden, London in 1662. The various episodes of Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy – often provoking shocked laughter – and are dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch. Regarded as British cultural icons, they appeared at a significant period in British history, with Glyn Edwards stating: "[Pulcinella] went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of Puritanism. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority, a kind of puppet equivalent to our political cartoons." The circus is a traditional form of entertainment in the UK. Chipperfield's Circus dates back more than 300 years in Britain, making it one of the oldest family circus dynasties. Philip Astley is regarded as the father of the modern circus. Following his invention of the circus ring in 1768, Astley's Amphitheatre opened in London in 1773. As an equestrian master Astley had a skill for trick horse-riding, and when he added tumblers, tightrope-walkers, jugglers, performing dogs, and a clown to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born. The Hughes Royal Circus was popular in London in the 1780s. Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal, among the most popular circuses of Victorian England, showcased William Kite, which inspired John Lennon to write "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" on The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Joseph Grimaldi, originator of whiteface clown make-up, is considered the father of modern clowning. The Edinburgh Festival Fringe is the world's largest arts festival. Established in 1947, it takes place in Scotland's capital during three weeks every August alongside several other arts and cultural festivals. The Fringe mostly attracts events from the performing arts, particularly theatre and comedy, although dance and music also feature. The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual event that has taken place on the streets of Notting Hill, London since 1966. Led by the British African-Caribbean community, the carnival has attracted around one million people, making it Britain's biggest street festival and one of the largest in the world. Also of note is the extensive impact of Irish culture for St. Patrick's Day. The largest St Patrick's Day Parade takes place in Digbeth, Birmingham, where there is a strong Irish community. Pantomime (often referred to as "panto") is a British musical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It is performed in theatres throughout the UK during the Christmas and New Year season. The art originated in the 18th century with John Weaver, a dance master and choreographer at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London. In 19th-century England it acquired its present form, which includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employing gender-crossing actors, combining topical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale. It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience sing along with parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers, such as "It's behind you". Pantomime story lines and scripts are almost always based on traditional children's stories: some of the popular British stories featured include Jack and the Beanstalk, Peter Pan, Babes in the Wood, Goldilocks and the Three Bears and Dick Whittington and His Cat. Plot lines are almost always adapted for comic or satirical effect, and characters and situations from other stories are often interpolated into the plot. For example, Jack and the Beanstalk might include references to English nursery rhymes involving characters called "Jack", such as Jack and Jill. Famous people regularly appear in Pantos, such as Ian McKellen. McKellen has also appeared at gay pride marches, with Manchester Pride one of 15 annual gay pride parades in the UK; the largest in Brighton attracts over 300,000. Music hall is a British theatrical entertainment popular from the early Victorian era to the mid-20th century. The precursor to variety shows of today, music hall involved a mixture of popular songs, comedy, speciality acts and variety entertainment. Music hall songs include "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am", "Hokey cokey", "I Do Like To be Beside the Seaside" and "The Laughing Policeman". British performers who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby, Gracie Fields, Dan Leno, Gertrude Lawrence, Marie Lloyd and Harry Champion. British music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were notable music hall comedians who worked for him. Laurel stated, "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it". Film producer Hal Roach stated; "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him." Examples of variety shows that evolved from the music hall include the Royal Variety Performance (first performed in 1912), which was broadcast on BBC radio from the 1920s, and then on television since the 1950s. Annually held in December (often at the London Palladium) and performed in front of members of the British Royal Family, many famous acts have performed at the Royal Variety show over the century, and since 2007 one act of the show has been selected by the British public through the ITV television talent show Britain's Got Talent. Architecture The architecture of the United Kingdom includes many features that precede the creation of the United Kingdom in 1707, from as early as Skara Brae and Stonehenge to the Giant's Ring, Avebury and Roman ruins. In most towns and villages the parish church is an indication of the age of the settlement. Many castles remain from the medieval period, such as Windsor Castle (longest-occupied castle in Europe), Stirling Castle (one of the largest and most important in Scotland), Bodiam Castle (a moated castle), and Warwick Castle. Over the two centuries following the Norman conquest of England of 1066, and the building of the Tower of London, castles such as Caernarfon Castle in Wales and Carrickfergus Castle in Ireland were built. English Gothic architecture flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples include Westminster Abbey, the traditional place of coronation for the British monarch, which also has a long tradition as a venue for royal weddings; and was the location of the funeral of Princess Diana, Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England; Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest church spire in the UK; and Winchester Cathedral, which has the longest nave and greatest overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe. Tudor architecture is the final development of Medieval architecture in England, during the Tudor period (1485–1603). In the United Kingdom, a listed building is a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural, historical or cultural significance. About half a million buildings in the UK have "listed" status. In the 1680s, Downing Street was built by Sir George Downing, and its most famous address 10 Downing Street, became the residence of the Prime Minister in 1730. One of the best-known English architects working at the time of the foundation of the United Kingdom was Sir Christopher Wren. He was employed to design and rebuild many of the ruined ancient churches of London following the Great Fire of London. His masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed in the early years of the United Kingdom. Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, was built in 1705. Both St Paul's Cathedral and Buckingham Palace use Portland stone, a limestone from the Jurassic period quarried in the Jurassic Coast in Portland, Dorset, which is famous for its use in British and world architecture. In the early 18th century Baroque architecture – popular in Europe – was introduced, and Blenheim Palace was built in this era. However, Baroque was quickly replaced by a return of the Palladian form. The Georgian architecture of the 18th century was an evolved form of Palladianism. Many existing buildings such as Woburn Abbey and Kedleston Hall are in this style. Among the many architects of this form of architecture and its successors, neoclassical and romantic, were Robert Adam, Sir William Chambers, and James Wyatt. The aristocratic stately home continued the tradition of the first large gracious unfortified mansions such as the Elizabethan Montacute House and Hatfield House. Many of these houses are the setting for British period dramas, such as Downton Abbey. During the 18th and 19th centuries in the highest echelons of British society, the English country house was a place for relaxing, hunting in the countryside. Many stately homes have become open to the public: Knebworth House, now a major venue for open air rock and pop concerts – Freddie Mercury's final live performance with Queen took place at Knebworth on 9 August 1986, Alton Towers, the most popular theme park in the UK, and Longleat, the world's first safari park outside Africa. In the early 19th century the romantic Gothic revival began in England as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism. Notable examples of Gothic revival architecture are the Houses of Parliament and Fonthill Abbey. By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, one could incorporate steel as a building component: one of the greatest exponents of this was Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace. Paxton also built such houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular retrospective Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity and development British architecture embraced many new methods of construction, but such architects as August Pugin ensured that traditional styles were retained. Following the building of the world's first seaside pier in July 1814 in Ryde, Isle of Wight off the south coast of England, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in the UK during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built. Providing a walkway out to sea, the seaside pier is regarded as among the finest Victorian architecture, and is an iconic symbol of the British seaside holiday. By 1914, there were over 100 piers around the UK's coasts. Today there are 55 seaside piers in the UK. Tower Bridge (half a mile from London Bridge) opened in 1895. At the beginning of the 20th century a new form of design, arts and crafts, became popular; the architectural form of this style, which had evolved from the 19th-century designs of such architects as George Devey, was championed by Edwin Lutyens. Arts and crafts in architecture is characterised by an informal, non-symmetrical form, often with mullioned or lattice windows, multiple gables and tall chimneys. This style continued to evolve until World War II. After that war, reconstruction went through a variety of phases, but was heavily influenced by Modernism, especially from the late 1950s to the early 1970s. Many bleak town centre redevelopments—criticised for featuring hostile, concrete-lined "windswept plazas"—were the fruit of this interest, as were many equally bleak public buildings, such as the Hayward Gallery. Many Modernist-inspired town centres are today being redeveloped: Bracknell town centre is an example. However, in the immediate post-War years many thousands (perhaps hundreds of thousands) of council houses in vernacular style were built, giving working-class people their first experience of private gardens and indoor sanitation. Many towns also feature statues or sculptures dedicated to famous natives. Modernism remains a significant force in British architecture, although its influence is felt predominantly in commercial buildings. The two most prominent proponents are Lord Rogers of Riverside and Norman Foster. Rogers' best known London buildings are probably Lloyd's Building and the Millennium Dome, while Foster created the 'Gherkin' and the City Hall. The Turner Prize winning artist Sir Anish Kapoor is an acclaimed contemporary British sculptors. A notable design is his ArcelorMittal Orbit sculpture at the Olympic Park in London. Described by The Guardian as the 'Queen of the curve', Zaha Hadid liberated architectural geometry with the creation of highly expressive, sweeping fluid forms of multiple perspective points and fragmented geometry that evoke the chaos and flux of modern life. A pioneer of parametricism, and an icon of neo-futurism, with a formidable personality, her acclaimed work and ground-breaking forms include the aquatic centre for the London 2012 Olympics. In 2010 and 2011 she received the Stirling Prize, the UK's most prestigious architectural award, and in 2015 she became the first woman to be awarded the Royal Gold Medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects. Completed in 2012, the Shard London Bridge is the tallest building in the UK. Other major skyscrapers under construction in London include 22 Bishopsgate, and Heron Tower. Modernist architect Nicholas Grimshaw designed the Eden Project in Cornwall, which is the world's largest greenhouse. Comics British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated penny dreadfuls of the Victorian era (featuring Sweeney Todd, Dick Turpin and Varney the Vampire). A growing consumer culture and an increased capacity for travel throughout the UK via the invention of railway (in 1825) created both a market for cheap popular literature, and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale. Created in the 1830s, The Guardian described penny dreadfuls as "Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young". Introducing familiar features in vampire fiction, Varney is the first story to refer to sharpened teeth for a vampire. After adult comics had been published – most notably Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1880s) featuring Ally Sloper who has been called the first regular character in comics, – more juvenile British comics emerged, with the two most popular, The Beano and The Dandy, released by DC Thomson (based in Dundee, Scotland) in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached two million. Explaining the popularity of comics during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the Beano and Dandy were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 1960s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children." In 1954 Tiger comics introduced Roy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of Roy Race and the team he played for, Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books and graphic novels such as Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, and 2000 AD also flourished. Created by Emma Orczy in 1903, the Scarlet Pimpernel is the alter ego of Sir Percy Blakeney, a wealthy English fop who transforms into a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking escape artist, establishing the "hero with a secret identity" into popular culture. The Scarlet Pimpernel first appeared on stage (1903) and then in novel (1905), and became very popular with the British public. He exhibits characteristics that became standard superhero conventions in comic books, including the penchant for disguise, use of a signature weapon (sword), ability to out-think and outwit his adversaries, and a calling card (he leaves behind a scarlet pimpernel at his interventions). Drawing attention to his alter ego Blakeney he hides behind his public face as a meek, slow thinking foppish playboy (like Bruce Wayne), and he establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours. In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media, but were never before seen in American comics. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books that would jump start the Modern Age of Comics. Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen; Watchmen was described as "paving the way for a current cultural obsession" in comics; Neil Gaiman and his critically acclaimed and best-selling The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Alan Grant, Grant Morrison, Dave Gibbons, Alan Davis, and Mark Millar who created Wanted, Kick-Ass and Kingsman: The Secret Service. Prominent comic book artists include Steve Dillon, Simon Bisley, Dave McKean, Glen Fabry, John Ridgway and Sean Phillips. The comic book series Hellblazer, set in Britain and starring the Liverpudlian magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano, Mike Carey and Denise Mina. Folklore Robin Hood and the ballad tradition Much of the folklore of the United Kingdom pre-dates the 18th century. Though some of the characters and stories are present throughout all of the UK, most belong to specific countries or regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales of Offa of Angeln and Weyland Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion of England, such as Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham. Richard the Lionheart, Christian leader of the Third Crusade, came to be seen as a contemporary and supporter of Robin Hood. A plaque features Richard marrying Robin and Maid Marian outside Nottingham Castle. During the High Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably the Arthurian legend. Deriving from Welsh source; King Arthur, Excalibur and Merlin, while the Jersey poet Wace introduced the Knights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore. The Loch Ness Monster is a cryptid that is reputed to inhabit Loch Ness in the Scottish Highlands. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the nickname "Nessie" since the 1950s. The leprechaun figures large in Irish folklore. A mischievous fairy-type creature in emerald green clothing who when not playing tricks spends all its time busily making shoes, the leprechaun is said to have a pot of gold hidden at the end of the rainbow, and if ever captured by a human it has the magical power to grant three wishes in exchange for release. In mythology, English fairy tales such as Jack and the Beanstalk and Jack the Giant Killer helped form the modern perception of giants as stupid and violent, while the dwarf Tom Thumb is a traditional hero in English folklore. English fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language. Some folk figures are based on semi- or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries: Lady Godiva, for instance, was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry; the heroic English figure Hereward the Wake resisted the Norman invasion; Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park, and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character. Mythical creatures Published in 1724, A General History of the Pyrates by Captain Charles Johnson provided the standard account of the lives of many pirates in the Golden Age. It influenced pirate literature of Scottish novelists Robert Louis Stevenson (Treasure Island) and J. M. Barrie. Many famous English pirates from the Golden Age hailed from the West Country in south west England—the stereotypical West Country "pirate accent" was popularised by West Country native Robert Newton's portrayal of Stevenson's Long John Silver in film. The concept of "walking the plank" was popularised by Barrie's Peter Pan, where Captain Hook's pirates helped define the archetype. Davy Jones' Locker, where sailors or ships' remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea, is first recorded by Daniel Defoe in 1726. Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such as Blackbeard and Calico Jack—Jack's Jolly Roger flag design features a skull with crossed swords. Superstitions The Gremlin is part of Royal Air Force folklore dating from the 1920s, with "gremlin" being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment. Legendary figures from 19th-century London whose tales have been romanticised include Sweeney Todd, the murderous barber of Fleet Street (accompanied with Mrs. Lovett who sells pies made from Todd's victims), and serial killer Jack the Ripper. On 5 November, people in England make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of Guy Fawkes' Gunpowder Plot, which became an annual event after the Thanksgiving Act of 1606 was passed. Guy Fawkes masks are an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups. Traditional non-religious holidays Halloween is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Scotland and Ireland on the night of 31 October. The name "Halloween" is first attested in the 16th century as a Scottish shortening of the fuller All-Hallows-Even, and according to some historians has its roots in the Gaelic festival Samhain, when the Gaels believed the border between this world and the otherworld became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world. In 1780, Dumfries poet John Mayne makes note of pranks at Halloween; "What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the night, "Bogies" (ghosts). Robert Burns' 1785 poem "Halloween" is recited by Scots at Halloween, and Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include guising — children disguised in costume going from door to door requesting food or coins – which had become common practice by the late 19th century; (the Halloween masks, worn by children, are known as "false faces" in Ireland.) turnips hollowed out and carved with faces to make lanterns, and holding parties where games such as apple bobbing are played. Agatha Christie's mystery novel Hallowe'en Party is about a girl who is drowned in an apple-bobbing tub. Other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays. Further contemporary imagery of Halloween is derived from Gothic and horror literature (notably Shelley's Frankenstein and Stoker's Dracula), and classic horror films (such as Hammer Horrors). Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish migration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America. Witchcraft has featured in the British Isles for millennia. The use of a crystal ball to foretell the future is attributed to the druids. In medieval folklore King Arthur's magician, the wizard Merlin, carried around a crystal ball for the same purpose. John Dee, consultant to Elizabeth I, frequently used a crystal ball to communicate with the angels. Probably the most famous depiction of witchcraft in literature is in Shakespeare's 1606 play Macbeth, featuring the three witches and their cauldron. The ghost of Anne Boleyn is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up to Blickling Hall in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap. Modern witchcraft began in England in the early 20th century with notable figures such as Aleister Crowley and the father of Wicca Gerald Gardner, before expanding westward in the 1960s. Settling down near the New Forest in Hampshire, Gardner joined an occult group through which he claimed to have encountered the New Forest coven into which he was initiated in 1939. Believing the coven to be a survival of the pre-Christian Witch-Cult, he decided to revive the faith, supplementing the coven's rituals with ideas borrowed from ceremonial magic and the writings of Crowley to form the Gardnerian tradition of Wicca. Moving to London in 1945, following the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1736 Gardner became intent on propagating Wicca, attracting media attention and writing Witchcraft Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959). Crowley (the founder of Thelema) was described as "the most notorious occultist magician of the 20th century", and he remains an influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture. His motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" is inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin III, and he is the subject of Ozzy Osbourne's single "Mr Crowley". National parks, museums, libraries, and galleries Heritage administration Each country has its own body responsible for heritage matters. English Heritage is the government body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty has a contrasting role. Seventeen of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites are in England. Some of the best known of these include Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Westminster, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, and Studley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England. Historic Environment Scotland is the executive agency of the Scottish Government, responsible for historic monuments in Scotland, such as Stirling Castle. The Old and New Town of Edinburgh is a notable Scottish World Heritage site. Balmoral Castle is the main Scottish residence of the Queen. The Wallace Monument in Stirling contains artifacts believed to have belonged to Sir William Wallace, including the Wallace Sword. The Rob Roy Way, named after Scottish folk hero and outlaw Rob Roy MacGregor, is a long-distance footpath that runs for 92 miles. A statue of Robert the Bruce and a large monument and visitor centre (operated by the National Trust for Scotland) is located in Bannockburn near the site of the Battle of Bannockburn. Many of Wales' great castles, such as the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd and other monuments, are under the care of Cadw, the historic environment service of the Welsh Government. Welsh actor Sir Anthony Hopkins donated millions to the preservation of Snowdonia National Park. The five most frequently visited Welsh castles are Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, Caerphilly Castle, Harlech Castle and Beaumaris Castle. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency promotes and conserves the natural and built environment in Northern Ireland, and the Giant's Causeway on the north-east coast is one of the natural World Heritage sites. Tintagel Castle is a popular tourist destination in Cornwall, with the castle associated with the legend of King Arthur since the 12th century. There are 15 National Parks, including the Lake District in England, Snowdonia in Wales, and Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park in Scotland Museums and galleries The British Museum in London with its collection of more than seven million objects, is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, and sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. On display since 1802, the Rosetta Stone is the most viewed attraction. The Natural History Museum, London was established by Richard Owen (who coined the term "dinosaur") to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits. The National Museums of Scotland bring together national collections in Scotland. Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales comprises eight museums in Wales. National Museums Northern Ireland has four museums in Northern Ireland including the Ulster Museum. The Titanic Belfast museum, a visitor attraction in the Titanic Quarter, east Belfast, Northern Ireland on the regenerated site of the shipyard where Titanic was built, was opened to the public in 2012. The architecture is a tribute to Titanic itself, with the external facades a nod to the enormous hull of the ocean liner. The first Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in London in 1835, and today displays waxworks of famous people from various fields, including royalty (Princess Diana), historical figures (Henry VIII), sport (David Beckham), music (Freddie Mercury), literature (Charles Dickens), politics (Winston Churchill), television (Gordon Ramsay), and cinema (Michael Caine) among others. The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize. The National Galleries of Scotland are the five national galleries of Scotland and two partner galleries. The National Museum of Art, Wales, opened in 2011. Libraries The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books. The library has two of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta (the other two copies are held in Lincoln Castle and Salisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. The British Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings (many from the BBC Sound Archive, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.) The National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh holds 7 million books, 14 million printed items (such as the last letter written by Mary, Queen of Scots) and over 2 million maps. The National Library of Wales is the national legal deposit library of Wales, and holds over 6.5 million books, portraits, maps and photographic images in Wales. Historical markers Blue plaques, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, are permanent signs installed in a public places to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. The scheme was the brainchild of politician William Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866. It was formally established by the Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square, London. Events commemorated by plaques include John Logie Baird's first demonstration of television at 22 Frith Street, Westminster, W1, London, the first sub 4-minute mile run by Roger Bannister on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University's Iffley Road Track, and a sweet shop in Llandaff, Cardiff that commemorates the mischief by a young Roald Dahl who put a mouse in the gobstoppers jar. Science and technology From the time of the Scientific Revolution, England and Scotland, and thereafter the United Kingdom, have been prominent in world scientific and technological development. The Royal Society serves as the national academy for sciences, with members drawn from different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is one of the oldest learned societies still in existence. Sir Isaac Newton's publication of the Principia Mathematica ushered in what is recognisable as modern physics. The first edition of 1687 and the second edition of 1713 framed the scientific context of the foundation of the United Kingdom. He realised that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, namely gravity. He is the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three laws and as the co-inventor (with Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus. He also created the binomial theorem, worked extensively on optics, and created a law of cooling. Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. John Napier introduced logarithms in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell unified the electric and magnetic forces in what are now known as Maxwell's equations. Following his publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves in 1867. James Joule worked on thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy. Naturalist Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species and discovered the principle of evolution by natural selection. James Hutton, founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth (deep time) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists include Charles Lyell, author of Principles of Geology, who also coined the term Pleistocene, and Adam Sedgwick, who proposed (and coined) the name of the Cambrian Period. William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented the Kelvin scale of absolute zero. Paul Dirac was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics. Botanist Robert Brown discovered the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (Brownian motion). John Stewart Bell created Bell's Theorem. Harold Kroto discovered buckminsterfullerene. Other 19th- and early 20th-century British pioneers in their field include Joseph Lister (antiseptic surgery), Edward Jenner (vaccination), Richard Owen (palaeontology, coined the term Dinosaur), Florence Nightingale (nursing), Sir George Cayley (aerodynamics), William Fox Talbot (photography), and Howard Carter (modern archaeology, discovered Tutankhamun). Scholarly descriptions of dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th-century England. Between 1815 and 1824, William Buckland discovered fossils of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second dinosaur genus to be identified, Iguanodon, was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell. In 1832, Gideon Mantell discovered fossils of a third dinosaur, Hylaeosaurus. Owen recognised that the remains of the three new species that had been found so far shared a number of distinctive features. He decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group, dinosaurs. John Harrison invented the marine chronometer, a key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishing longitude at sea, thus revolutionising and extending the possibility of safe long-distance sea travel. The most celebrated British explorers include James Cook, Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake, Henry Hudson, George Vancouver, Sir John Franklin, David Livingstone, Captain John Smith, Robert Falcon Scott, Lawrence Oates and Ernest Shackleton. The aquarium craze began in Victorian England when Philip Henry Gosse created and stocked the first public aquarium at London Zoo in 1853, and coined the term "aquarium" when he published The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea in 1854. Robert FitzRoy pioneered weather forecasting: the first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861. A crucial advance in the development of the flush toilet was the S-trap invented by Alexander Cumming in 1775 – it uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. In 1824 Charles Macintosh invented the waterproof raincoat; the Mackintosh (mac) is named after him. William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824. The first commercial electrical telegraph was co-invented by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. They patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system, and it was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden Town in London. Postal reformer Sir Rowland Hill is regarded as the creator of the modern postal service and the inventor of the postage stamp (Penny Black) — with his solution of pre-payment facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters. Hill's colleague Sir Henry Cole introduced the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843. In 1851 Sir George Airy established the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, as the location of the prime meridian where longitude is defined to be 0° (one of the two lines that divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres). George Boole authored The Laws of Thought which contains Boolean algebra. Forming the mathematical foundations of computing, Boolean logic laid the foundations for the information age. Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University, with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as the Red Brick and New Universities are catching up with Oxbridge. For instance, Lancaster University has a global reputation for work in low temperature physics. Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, the steam engine, railroads, machine tools and civil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period include James Watt, Robert Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Henry Maudslay and the 'father of Railways' George Stephenson. Maudslay's most influential invention was the screw-cutting lathe, a machine which created uniformity in screws and allowed for the application of interchangeable parts (a prerequisite for mass production): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The UK has the oldest railway networks in the world, with the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825, the first public railway to use steam locomotives. Opened in 1863, London Underground is the world's first underground railway. Running along the East Coast Main Line between Edinburgh and London, the Flying Scotsman has been ranked the world's most famous steam locomotive. Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, another major figure of the Industrial Revolution, was placed second in a 2002 BBC nationwide poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons". He created the Great Western Railway, as well as famous steamships including the SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, and SS Great Eastern which laid the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable. Josiah Wedgwood pioneered the industrialisation of pottery manufacture. In 1820, Scottish road builder John McAdam invented "macadamisation" for building roads with a smooth hard surface. In 1901, Edgar Purnell Hooley added tar to the mix and named it Tarmac (short for tarmacadam). Probably the greatest driver behind the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower built by John Smeaton in the 1750s. The third Eddystone Lighthouse (the world's first open ocean lighthouse), Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete. Scotsman Robert Stevenson constructed the Bell Rock Lighthouse in the early 1800s. Situated 11 miles off east Scotland, it is the world's oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse. Portland cement, the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, was developed in England in the 19th century. It was coined by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 (he named it after Portland stone), and further developed by his son William Aspdin in the 1840s. The UK has produced some of the most famous ships in the world: Harland and Wolff in Belfast built the as well as her sister ships and RMS Britannic; in Clydebank John Brown and Company built the , and ; ships built in England include the Mary Rose (King Henry VIII's warship), the Golden Hind (Sir Francis Drake's ship for the circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580), HMS Victory (Lord Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805), and HMS Beagle (ship used in Charles Darwin's five-year voyage). Other important British ships include HMS Endeavour (James Cook's ship in his first voyage of discovery), HMS Challenger (first global marine research expedition: the Challenger expedition), and Discovery (carried Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton in the Discovery Expedition, their first successful journey to the Antarctic). The Royal Navy troopship is known for the first appearance of the "women and children first" protocol. Since then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical creativity. Alan Turing (leading role in the creation of the modern computer), Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell (the first practical telephone), John Logie Baird (world's first working television system, first electronic colour television), Frank Whittle (co-invented the jet engine) — powered by Whittle's turbojet engines, the Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies' only jet aircraft to achieve combat operations during World War II, Charles Babbage (devised the idea of the computer), Alexander Fleming (discovered penicillin). The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations, providing inventions as diverse as the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, and Viagra by British scientists at Pfizer's Sandwich, Kent. Sir Alec Jeffreys pioneered DNA fingerprinting. Pioneers of fertility treatment Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards, achieved conception through IVF (world's first "test tube baby") in 1978. The prototype tank was constructed at William Foster & Co. in Lincoln in 1915, with leading roles played by Major Walter Gordon Wilson who designed the gearbox and developed practical tracks and by William Tritton whose company built it. This was a prototype of the Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during WWI. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, was credited by Prime Minister David Lloyd George as being the driving force behind their production. Allan Beckett designed the 'Whale' floating roadway, crucial to the success of the Mulberry harbour used in the invasion of Normandy in WWII. In 1918, became the world's first aircraft carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft, and in WWII, HMS Ark Royal was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, as well as the crippling of the German battleship the Bismarck in May 1941. Introduced in 1952, the de Havilland Comet was the world's first commercial jet airliner. Operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation (which merged with other British operators to form today's British Airways), on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYS took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg. In 1952, OXO (or Noughts and Crosses), created by computer scientist Alexander S. Douglas, is regarded as a contender for the first video game. In OXO, the computer player could play perfect games of tic-tac-toe against a human opponent. In the 1960s, John Shepherd-Barron invented the cash machine (ATM) and James Goodfellow invented Personal identification number (PIN) technology, and on 27 June 1967, the first cash machine was established outside a branch of Barclays Bank in Enfield, north London. Dolly the sheep, the first mammal successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell (by scientists at Roslin Institute in Edinburgh), became a celebrity in the 1990s. Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution began in Britain due to the social, economic and political changes in the country during the previous centuries. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution, in contrast to other European countries where absolute monarchy remained the typical form of government, can be said to be a factor in favouring Britain as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain. Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal. Historian Jeremy Black states, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself." Pottery manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood was one of the most successful entrepreneurs of the Industrial Revolution. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Wedgwood created goods such as soft-paste porcelain tableware (bone china), which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables. Credited as the inventor of modern marketing, Wedgwood pioneered direct mail, money back guarantees, travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues. Described as "natural capitalists" by the BBC, dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters, and they contributed the Industrial Revolution in Britain. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I and his family; banking, including Lloyds Bank (founded by Sampson Lloyd), Barclays Bank, Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys); the big three British chocolate companies Cadbury, Fry's and Rowntree); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers); match manufacture (Bryant and May) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of James Watt's steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history. In 1861, Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order business, an idea which would change the nature of retail. Selling Welsh flannel, he created mail order catalogues, with customers able order by mail for the first time, and the goods were delivered by railway. Cars The UK has had a long history of car making. Some of the best known British brands are Rolls Royce, Bentley, Aston Martin, Jaguar, Land Rover, MG, and the Mini. Rolls-Royce was founded by Charles Stewart Rolls and Sir Frederick Henry Royce in 1906. In addition to the company's reputation for superior engineering quality in its cars, Rolls-Royce Limited was known for manufacturing the high-powered "R" engines, including the iconic Rolls-Royce Merlin aero engine which was used for many World War II aircraft. Bentley Motors Limited was founded by W. O. Bentley in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and, like Rolls Royce, is regarded as a British luxury automobile icon. Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford, and became associated with luxury grand touring cars in the 1950s and 1960s, and with the fictional British spy James Bond. Jaguar was founded in 1922. The Jaguar E-Type sports car was released in 1961; Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made". Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for the British Prime Minister. The company also holds royal warrants from Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles. The Land Rover launched in 1948 and specialises in four-wheel-drive. Many models have been developed for the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The Mini was released by the British Motor Corporation in 1959 and became a 1960s cultural icon. The performance versions, the Mini Cooper, was a successful rally car. The distinctive two-door Mini was designed for BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. It has been named Britain's favourite car in a poll. Religion Anglican churches remain the largest faith group in each country of the UK except Scotland, where Anglicanism is a small minority. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland is the national church in Scotland. Following this is Roman Catholicism and religions including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. Today British Jews number around 300,000; the UK has the fifth largest Jewish community worldwide. William Tyndale's 1520s translation of the Bible was the first to be printed in English, and was a model for subsequent English translations, notably the King James Version in 1611. The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language. In 17th-century England, the Puritans condemned the celebration of Christmas. In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans." The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously orientated form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I in the English Civil War, Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647. Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities; and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and notes old English Christmas traditions: dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing. The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban. Following the Restoration, Poor Robins Almanack contained the lines: Now thanks to God for Charles return Whose absence made old Christmas mourn For then we scarcely did it know Whether it Christmas were or no. The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details Christmas observance and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years. In the early 19th century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation." Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularised following its publication. The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with "Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit. Tiny Tim says "God bless us, every one!" which he offers as a blessing at Christmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen". In 1843 the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Henry Cole, leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances. In the UK, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century, following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover, by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife of King George III. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, a hugely influential image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848, after which the custom became more widespread throughout Britain. While 2001 census information suggests that over 75% of British citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup reports that only 10% of British citizens regularly attend religious services. A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44% of British citizens believe in God, while 35% do not. Christmas and Easter are national public holidays in the UK. First broadcast over the Easter period in 1977, the two-part Jesus of Nazareth television miniseries, starring Robert Powell as Jesus, was watched by over 21 million viewers in the UK. In 1844 Sir George Williams founded YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) in London. The oldest and largest youth charity in the world, its aim is to support young people to belong, contribute and thrive in their communities. The Salvation Army is a Christian charity founded by William Booth and his wife Catherine in London's East End in 1865. It seeks to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and hungry. Politics and government The Crown and parliament The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world – a legacy of the British Empire. The Parliament of the United Kingdom that meets in the Houses of Parliament has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords, and any Bill passed requires Royal Assent to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom: the devolved parliaments and assemblies in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales are not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK Parliament, despite each being established following public approval as expressed in a referendum. The UK's two major political parties are the Labour Party and the Conservative Party, who between them won 568 out of 650 seats in the House of Commons at the most recent general election. Currently, the third biggest party in terms of seats in the Commons is the Scottish National Party (SNP). At the most recent election, the SNP won 48 out of the 59 Scottish constituencies. The Liberal Democrats, or Lib Dems, were the fourth largest, at 11 seats. One seat was won by the Green Party. The remaining seats were won by regional parties, namely Plaid Cymru (Wales), the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, Democratic Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland). A prominent part of British political culture, Prime Minister's Questions – often referred to as "PMQs" – is held every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting. The Prime Minister spends around half an hour responding to questions from Members of Parliament (MPs). In questioning the policies of government ministers, MP Amber Rudd states "PMQs is central to our democracy". Due to the drama of the sessions, PMQs is among the best-known parliamentary business in the country. It is broadcast live on BBC News, Sky News and BBC Parliament television channels, as well as streamed online by many news outlets via numerous services, such as Twitch or YouTube. The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution, the Constitution of the United Kingdom, consisting mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge-made case law, and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law," the British Parliament can perform "constitutional reform" simply by passing Acts of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change. The law British constitutional documents include Magna Carta (foundation of the "great writ" Habeas corpus — safeguarding individual freedom against arbitrary state action), the Bill of Rights 1689 (one provision granting freedom of speech in Parliament), Petition of Right, Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act, applies in Scotland. Jurist Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty". An advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in the general English common law of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation". According to 2016 figures from the Ministry of Justice, there is a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned for jury duty over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland the percentage is higher due to Scotland having a lower population as well having juries made up of fifteen people as opposed to twelve in England and Wales. The 17th-century English patriot John Hampden was a leading parliamentarian involved in challenging the authority of Charles I when he refused to be taxed for ship money in 1637, and was one of the Five Members whose attempted unconstitutional arrest by the King in the House of Commons in 1642 sparked the English Civil War. The wars established the constitutional rights of parliament, a concept legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689. Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting. Hampden is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. Other important British political figures include Sir Edward Coke, 17th-century jurist; the legal directive that nobody may enter a home, which in the 17th-century would typically have been male owned, unless by the owners invitation or consent, was established as common law in Coke's Institutes of the Lawes of England. "For a man's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each man's home is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, “an Englishman's home is his castle”. Sir William Blackstone, 18th-century jurist, judge and politician best known for his Commentaries on the Laws of England, containing his formulation: "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer", a principle that government and the courts must err on the side of innocence, Emmeline Pankhurst, leading suffragette which helped win women the right to vote, William Wilberforce, leading parliamentary abolitionist. An influential thinker in the history of liberalism, 19th century philosopher, political economist and politician John Stuart Mill justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage. Robert Walpole is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister (1721–1742). Twice Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, founded the Conservative party (which was expanded by Benjamin Disraeli), and created the modern police force. Margaret Thatcher was the first female British Prime Minister (1979–1990). She became known as the "Iron Lady", a term coined by a Soviet journalist for her uncompromising politics and leadership style. In 1938, Neville Chamberlain believed he had secured "Peace for our time" with Germany, a year before WWII broke out. English poet William Cowper wrote in 1785, "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free, They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein." Thomas Clarkson described fellow British abolitionist Josiah Wedgwood's 1787 anti-slavery medallion, "Am I Not A Man And A Brother?", as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom". Following the Slave Trade Act 1807, Britain pressed other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties, and in 1839 the world's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London, which worked to outlaw slavery abroad; Wilberforce's abolitionist colleague Thomas Clarkson was the organisation's first key speaker. The 1965 suspension of the death penalty for murder had been introduced to Parliament as a private member's bill by Sydney Silverman MP. The world's largest human rights organisation, Amnesty International, was founded by Peter Benenson in London in 1961. Honours system The British honours system is a means of rewarding individuals' personal bravery, achievement or service to the United Kingdom. Candidates are identified by public or private bodies or by government departments or are nominated by members of the public. Nominations are reviewed by honours committees, made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the Queen. Historically a knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior. An example of warrior chivalry in medieval literature is Sir Gawain (King Arthur's nephew and a Knight of the Round Table) in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century). Since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the UK is damehood. The ceremony often takes place at Buckingham Palace, and family members are invited to attend. A few examples of knights are Sir Nicholas Winton: for "services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia", Sir Elton John: for "services to music and charitable services", Sir Ridley Scott: for "services to the British film industry", and Sir Richard Branson: for "services to entrepreneurship". Examples of dames are: actress Dame Julie Andrews and singer Dame Shirley Bassey: both for "services to the performing arts", actress Dame Joan Collins: for "services to charity", and Dame Agatha Christie: for "contribution to literature." Counties The suffix "shire" is attached to most of the names of English, Scottish and Welsh counties. Shire is a term for a division of land first used in England during the Anglo-Saxon period. Examples in England are Cheshire, Hampshire, Nottinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire and Yorkshire; in Scotland, Aberdeenshire, Perthshire, Inverness-shire and Stirlingshire; and in Wales, Carmarthenshire, Flintshire and Pembrokeshire. This suffix tends not to be found in the names of counties that were pre-existing divisions. Essex, Kent, and Sussex, for example, have never borne a -shire, as each represents a former Anglo-Saxon kingdom. Similarly Cornwall was a British kingdom before it became an English county. The term "shire" is also not used in the names of the six traditional counties of Northern Ireland. Units of measurement Use of the British imperial system of measure, particularly among the public, is widespread in the United Kingdom and is in many cases permitted by the law. Distance, height, weight and speed are the most common examples of such usage. An example of giving one's body weight would be: 11 and a half stone (or 11 stone and 7 pounds). Body height is usually given in feet and inches. Distances shown on road signs must be in miles and yards, while miles per hour appear on speed limit signs and car speedometers. Imperial units (such as pounds and ounces) are legally permitted on British goods after the European Commission announced in 2007 that it was to abandon the requirement for metric-only labelling on packaged goods in the UK and to allow dual metric–imperial marking to continue indefinitely. By custom and law, traffic in Britain drives on the left. Research shows that countries driving on the left have a lower collision rate than those that drive on the right, and it has been suggested that this is partly because the predominantly better-performing right eye is used to monitor oncoming traffic and the driver's wing mirror. The name of the zebra crossing is attributed to British MP and subsequent Prime Minister, James Callaghan, who in 1948 visited the Transport Research Laboratory which was working on a new idea for safe pedestrian crossings. On being shown a design he is said to have remarked that it resembled a zebra. Located in Birmingham, the Gravelly Hill Interchange's colloquial name "Spaghetti Junction" was coined by journalists from the Birmingham Evening Mail on 1 June 1965. In 1971, the Green Cross Code was introduced to teach children safer road crossing habits. From 1987, Mungo Jerry's song "In the Summertime" featured in drink driving adverts. The building of roundabouts (circular junctions) grew rapidly in the 1960s; there are now more than 10,000 in the UK The Cat's eye retroreflective safety device used in road marking was invented by Percy Shaw in 1933. Cuisine British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant "unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it". International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner. However, Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into Great Britain in the Middle Ages. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India's food tradition of "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". Each country within the United Kingdom has its own specialities. Traditional examples of English cuisine include the Sunday roast; featuring a roasted joint, usually roast beef (a signature English national dish dating back to the 1731 ballad "The Roast Beef of Old England"), lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. The full English breakfast consists of bacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, baked beans, fried mushrooms, sausages and eggs. Black pudding and hash browns are often also included. It is usually served with tea or coffee. The Ulster version – Ulster fry – includes soda farl and potato bread, with the BBC's Simon Majumdar calling it the UK's best full breakfast. Fish and chips are also regarded as a national institution: Winston Churchill called them "the good companions", John Lennon smothered them in tomato ketchup, while George Orwell referred to them as a "chief comfort" of the working class. The meal was created in 1860 in the East End of London by a Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, who came up with the idea of combining fried fish with chips. A blue plaque at Oldham's Tommyfield Market marks the 1860s origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries. Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, shepherd's pie, cottage pie, Cornish pasty and pork pie. A quintessential British custom, afternoon tea, is a small meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm. The most popular drink in Britain, tea became more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza. It is traditionally accompanied with biscuits, sandwiches, scones, cakes or pastries (such as Battenberg cake, fruit cake or Victoria sponge). In his 1946 essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", author George Orwell wrote: "Tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country." McVitie's are the best selling biscuit brand in the UK, and the most popular biscuits to "dunk" in tea, with McVitie's chocolate digestives, rich tea and hobnobs ranked the nation's top three favourite biscuits. Other popular British biscuits include bourbons, custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, ginger nuts and shortbread. The first documented figure-shaped biscuits (gingerbread man) was at the court of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. The first English recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London in 1718, and arguably the earliest reference to an edible ice cream cone, appears in Charles Elmé Francatelli's 1846 The Modern Cook. The 18th-century English aristocrat John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich is best known for his links to the modern concept of the sandwich which was named after him. When he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, others began to order "the same as Sandwich!". In the city of Leeds in 1767, Joseph Priestley made his "happiest" discovery when he invented carbonated water (also known as soda water), the major and defining component of most soft drinks. Carbonated lemonade was available in British refreshment stalls in 1833, with R. White's Lemonade sold in 1845. By 1887 they sold a wide variety of soft drink flavours. Irn-Bru is the best-selling soft drink in Scotland. Invented by a Newcastle pharmacist in 1927, Lucozade is the No. 1 sports drink in the UK. Sausages are commonly eaten as bangers and mash, in sausage rolls or as toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew. Popular cheeses include Cheddar and Wensleydale. Sweet British dishes include scones, apple pie, mince pies, spotted dick, Eccles cakes, pancakes, sponge cake, trifle, jelly, custard, sticky toffee pudding, Tunnock's teacake, and Jaffa cakes; the best-selling cake in the UK. Marmalade is a popular British spread for toast or sandwich: a spread famous for its association with Paddington Bear, a beloved bear in British culture that featured in the critically acclaimed films Paddington (2014) and Paddington 2 (2017). Home baking has always been a significant part of British home cooking. Influential cookbooks include The Experienced English Housekeeper (1769), Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) by food author Eliza Acton that introduced the now-universal practice of listing ingredients and giving suggested cooking times for each recipe, and Isabella Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861). Home-made cakes and jams are part of the traditional English village fête. Filmed in bunting-draped marquees in scenic gardens, the success of the 2010s television show The Great British Bake Off (which was inspired by the village fête) is credited with spurring a renewed interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. A popular cake to bake, Victoria sponge (named after Queen Victoria who enjoyed a slice with her tea), was created following the discovery of baking powder by English food manufacturer Alfred Bird in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher in cakes. The hot cross bun is a popular British sweet bun traditionally eaten on Good Friday, but are now eaten all year round. Treacle tart was created after the invention of golden syrup by chemists working for Abram Lyle in 1885. With its logo and green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since then, Lyle's Golden Syrup was listed by Guinness World Records as having the world's oldest branding and packaging. Scottish cuisine includes Arbroath smokie and haggis; Northern Irish cuisine features the Ulster fry and the pastie and Welsh cuisine is noted for Welsh rarebit (often using Worcestershire sauce) and cawl. Brown sauce is a traditional British condiment, with its best known variety HP Sauce (named after and featuring an image of the Houses of Parliament on the label) a popular spread on chicken and bacon sandwiches. The Scottish Aberdeen Angus is a popular native beef breed, accounting for almost 20% of the UK beef industry. Cavendish bananas were cultivated by Sir Joseph Paxton in the greenhouses of Chatsworth House, Derbyshire in 1836. Named after William Cavendish, they make up the vast majority of bananas consumed in the western world. The pub is an important aspect of British culture, and is often the focal point of local communities. Referred to as their "local" by regulars, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, the availability of a particular beer or ale or a good selection, good food, a social atmosphere, the presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of pub games such as darts or snooker. Pubs will often screen sports events, such as English Premier League and Scottish Premier League games (or for international tournaments, the FIFA World Cup). The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s. In 1393, Richard II introduced a law that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold. Most pubs still have decorated signs hanging over their doors. The owner or tenant (licensee) is known as the pub landlord or publican, while barmaids are a common feature in pubs. Alcoholic drinks served in pubs include wines and English beers such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale. Whisky originated in Ireland and Scotland in the Middle Ages: Irish whiskey and Scotch whisky. On Christmas Day, goose was previously served at dinner; however since appearing on Christmas tables in England in the late 16th century, the turkey has become more popular, with Christmas pudding served for dessert. The 16th-century English navigator William Strickland is credited with introducing the turkey into England, and 16th-century farmer Thomas Tusser noted that by 1573 turkeys were common in the English Christmas dinner. This custom gave rise to the humorous English idiom, "like turkeys voting for Christmas". The turkey is sometimes accompanied with roast beef or ham, and is served with stuffing, gravy, roast potatoes, mashed potatoes and vegetables. Invented in London in the 1840s, Christmas crackers are an integral part of Christmas celebrations, often pulled before or after dinner, or at parties. Chinese restaurants and takeaways (in addition to Indian) are among the most popular ethnic food in the UK. Chinese takeaways are a common sight in towns throughout the UK, and many serve a pseudo-Chinese cuisine based on western tastes (such as chicken fried rice, chips and curry sauce). The earliest recipe for the crisp ("potato chip") is in English food writer William Kitchiner's 1822 cookbook The Cook's Oracle. In 1920, Frank Smith of The Smiths Potato Crisps Company Ltd packaged a twist of salt with his crisps in greaseproof paper bags, which were sold around London. Crisps remained otherwise unseasoned until an important scientific development in the 1950s. After Archer Martin and Richard Synge (while working in Leeds) received a Nobel Prize for the invention of partition chromatography in 1952, food scientists began to develop flavours via a gas chromatograph, a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese. In 1954, Irish crisps company Tayto produced the first seasoned crisps: Cheese & Onion and Salt & Vinegar. The crisp market in the UK is led by Walkers (who introduced their own flavours in 1954), holding 56% of the market share. The Quakers, founded by George Fox in 1650s England and described by the BBC as "natural capitalists", had a virtual monopoly in the British chocolate industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries, led by Cadbury of Birmingham, Fry's of Bristol and Rowntree's and Terry's of York. Fry's produced the first chocolate bar in 1847, which was then mass-produced as Fry's Chocolate Cream in 1866. The chocolate bars Cadbury Dairy Milk, Galaxy and Kit Kat, are the three best selling bars in the UK. Cadbury Creme Eggs are the best selling confectionery item between New Year's Day and Easter in the UK, with annual sales in excess of 200 million. Sponsored by Cadbury, the annual children's Easter egg hunt takes place in over 250 locations in the UK. Created in Doncaster, Yorkshire, Butterscotch boiled sweets is one of the town's best known exports. Created in Lancashire, Jelly Babies are among the British public's favourite sweets. After Eights are a popular after dinner mint. A stick of rock (a hard cylindrical stick-shaped boiled sugar) is a traditional British seaside sweet, commonly sold at seaside resorts throughout the UK such as Brighton, Portrush and Blackpool. A "99 Flake" (commonly called a "99") which consists of ice cream in a cone with a Cadbury Flake inserted in it, is a hugely popular British dessert. Sport Most of the major sports have separate administrative structures and national teams for each of the countries of the United Kingdom. Though each country is also represented individually at the Commonwealth Games, there is a single 'Team GB' (for Great Britain) that represents the UK at the Olympic Games. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century Victorian Britain, in 2012, IOC President Jacques Rogge stated; "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognized as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum". Football Both in participation and viewing, the most popular sport in the UK is association football. The sport's origin can be traced to English public school football games. The rules were first drafted in England in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world. England is recognised as the birthplace of club football by FIFA, with Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, the world's oldest football club. The home nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably England's Premier League and FA Cup, and the Scottish Premiership and Scottish Cup. The top three Welsh football clubs feature in the English league system. The first international football match was between Scotland and England in 1872. Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament. The British television audience for the 1966 World Cup final peaked at 32.30 million viewers, making it the most watched television event ever in the UK. The four home nations have produced some of the greatest players in the game's history, including, from England, Bobby Moore and Gordon Banks; from Northern Ireland, George Best and Pat Jennings; from Scotland, Kenny Dalglish and Jimmy Johnstone; and from Wales, Ian Rush and Ryan Giggs. The first recipient of the Ballon d'Or, Stanley Matthews was knighted while still a player. The English Premier League (formed in 1992 by member clubs of the old Football League First Division) is the most-watched football league in the world, and its biggest clubs include Manchester United, Liverpool, Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City. Scotland's Celtic and Rangers also have a global fanbase. Leicester City's 2016 Premier League title win is regarded among the greatest sporting upsets ever. The best-placed teams in the domestic leagues of England and Scotland qualify for Europe's premier competition, the UEFA Champions League (European Cup). Previous winners from the UK are Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Celtic, Chelsea and Aston Villa. The UEFA Champions League Anthem, written by Tony Britten and based on Handel's Zadok the Priest, is played before each game. Henry Lyte's Christian hymn "Abide with Me" is sung prior to kick-off at every FA Cup Final, a tradition since 1927. The practice of "jumpers for goalposts" alludes to street/park football in the UK where jumpers would be placed on the ground and used as goalposts. This practice was referenced by singer Ed Sheeran in his DVD Jumpers for Goalposts: Live at Wembley Stadium as a nod to playing concerts at Wembley Stadium, the home of English football. Early references to dribbling come from accounts of medieval football games in England. Geoffrey Chaucer offered an allusion to such ball skills in 14th-century England. In The Knight's Tale (from the Canterbury Tales) he uses the following line: "rolleth under foot as doth a ball". Football in Britain is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, which are one of the last remaining sources of an oral folk song tradition in the UK. Chants include "You're Not Singing Any More" (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out!"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early). Many teams in the UK have their own club anthem or have a song closely associated with them, for example “You'll Never Walk Alone” by Liverpool-based rock band Gerry and the Pacemakers, and "Local Hero" by Dire Straits frontman and Newcastle United fan Mark Knopfler, is played before the start of every Liverpool and Newcastle home game. Throughout the UK, meat pies (as well as burgers and chips) is a traditional hot food eaten at football games either before kick-off or during half time. The purchase of a football programme (a pre-match magazine produced by the home team that gives details on that day's game, including player profiles, recent form, interviews etc.) is also part of the 'ritual' of attending a football match in the UK. The Football Association dropped its ban on floodlights in 1950, and night games attracted increasingly large crowds of fans–some of them unruly—as well as large television audiences. Architects built bigger stadia, and "their cantilevered constructions dwarfing mean streets, supplanted the cathedral as a symbol of the city's identity and aspirations". Golf The modern game of golf originated in Scotland, with the Fife town of St Andrews known internationally as the "home of golf". and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18 hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest known rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 in Leith. The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, first took place in Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860, and today it is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July. Golf's first superstar Harry Vardon, a member of the fabled Great Triumvirate who were pioneers of the modern game, won the Open a record six times. Since the 2010s, three Northern Irish golfers have had major success; Graeme McDowell, Darren Clarke and four time major winner Rory McIlroy. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy. Sir Nick Faldo is the most successful British Ryder Cup player. Rugby In 1845, rugby union was created when the first rules were written by pupils at Rugby School, Warwickshire. A former pupil of the school William Webb Ellis, is often fabled with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823. The first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871, played between England and Scotland. By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had teams, and in 1883 the first international competition the annual Home Nations Championship took place. In 1888, the Home Nations combined to form what is today called the British and Irish Lions, who now tour every four years to face a Southern Hemisphere team. The Wales team of the 1970s, which included a backline consisting of Gareth Edwards, J. P. R. Williams and Phil Bennett who were known for their feints, sidesteps and attacking running rugby, are regarded as one of the greatest teams in the game – all three players were involved in The greatest try ever scored in 1973. Jonny Wilkinson scored the winning drop goal for England in the last minute of extra time in the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final. The major domestic club competitions are the Premiership in England and the Celtic League in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and (since 2010) Italy. Of Cornish origin, the chant “Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi!” is associated with rugby union (and its personalised variant with football); it inspired the “Maggie Maggie Maggie, Out Out Out!" chant by opponents of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. In 1895, rugby league was created in Huddersfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, as the result of a split with the other Rugby code. The Super League is the sports top-level club competition in Britain, and the sport is especially popular in towns in the northern English counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. The Challenge Cup is the major rugby league cup competition. Tennis The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England in the 1860s, and after its creation, tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population, before spreading around the world. Major Walter Clopton Wingfield is credited as being a pioneer of the game. The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July. Created in the Tudor period in the court of Henry VIII, the English dessert Strawberries and cream is synonymous with the British summer, and is famously consumed at Wimbledon. The tournament itself has a major place in the British cultural calendar. The eight-time Slam winner and Britain's most successful player Fred Perry is one of only seven men in history to have won all four Grand Slam events, which included three Wimbledons. Virginia Wade won three Grand Slams, the most famous of which was Wimbledon in 1977, the year of the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II (the Queen attended Wimbledon for the first time since 1962 to watch the final). The 2013 and 2016 Wimbledon champion, Scotland's Andy Murray, is Britain's most recent male Grand Slam winner. In 2021, Emma Raducanu became the most recent British female Grand Slam winner. Boxing The 'Queensberry rules', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing. Britain's first heavyweight world champion Bob Fitzsimmons made boxing history as the sport's first three-division world champion. The 1980s saw the emergence of heavyweight Frank Bruno who would become hugely popular with the British public. In the 1990s, Chris Eubank, Nigel Benn, Steve Collins and Michael Watson had a series of fights against each other in the super-middleweight division, drawing audiences of up to 20 million in the UK. Eubank's eccentric personality made him one of the most recognisable celebrities in the UK along with the cocky ”Prince" Naseem Hamed. The Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan fight in 1995 drew 13 million. Other big draw fighters in the UK included Lennox Lewis, Joe Calzaghe and Ricky Hatton. Cricket The modern game of cricket was created in England in the 1830s when round arm bowling was legalised, followed by the historical legalisation of overarm bowling in 1864. In 1876–77, England took part in the first-ever Test match against Australia. Influential to the development of the sport, W. G. Grace is regarded as one of the greatest cricket players, devising most of the techniques of modern batting. His fame endures; Monty Python and the Holy Grail uses his image as "the face of God" during the sequence in which God sends the knights out on their quest for the grail. The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 that has remained Test cricket's most famous contest, and takes place every two years to high television viewing figures. The County Championship is the domestic competition in England and Wales. England have hosted the Cricket World Cup five times, and are the reigning champions, having won in 2019. Horse racing Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. Horse racing was popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings." Named after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history. Red Rum is the best-known racehorse in the UK, named by 45% of Britons, with Black Beauty (from Anna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%. Bolton company J.W. Foster and Sons's pioneering running spikes appear in the book, Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport. They were made famous by 1924 100 m Olympic champion Harold Abrahams who would be immortalised in Chariots of Fire, the British Oscar winning film. Foster's grandsons formed the sportswear company Reebok in Bolton. Motor sports The 1950 British Grand Prix was the first Formula One World Championship race. Britain has produced some of the greatest drivers in Formula One, including Stirling Moss, Jim Clark (twice F1 champion), Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), John Surtees (only world champion in two and four wheels), Jackie Stewart (three-time F1 champion), James Hunt, Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Jenson Button and Lewis Hamilton (seven-time champion). The British Grand Prix is held at Silverstone every July. Also, the United Kingdom is home to some of the most prestigious teams in Formula One, including McLaren and Williams. It is also home to the headquarters of six of the ten current F1 teams, including current champions Mercedes, four-time champions Red Bull Racing, Alpine and Aston Martin. National sporting events Other major sporting events in the UK include the London Marathon, and The Boat Race on the River Thames. The most successful male rower in Olympic history, Steve Redgrave won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games. Cycling is a popular physical activity in the UK. In 1888, inventor Frank Bowden founded the Raleigh Bicycle Company, and by 1913, Raleigh was the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world. The Raleigh Chopper was named in the list of British design icons. In 1965 Tom Simpson became the first British world road race champion, and in 2012 Bradley Wiggins became the first British Tour de France winner. Chris Froome has subsequently won the Tour de France four times (2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017). Welsh cyclist Geraint Thomas won in 2018. Sprint specialist Mark Cavendish has won thirty Tour de France stages, putting him second on the all-time list. In Ice Dance, many of the compulsory moves were developed by dancers from the UK in the 1930s. At the 1984 Winter Olympics, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean won ice dancing gold with the highest-ever score for a single programme. The pair received perfect 6.0 scores from every judge for artistic impression, and twelve 6.0s and six 5.9s overall. At the 1988 Winter Olympics, ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards gained fame as an underdog. Eddie was portrayed by Taron Egerton in the 2016 biographical sports comedy-drama film Eddie the Eagle. A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football, golf, tennis, boxing, rugby league, rugby union, cricket, field hockey, snooker, darts, billiards, squash, curling and badminton, all of which are popular in Britain. Another sport invented in the UK was baseball, and its early form rounders is popular among children in Britain. Snooker and darts are popular indoor games: Stephen Hendry is the seven time world snooker champion, Phil Taylor is the 16 time world darts champion. Snooker player Alex Higgins (nicknamed The Hurricane) and darts player Eric Bristow (nicknamed The Crafty Cockney) are credited with popularising each sport. Bodybuilder Reg Park was Mr Britain in 1946 and became Mr Universe in 1951, 1958 and 1965. Gaelic football is very popular in Northern Ireland, with many teams from the north winning the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship since the early 2000s. William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games, and in 1994, then IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games". Participation in women's team sport (in addition to profile in the media) has seen a rapid increase in recent years. Popular women's team sports include Netball Superleague formed in 2005, the FA WSL (women's football) formed in 2010 (Kelly Smith is seen as a leading figure in the game), Women's Six Nations Championship in rugby union, and Women's Cricket Super League. Sub-national sports The Highland games are held throughout the year in Scotland as a way of celebrating Scottish and Celtic culture and heritage, especially that of the Scottish Highlands, with more than 60 games taking place across the country every year. Each December, the BBC Sports Personality of the Year is announced, an award given to the best British sportsperson of the year, as voted for by the British public. The public also votes for the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, presented to a non-British sportsperson considered to have made the most substantial contribution to a sport each year which has also captured the imagination of the British public. Recipients have included Pelé (after winning his third World Cup in 1970), Muhammad Ali (after regaining the heavyweight title in 1974), Jonah Lomu (for his performances at the 1995 Rugby World Cup), Ronaldo (for his comeback in winning the 2002 World Cup), and Roger Federer (for his record eighth Wimbledon in 2017). Healthcare Each of the four countries of the UK has a publicly funded health care system referred to as the National Health Service (NHS). The terms "National Health Service" or "NHS" are also used to refer to the four systems collectively. All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed by the Labour Government that had been elected in 1945 with a manifesto commitment to implement the Beveridge Report recommendation to create "comprehensive health and rehabilitation services for prevention and cure of disease". The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay. The NHS had a prominent slot during the 2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony directed by Danny Boyle, being described as "the institution which more than any other unites our nation", according to the programme. Cancer Research UK, Alzheimer's Research UK and Together for Short Lives are among hundreds of health charities in the UK. Florence Nightingale laid the foundation of modern nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. Nightingale wrote Notes on Nursing in 1859. The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools. The Nightingale Pledge is taken by new nurses, and the annual International Nurses Day (12 May) is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms improved healthcare for all sections of society in the UK and around the world. Pets Statistics In the UK, about 40% of the population own a pet. The top pets in the UK for 2018 and 2019 are: Dogs: 25% Cats: 17% Rabbits, indoor birds, guinea pigs, hamsters: ≈1% Tortoises and Turtles: 0.7% Lizards: 0.6% However, the population of pets in the UK has declined from 71 million in 2013 (a significant peak) to 51 million in 2018. History Founded in 1824, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world. The British Shorthair cat is the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country, as registered by the UK's Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF). The breed's broad cheeks and relatively calm temperament make it a frequent media star. The cat's profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'”. There are almost one million horses and ponies in the UK, with popular native breeds including Clydesdale horse (used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry), Thoroughbred (used in horse racing), Cleveland Bay (pull carriages in royal processions), Highland pony and Shetland pony. The UK's indigenous dog breeds include Bulldog, Jack Russell Terrier, Golden Retriever, Yorkshire Terrier, Airedale Terrier, Beagle, Border Collie, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, English Cocker Spaniel, Scottish Terrier, Welsh Corgi, Bullmastiff, Greyhound, English Springer Spaniel and Old English Sheepdog. The Kennel Club, with its headquarters in London, is the oldest kennel club in the world, and acts as a lobby group on issues involving dogs in the UK. Its main objectives are to promote the general improvement of dogs and responsible dog ownership. Held since 1891, Crufts is an annual dog show in the UK. The event takes place over four days in early March. In 1928, the very first winner of Best in Show at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a greyhound. National costume and dress As a multi-national state, the UK has no single national costume. However, different countries within the United Kingdom have national costumes or at least are associated with styles of dress. Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter, and tartan clothing – its pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours – is a notable aspect of Gaelic culture. A traditional Welsh costume with Welsh hat is worn by some women during Eisteddfodau. In England, the topic of a national costume has been in debate, since no officially recognized clothing is anointed "national". However, the closest to an English national costume can be the smock or smock-frock in the Midlands and Southern England and the maud in Northern England. English Country Clothing is also very popular among rural folk, flat caps and brogue shoes also forming part of the country clothing. Certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered to be symbolic of Englishness. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English May dance are sometimes cited as examples of traditional English costume, but are only worn by participants in those events. Designed in 1849 by the London hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler, the Bowler hat is arguably the most iconic stereotyped view of an Englishman (complete with Bowler and rolled umbrella), and was commonly associated with City of London businessmen. Traced back to the north of England in the 14th century, the flat cap is associated with the working classes in the UK. The flat cap has seen a 21st-century resurgence in popularity, possibly influenced by various British public figures wearing them, including David Beckham, Harry Styles and Guy Ritchie, with clothing sellers Marks & Spencer reporting that flat cap sales significantly increased in the 2010s. In 1856 William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye (Mauveine – a purple colour), which was suitable as a dye of silk and other textiles, helping to revolutionise the world of fashion. Burberry is most famous for creating the trench coat: they were worn by British soldiers in the trenches in World War I. Among various British youth subcultures, Dr. Martens boots (often referred to as DMs) have been the choice of footwear: in the 1960s skinheads started to wear them, and they later became popular among scooter riders, punks, and some new wave musicians. Male mods adopted a sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits, thin ties, button-down collar shirts, Chelsea boots and Clarks desert boots. British sensibilities have played an influential role in world clothing since the 18th century. Particularly during the Victorian era, British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as the future Edward VII, Edward VIII, and Beau Brummell, created the modern suit and cemented its dominance. Brummell is credited with introducing and establishing as fashion the modern man's suit, worn with a tie. The use of a coloured and patterned tie (a common feature in British school uniforms) indicating the wearer's membership in a club, regiment, school, professional association etc. stems from the 1880 oarsmen of Exeter College, Oxford, who tied the bands of their straw hats around their necks. The Wellington boot (first worn by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington) became a staple for outdoor wear. The tradition of a white wedding is commonly credited to Queen Victoria's choice to wear a white wedding dress at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840, at a time when white was associated with purity and conspicuous consumption (because it was difficult to keep clean, and thus could not be worn by servants or labourers), and when it was the colour required of girls being presented to the royal court. The 1981 wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer became one of the most famous dresses in the world, and was considered one of the most closely guarded secrets in fashion history. Fashion London, as one of the world's four fashion capitals, is host to the London Fashion Week – one of the 'Big Four' fashion weeks. Organised by the British Fashion Council, the event takes place twice each year, in February and September. The current venue for most of the "on-schedule" events is Somerset House in central London, where a large marquee in the central courtyard hosts a series of catwalk shows by top designers and fashion houses, while an exhibition, housed within Somerset House itself, showcases over 150 designers. However, many "off-schedule" events, such as On|Off and Vauxhall Fashion Scout, are organised independently and take place at other venues in central London. British designers whose collections have been showcased at the fashion week include Vivienne Westwood, Alexander McQueen, John Galliano and Stella McCartney. British models who have featured at the event include Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Jade Jagger, David Gandy, Cara Delevingne and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley. For almost two decades, Princess Diana was a fashion icon whose style was emulated by women around the world. Fashion designer Mary Quant was at the heart of the "Swinging London" scene of the 1960s, and her work culminated in the creation of the miniskirt and hot pants. Quant named the miniskirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini. The Swinging London fashion scene has featured in films, and was spoofed in the Austin Powers comedy series. The English fashion designer Charles Frederick Worth is widely considered the father of Haute couture. Symbols, flags, and emblems The United Kingdom as a whole has a number of national symbols, as do its constituent nations. The Union Flag is the national flag of the United Kingdom. The first flag combined the cross of St George with the saltire of Saint Andrew to represent the Union of the Crowns in 1707. St Patrick's saltire was added when the Kingdom of Ireland was unified with Great Britain in 1801, and retained to represent Northern Ireland after partition in 1927. Wales has never been represented on the Union Flag, as in 1707 it was part of the Kingdom of England. Similarly, the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom only represents England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England occupies the first and fourth quarters of the arms except in Scotland, when its arms take precedence. Britannia is the national personification of the UK, while John Bull is a personification used in satirical contexts, and the national animals are the lion and the bulldog. The UK does not have a floral emblem, but each nation does. The Tudor rose represents England, a thistle Scotland, the flax flower and shamrock Northern Ireland, and the leek and daffodil Wales. The rose, shamrock and thistle are engrafted on the same stem on the coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Another major floral symbol is the remembrance poppy, which has been worn in Britain since 1921 to commemorate soldiers who have died in war. In the weeks leading up to Remembrance Sunday they are distributed by The Royal British Legion in return for donations to their "Poppy Appeal", which supports all current and former British military personnel. Traditional communication and greeting cards A familiar sight throughout the UK, the red telephone box and Royal Mail red post box are considered British cultural icons. Designed by Sir Giles Gilbert in 1924, the red telephone box features a prominent crown representing the British government. The post pillar box was introduced in the 1850s during the reign of Queen Victoria following Sir Rowland Hill's postal reforms in the 1830s where the reduction in postal rates with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) made sending post an affordable means of personal communication. The red telephone box has appeared in British pop culture, such as in Adele's video "Hello", the front cover of One Direction's album Take Me Home, and the back cover of David Bowie's album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. The world's first postcard was received by Theodore Hook from Fulham, London in 1840. The first pillar boxes had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina. Most pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical, and have served well throughout the reigns of George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II. The sending and receiving of greeting cards is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture. Sir Henry Cole devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time. Designed by John Callcott Horsley for Cole in 1843, the Christmas card accounts for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales in the UK, with over 600 million cards sold annually. The robin is a common sight in gardens throughout the UK. It is relatively tame and drawn to human activities, and is frequently voted Britain's national bird in polls. The robin began featuring on many Christmas cards in the mid-19th century. The association with Christmas arises from postmen in Victorian Britain who wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card. Sending Valentine's Day cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice which has since spread to other nations. The day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382) he wrote; For this was on seynt Volantynys day. When euery bryd comets there to chese his make. The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the 1784 English nursery rhyme Roses Are Red; "The rose is red, the violet's blue. 'The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine. I drew thee to my Valentine." In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man's Valentine Writer which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the UK, despite postage being expensive. A reduction in postal rates (with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp, the Penny Black) increased the practice of mailing Valentines, with 400,000 sent in 1841. In the UK just under half the population spend money on gifts. Other popular occasions for sending greeting cards in the UK are birthdays, Mother's Day, Easter and Father's Day. Education Each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system. Power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is devolved but education in England is dealt with by the British government since there is no devolved administration for England. England Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era; a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially, schools were categorised as infant schools, primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools. England has many independent (fee-paying) schools, some founded hundreds of years ago; independent secondary schools are known as public schools. Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and Rugby are four of the best-known. The nature and peculiarities of these Public schools have frequently featured in British literature. Prior to 1999, corporal punishment was allowed in such schools, whilst the use of corporal punishment was outlawed in state schools in 1987. Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. Allowances are almost invariably made, however, to accommodate religious dress, including the Islamic hijab and Sikh bangle (kara). Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local education authorities. England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world: the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, the University of Oxford and University College London are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times. Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class). Northern Ireland The Northern Ireland Assembly is responsible for education in Northern Ireland. Schools are administered by five Education and Library Boards covering different geographical areas. Scotland Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education which, traditionally, has emphasised breadth across a range of subjects rather than depth of education in a smaller range of subjects. The majority of schools are non-denominational, but by law separate Roman Catholic schools, with an element of control by the Roman Catholic Church, are provided by the state system. Qualifications at the secondary school and post-secondary (further education) levels are provided by the Scottish Qualifications Authority and delivered through various schools, colleges and other centres. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Executive Education and Enterprise, Transport & Lifelong Learning Departments. State schools are owned and operated by the local authorities which act as Education Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school (often called high school, with the world's oldest high school being the Royal High School, Edinburgh in 1505, which colonists spread to the New World owing to the high prestige enjoyed by the Scottish educational system). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities by Learning and Teaching Scotland. First degree courses at Scottish universities are often a year longer than elsewhere in the UK, though sometimes students can take a more advanced entrance exam and join the courses in the second year. One unique aspect is that the ancient universities of Scotland award a Master of Arts degree as the first degree in humanities. The University of Edinburgh is among the top twenty universities in the world according to the QS World University Rankings 2011. It is also among the Ancient Universities of Great Britain. Wales The National Assembly for Wales has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of students in Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of the Welsh language, and lessons in the language are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh medium education as part of the policy of promoting a fully bilingual Wales. Outdoor education Scouting is the largest co-educational youth movement in the UK. Scouting began in 1907 when Robert Baden-Powell, Lieutenant General in the British Army, held the first Scout camp at Brownsea Island in Dorset, England. Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting in Scouting for Boys in 1908. In July 2009, adventurer Bear Grylls became the youngest Chief Scout ever, aged 35. In 2010, scouting in the UK experienced its biggest growth since 1972, taking total membership to almost 500,000. Sociological issues Housing The UK (England in particular) has a relatively high population density so housing tends to be more closely packed than in other countries. Thus terraced houses are widespread, dating back to the aftermath of the Great Fire of London. As the first industrialised country in the world, the UK has long been urbanised. In the 20th century, suburbanisation led to a spread of semi-detached and detached housing. After the Second World War, public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number of council estates. There are many historic country houses and stately homes in rural areas, though only a minority of these are still used as private living accommodation. In recent times, more detached housing has started to be built. Also, city living has boomed, with city centre populations rising rapidly. Most of this population growth has been accommodated in new apartment blocks in residential schemes in many towns and cities. Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and the South East. Living arrangements Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either in conjugal extended families or nuclear families. This reflected an economic landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflected gender roles. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families. In the 20th century the emancipation of women, the greater freedoms enjoyed by both men and women in the years following the Second World War, greater affluence and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of the extended family (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and the nuclear family arguably reducing in prominence. From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with low interest rates and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular on accommodation for "key workers" such as nurses, other emergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the South East. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors. Happiness When Brits were asked to rate their happiness yesterday on a scale of 1 to 10 in 2018, respondent's mean answer was 7.54 (ranked 'High') in 2018. Northern Irish respondents were ranked the happiest of the United Kingdom (with a mean of 7.74), followed by the English (with 7.54), then the Scots (with 7.52) and finally the Welsh (with 7.51). However, only 25% of women and girls between the ages of 7 and 21 claim to be very happy, which has fallen from 41% in 2009. They claimed that it was due to the pressure from exams and social media, which exerted undue amounts of stress on them. In that category, the oldest were the least happy: 27% of young women aged 17 to 21 claimed they were not happy, compared to 11% in 2009. This negatively influenced their confidence by 61%, health by 50%, relationships by 49% and studying by 39%. 69% of respondents in that age group claimed school exams were the chief stressor, 59% felt pressure from social media was making them less happy, and compared to 5 years ago, more claimed they had experienced unkind, threatening or negative reactions on social media. The proportion of the population who knew someone with mental health issues rose from 62% in 2015 to 71% in 2018. Many young women and girls feel unsafe walking alone: over half aged from 13 to 21 have experienced harassment or know someone who has, and almost half feel unsafe using public transport. Feminism The proportion of young girls considering themselves feminists has risen from 35% in 2013 to 47% in 2018. 36% of young women and girls aged 11 to 21 had spoken up about an issue that mattered to them, this rose from 28% in 2011 but only 60% felt they had been listened to. Girls have also become more interested in science, maths and technology. Girls are more likely to want to become leaders in their careers, 53% compared to 42% in 2016. Maria Miller said, “#MeToo may have left its mark in Hollywood but for women and girls around the country their ambitions to succeed are still too often met with sexism. It's important more women and girls are now speaking out about how this behaviour undermines their confidence and mental health; but this harmful, negative behaviour has to be stopped". Naming conventions The common naming convention throughout the United Kingdom is for everyone to have one or more given names (a forename, still often referred to as a "Christian name") usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, and a surname ("family name"). A four-year study by the University of the West of England, which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th centuries to explain the origins of the surnames in the British Isles. The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to the British Isles; the most common in the UK are Smith, Jones, Williams, Brown, Taylor, Johnson, and Lee. Since the 19th century middle names (additional forenames) have become very common and are sometimes taken from the name of a family member. Most surnames of British origin fall into seven categories: Occupations e.g. Smith, Sawyer, Fuller, Brewer, Clark, Cooper, Cook, Carpenter, Bailey, Parker, Forrester, Head, Palmer, Archer, Hunt, Baker, Miller, Dyer, Walker, Woodman, Taylor, Turner, Knight, Slater, Mason, Weaver, Carter, Wright Personal characteristics e.g. Short, Brown, Black, Whitehead, Young, Stout, Long, White Geographical features e.g. Pond, Bridge, Camp, Hill, Bush, Lake, Lee, Wood, Holmes, Forest, Underwood, Hall, Brooks, Fields, Stone, Morley, Moore, Perry Place names e.g. Murray, Everingham, Burton, Leighton, Hamilton, Sutton, Flint, Laughton Estate For those descended from landowners, the name of their holdings, manor or estate Patronymics, matronymics or ancestral, often from a person's given name. e.g. from male name: Richardson, Jones (Welsh for John), Williams, Thomas, Jackson, Wilson, Thompson, Johnson, Harris, Evans, Simpson, Willis, Davies, Reynolds, Adams, Dawson, Lewis, Rogers, Murphy, Nicholson, Robinson, Powell, Ferguson, Davis, Edwards, Hudson, Roberts, Harrison, Watson, or female names Molson (from Moll for Mary), Gilson (from Gill), Emmott (from Emma), Marriott (from Mary) or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g. MacDonald, Forbes, Henderson, Armstrong, Grant, Cameron, Stewart, Douglas, Crawford, Campbell, Houston, Hunter) with "Mac" Irish and Scottish Gaelic for son. Patronal from patronage (Hickman meaning Hick's man, where Hick is a pet form of the name Richard) or strong ties of religion Kilpatrick (follower of Patrick) or Kilbride (follower of Bridget). Traditionally, Christian names were those of Biblical figures or recognised saints; however, in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era, other Anglo Saxon and mythical names enjoyed something of a fashion among the literati. Since the 20th century, however, first names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base. First names from the British Isles include Jennifer, a Cornish form of Guinevere (Welsh: Gwenhwyfar) from Arthurian romance, which gained recognition after George Bernard Shaw used it for the main female character in his play The Doctor's Dilemma (1906): Jennifer first entered the top 100 most commonly used names for baby girls in England and Wales in 1934. The oldest written record of the name Jessica is in Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice, where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock. Jessica is the seventh most popular name for baby girls in England and Wales in 2015. First appearing in 13th century England, Olivia was popularised by Shakespeare's character in the Twelfth Night (1602). Vanessa was created by Jonathan Swift in his poem Cadenus and Vanessa (1713). While it first appeared in late 16th century England, Pamela was popularised after Samuel Richardson named it as the title for his 1740 novel. See also: Most popular names of England and Wales Most popular names of Northern Ireland Most popular names of Scotland Most common surnames in England Most common surnames in Northern Ireland Most common surnames in Scotland Most common surnames in Wales See also British humour Department for Culture, Media and Sport (deals with Culture for England) Minister for Culture and External Affairs (deals with Culture for Scotland) Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) April Fools' Day Lord Kitchener Wants You List of venues in the United Kingdom Notes References External links Culture Department for Culture, Media and Sport United Kingdom/Ireland for Visitors Television BBC television ITV Sky television Radio BBC radio

276812

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Sturgis

Frank Sturgis

Frank Anthony Sturgis (December 9, 1924 – December 4, 1993), born Frank Angelo Fiorini, was one of the five Watergate burglars whose capture led to the end of the presidency of Richard Nixon. He served in several branches of the United States military and in the Cuban Revolution of 1958, and worked as an undercover operative for the Central Intelligence Agency. Early life and military service When still a child, his family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On October 5, 1942, in his senior year of high school, 17-year-old Frank Angelo Fiorini joined the United States Marine Corps and served under Col. "Red Mike" Merritt A. Edson in the First Marine Raider Battalion in the Pacific Theater during the Second World War. "On April 14, 1942, William Donovan, as Coordinator of Information (forerunner of the Office of Strategic Services), activated units charged with gathering intelligence, harassing the Japanese through guerrilla actions, identifying targets for the Army Air Force to bomb, and rescuing downed Allied airmen." This was what led to Stilwell's Chinese forces, Wingate's Raiders, Merrill's Marauders, in the war, and Frank got trained in Guerrilla tactics and gathering intelligence which became useful in his later events. Honorably discharged as a corporal in 1945, he enrolled at Virginia Polytechnic Institute but left college and joined the Norfolk Police Department on June 5, 1946. He soon discovered a corrupt payoff system and brought it to the attention of his superiors, who told him to overlook the illegal activities. On October 5, 1946, he had a confrontation with his sergeant and resigned the same day. For the next 18 months, he managed the Havana-Madrid tavern in Norfolk that catered to foreigners, mostly Cuban merchant seamen. On November 9, 1947, Fiorini joined the United States Naval Reserve at the Norfolk Naval Air Station and learned to fly while still working at the tavern. He was honorably discharged on August 30, 1948, and joined the United States Army the next day. He was sent immediately to West Berlin, where the USSR had closed the land routes during the Berlin Blockade, and he became a member of General Lucius Clay's honor guard. Two weeks after the USSR reopened the land routes on May 11, 1949, Fiorini was honorably discharged. As a Marine Raider, Fiorini had worked behind enemy lines gathering intelligence, and during his Army tenure in Berlin and Heidelberg, he had a top secret clearance and worked in an intelligence unit whose primary target was the Soviet Union. Fiorini started to believe Russia was a threat, and he became a lifelong militant. Returning to Norfolk in 1952, he took a job managing the Cafe Society tavern, then partnered with its owner, Milton Bass, to co-purchase and manage The Top Hat Nightclub in Virginia Beach. On September 23, 1952, Frank Fiorini filed a petition in the Circuit Court of the City of Norfolk, Virginia, to change his name to Frank Anthony Sturgis, adopting the surname of his stepfather Ralph Sturgis, whom his mother had married in 1937. His new name resembled that of Hank Sturgis, the fictional hero of E. Howard Hunt's 1949 novel, Bimini Run, whose life parallels Frank Sturgis' life from 1942 to 1949 in certain salient respects. Moves to Cuba, joins Castro forces In 1956 Sturgis moved to Cuba, and went to Mexico, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama and Honduras. Sturgis moved to Miami in 1957, where the Cuban wife of his uncle Angelo Vona introduced him to former Cuban president Carlos Prio, who joined with other Cubans opposing dictator Fulgencio Batista to plot their return to power. They were sending money to Mexico to support Fidel Castro. Prio asked Sturgis to go to Cuba to join up with Castro and to report back to the exiled powers in Miami, so he went down and met with Castro. In 1958 he made contact with the Central Intelligence Agency in Cuba at the US Consulate in Santiago. He worked as an informer for the agency with his control officer Sam Jenis. Sturgis also became involved running guns to Cuba, along with mobster Santo Trafficante, and not surprisingly was arrested for illegal possession of arms, but released without charge. In 1959 Sturgis had contact with casinos in Cuba and some say met Lewis McWillie, mobster Traficante's man in Cuba, and the manager of the Tropicana Casino who by his own testimony was a known acquaintance of Jack Ruby. Sturgis met up with Castro and his 400 rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains. Sturgis offered to train Castro's troops in guerrilla warfare. Castro accepted the offer, but he also had an immediate need for guns and ammunition, so Sturgis became a gunrunner. Using money from anti-Batista Cuban exiles in Miami and some suspect the CIA, Sturgis purchased boatloads of weapons and ammunition from CIA weapons expert Samuel Cummings' International Armament Corporation in Alexandria, Virginia. Sturgis explained later that he chose to throw in with Castro rather than Prio because Fidel was a soldier, a man of action, whereas Prio was a politician, more a man of words. In March 1958, Sturgis opened a training camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains, where he taught Che Guevara and other 26th of July Movement rebel soldiers guerrilla warfare. When Castro seized power, a rebel firing squad on San Juan Hill executed 71 of their opponents on January 11, 1959, into an awaiting 40-foot ditch that had been opened with a bulldozer. Although Sturgis did not take part in the execution, he was photographed afterwards holding a rifle on top of the covered mass grave. Castro then appointed Sturgis gambling czar and director of security and intelligence for the air force, in addition to his position as a captain in the 26th of July Movement. Sturgis went to Miami on June 2, 1959, with Alan McDonald while "supervising the investigation of several American gamblers with criminal records that operate casinos in Havana." They requested from Metropolitan Criminal Intelligence Supervisor Frank Kappel information on "Meyer and Jake Lansky, Joe Silesi aka Joe Rivers and Santos Trafficante," that was provided to them six days later after the Cuban government sent an official written request. He was introduced to two men that were transported to Cuba from Venezuela to assist in the organization of the revolution and Frank saw they were clearly communist. He began to sound out those that he knew were anti-communist including Camilo Cienfuegos, as he knew leaders like Raul Castro and Che Guevera were communist, but he was unsure about Fidel Castro. Sturgis defected the following month with Revolutionary Air Force chief Commandant Pedro Luis Diaz Lanz and they joined the anti-Castro exile opposition. Sturgis participated with him a few months later in anti-Castro leaflet-dropping raid over Cuba. Sturgis formed the Anti-Communist Brigade which Hans Tanner in his book "Counter-Revolutionary Agent", says the organization was "being financed by dispossessed hotel and gambling owners" from Cuba. The Border Patrol in Miami reported that Sturgis was involved in a CIA operation being financed by Sergio Rojas (former Cuban Ambassador to Great Britain) to overthrow Castro. It has been claimed, with little in the way of evidence, that Sturgis was involved in helping the CIA organize the Bay of Pigs invasion, for whose ultimate failure he blamed President Kennedy. Sturgis recruited 19 year old Marita Lorenz, who was close to Fidel Castro, and she took CIA pills, which she hid in her face cream, to poison Castro, but the plot failed. According to Lorenz, she met Sturgis again before the Kennedy assassination in 1963 with others planning a big event. Lorenz stated that she joined Sturgis traveling to Dallas after the meeting. Lorenz later testified about this Kennedy assassination plot before the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA). Sturgis was claimed to be a member of Operation 40, a Central Intelligence Agency-sponsored counterintelligence group composed of Cuban exiles. The group was formed to seize control of the Cuban government after the Bay of Pigs Invasion. The operation was concentrating on Cuba and were operating out of Mexico. Despite his claimed involvement in numerous CIA sponsored operations including the Bay of Pigs invasion, the 1975 Rockefeller Commission succinctly states that "Frank Sturgis was not an employee or agent of the CIA either in 1963 or at any other time." Watergate burglary 1972 On June 17, 1972, Sturgis, Virgilio González, Eugenio Martínez, Bernard Barker and James W. McCord, Jr. were arrested while installing electronic listening devices in the national Democratic Party campaign offices located at the Watergate office complex in Washington. The phone number of Hunt was found in address books of the burglars. Reporters were able to link the break-in to the White House. The burglars had made an earlier successful entry to the same location several weeks earlier, but returned to fix a malfunctioning device and to photograph more documents. Bob Woodward, a reporter working for The Washington Post was told by a source (Deep Throat) who was employed by the government that senior aides of President Richard Nixon had paid the burglars to obtain information about his political opponents. Sturgis was portrayed in All the President's Men, the 1976 film retelling the events of the Watergate scandal, by Ron Hale. Prison and later investigations In January 1973, Sturgis, Hunt, Gonzalez, Martinez, Barker, G. Gordon Liddy and James W. McCord were convicted of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping. Sturgis was convicted in 1973 with Max Gonzalez and Jerry Buchanan in a federal court in Miami (73-597-CR-CA) of transporting cars stolen in Texas into Mexico. This prompted Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Acting Regional Director David W. Costa to send a letter to Judge C. Clyde Atkins on March 10, 1975, indicating that Sturgis had been covertly cooperating with the DEA. Sturgis served 14 months in the minimum security federal prison in Eglin, Florida. After leaving prison, Sturgis served as a Miami police informant and continued providing intelligence on the anti-Castro activities of Dr. Orlando Bosch. St. George's article was published in True magazine in August 1974. Sturgis claims that the Watergate burglars had been instructed to find a particular document in the Democratic Party offices. This was a "secret memorandum from the Castro government" that included details of CIA covert actions. Sturgis said "that the Castro government suspected the CIA did not tell the whole truth about these operations even to American political leaders". In response to Sturgis' repeated braggadocio to the news media, the CIA issued a public statement on May 30, 1975, indicating that he had never been connected with them "in any way." In an interview with New York Daily News reporter Paul Meskil on June 20, 1975, Sturgis stated, "I was a spy. I was involved in assassination plots and conspiracies to overthrow several foreign governments including Cuba, Panama, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. I smuggled arms and men into Cuba for Castro and against Castro. I broke into intelligence files. I stole and photographed secret documents. That's what spies do." Sturgis was denied a pardon by President Jimmy Carter. JFK conspiracy allegations Sturgis has been the subject of various allegations regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. He also made claims that other individuals were involved in the assassination of Kennedy. Early allegations: Sturgis as one of the "three tramps" The Dallas Morning News, the Dallas Times Herald, and the Fort Worth Star-Telegram photographed three transients under police escort near the Texas School Book Depository shortly after the assassination of Kennedy. The men later became known as the "three tramps". According to Vincent Bugliosi, allegations that these men were involved in a conspiracy originated from theorist Richard E. Sprague who compiled the photographs in 1966 and 1967, and subsequently turned them over to Jim Garrison during his investigation of Clay Shaw. Appearing before a nationwide audience on the December 31, 1968 episode of The Tonight Show, Garrison held up a photo of the three and suggested they were involved in the assassination. Later, in 1974, assassination researchers Alan J. Weberman and Michael Canfield compared photographs of the men to people they believed to be suspects involved in a conspiracy and said that two of the men were Watergate burglars Hunt and Sturgis. Comedian and civil rights activist Dick Gregory helped bring national media attention to the allegations against Hunt and Sturgis in 1975 after obtaining the comparison photographs from Weberman and Canfield. Immediately after obtaining the photographs, Gregory held a press conference that received considerable coverage and his charges were reported in Rolling Stone and Newsweek. The Rockefeller Commission reported in 1975 that they investigated the allegation that Hunt and Sturgis, on behalf of the CIA, participated in the assassination of Kennedy. The final report of that commission stated that witnesses who testified that the "derelicts" bore a resemblance to Hunt or Sturgis "were not shown to have any qualification in photo identification beyond that possessed by an average layman". Their report also stated that FBI Agent Lyndal L. Shaneyfelt, "a nationally-recognized expert in photoidentification and photoanalysis" with the FBI photographic laboratory, had concluded from photo comparison that none of the men were Hunt or Sturgis. In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations reported that forensic anthropologists had again analyzed and compared the photographs of the "tramps" with those of Hunt and Sturgis, as well as with photographs of Thomas Vallee, Daniel Carswell, and Fred Lee Chrisman. According to the committee, only Chrisman resembled any of the tramps but determined that he was not to be in Dealey Plaza on the day of the assassination. In 1992, journalist Mary La Fontaine discovered the November 22, 1963 arrest records that the Dallas Police Department had released in 1989, which named the three men as Gus W. Abrams, Harold Doyle, and John F. Gedney. According to the arrest reports, the three men were "taken off a boxcar in the railroad yards right after President Kennedy was shot", detained as "investigative prisoners", described as unemployed and passing through Dallas, then released four days later. Sturgis makes his own allegations In 1976, Sturgis claimed that he was assigned to investigate any possible role that Cuban exiles may have played in the assassination of Kennedy. He stated that his investigation revealed that ten weeks prior to the assassination, Jack Ruby met with Fidel Castro in Havana, Cuba to discuss "the removal of the President" in order to neutralize the threat of invasion by the United States. According to Sturgis, others at the meeting included Raúl Castro, Che Guevara, Ramiro Valdés, and "an Argentine woman who is believed to have been a Russian KGB agent". He said that Ruby had also made several trips to Havana in the months before the assassination in order to arrange deals in which arms would be sold to Cuba and in which illegal drugs from Cuba would be smuggled into the United States. Sturgis also claimed that Lee Harvey Oswald was involved in the conspiracy, and that other governments either were involved in the conspiracy or knew of the conspiracy. He said that his investigation did not reveal that Cuban exiles were involved in the assassination. Sturgis declined to specifically identify the sources of his information, but noted he said that they included members of the "anti-Castro Cuban underground." He further claimed that associates of his involved in intelligence had independently confirmed his report. According to Sturgis, his report was made in early 1964 and that it was given to "certain American intelligence agencies, including the Senate Internal Security Committee." He said that he did not know if it had been forwarded to the Warren Commission. Similarly, Sturgis said that information about the 1964 reports had been provided to the Rockefeller Commission as well as the Church Committee's intelligence subcommittee chaired by Richard Schweiker, but that he did not know if they received the actual reports. Sturgis stated he was revealing that he made the reports in order to refute "the leftist element in the country" who claimed the CIA was involved in the assassination of Kennedy. Jack Ruby's brother, Earl, responded to the allegations as "outlandish," "ridiculous," and "absolutely false". In a 1977 television interview conducted by Bill O'Reilly, Sturgis indicated that Alexander Butterfield had notable "associations" with CIA officials, associating himself with the position taken by L. Fletcher Prouty who had made headlines nationwide with his allegation that Butterfield was operating on behalf of the CIA. Marita Lorenz: Sturgis with Oswald In September 1977, Marita Lorenz told Paul Meskil of the New York Daily News that she met Oswald in the fall of 1963 at an Operation 40 safe house in the Little Havana section of Miami. According to Lorenz, she met him again before the Kennedy assassination in 1963 in the house of Orlando Bosch, with Sturgis, Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz, and two other Cubans present. She said the men studied Dallas street maps and that she suspected that they were planning on raiding an arsenal. Lorenz stated that she joined the men traveling to Dallas in two cars and carrying "rifles and scopes", but flew back to Miami the day after they arrived. In response to her allegations, Sturgis said he did not recall ever meeting Oswald and reiterated his previous denials of being involved in a conspiracy to kill Kennedy. On October 31, 1977, Sturgis was arrested in Lorenz's apartment after Lorenz told police that Sturgis threatened her in an attempt to force her to change her testimony to federal investigators. In an interview with Steve Dunleavy of the New York Post shortly after he posted bail, Sturgis said that he believed communist agents had pressured Lorenz into making the accusations against him. Later that week in Manhattan Criminal Court, charges against Sturgis were dropped after the prosecutor told the judge that his office found no evidence of coercion or harassment. Recapping the series of events, Timothy Crouse of The Village Voice described Sturgis and Lorenz as "two of the most notoriously unreliable sources in America". Posthumous allegations: Hunt's "deathbed confession" After the death of Hunt in 2007, John Hunt and David Hunt revealed that their father had recorded several claims about himself and others being involved in a conspiracy to assassinate John F. Kennedy. In the April 5, 2007 issue of Rolling Stone, John Hunt detailed a number of individuals implicated by his father including Sturgis, as well as Cord Meyer, David Sánchez Morales, David Atlee Phillips, William Harvey and an assassin he termed "French gunman grassy knoll" who many presume was Lucien Sarti. The two sons alleged that their father cut the information from his memoirs, American Spy: My Secret History in the CIA, Watergate and Beyond, to avoid possible perjury charges. According to Hunt's widow and other children, the two sons took advantage of Hunt's loss of lucidity by coaching and exploiting him for financial gain. The Los Angeles Times said they examined the materials offered by the sons to support the story and found them to be "inconclusive". Portugal, 1980: Camarate Affair Sturgis is also linked to the assassination, on December 4, 1980, of Portuguese prime minister Francisco de Sá Carneiro and 6 other people aboard a Cessna aircraft, in what became known as the Camarate affair. He was named by two of his alleged accomplices, Fernando Farinha Simões and José Esteves, in a written confession, as the person who pressed the button of the detonator to activate the bomb on the plane. Later life In 1979, Sturgis traveled to Angola to help rebels fighting the communist government, which was supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union, and to teach guerrilla warfare. In 1981 he went to Honduras to train the US backed Contras who were fighting Nicaragua's Sandinista government, which was supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union; the Army of El Salvador; and the Honduras death squads. He made a second trip to Angola and trained rebels in the Angolan bush for Holden Roberto. He interacted with Venezuelan terrorist Carlos the Jackal. In 1989 he visited Yassir Arafat in Tunis. Arafat shared elements of his peace plan, and Sturgis was debriefed by the CIA on his return. In an obituary published December 5, 1993, The New York Times quoted Sturgis' lawyer, Ellis Rubin, as saying that Sturgis died of cancer a week after he was admitted to a veterans' hospital in Miami, five days shy of his 69th birthday. It was reported that doctors diagnosed lung cancer that had spread to his kidneys, and that he was survived by a wife, Jan, and a daughter named Autumn. Notes Bibliography Escalante, Fabián (1995). The Secret War: CIA Covert Operations Against Cuba, 1959–62. Melbourne: Ocean Press. . Translated by Maxine Shaw. Edited by Mirta Muñez. Hunt, Jim, and Bob Risch (2012). Warrior: Frank Sturgis—The CIA's #1 Assassin-Spy, Who Nearly Killed Castro But Was Ambushed by Watergate . Macmillan. . Schlesinger, Arthur M. (Jr.) (1978). Robert Kennedy and His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. . External links 1924 births 1993 deaths United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II American politicians of Italian descent American spies Cold War spies Deaths from cancer in Florida Deaths from lung cancer Military personnel from Norfolk, Virginia Military personnel from Philadelphia Opposition to Fidel Castro People associated with the assassination of John F. Kennedy People convicted in the Watergate scandal People from Miami People of the Central Intelligence Agency United States Army soldiers United States Marine Corps non-commissioned officers Watergate Seven United States Navy reservists

280738

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Ford

John Ford

John Martin Feeney (February 1, 1894 – August 31, 1973), known professionally as John Ford, was an American film director and naval officer. He is renowned both for Westerns such as Stagecoach (1939), The Searchers (1956), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962) and adaptations of classic 20th century American novels such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940). He was the recipient of six Academy Awards including a record four wins for Best Director. In a career of more than 50 years, Ford directed more than 140 films (although most of his silent films are now lost) and he is widely regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of his generation. Ford's work was held in high regard by his colleagues, with Orson Welles and Ingmar Bergman among those who named him one of the greatest directors of all time. Ford made frequent use of location shooting and wide shots, in which his characters were framed against a vast, harsh, and rugged natural terrain. Early life Ford was born John Martin "Jack" Feeney (though he later often gave his given names as Seán Aloysius, sometimes with surname O'Feeny or Ó Fearna; an Irish language equivalent of Feeney) in Cape Elizabeth, Maine, to John Augustine Feeney and Barbara "Abbey" Curran, on February 1, 1894, (though he occasionally said 1895 and that date is erroneously inscribed on his tombstone). His father, John Augustine, was born in Spiddal, County Galway, Ireland, in 1854. Barbara Curran was born in the Aran Islands, in the town of Kilronan on the island of Inishmore (Inis Mór). John A. Feeney's grandmother, Barbara Morris, was said to be a member of an impoverished branch of a family of the Irish nobility, the Morrises of Spiddal (headed at present by Lord Killanin). John Augustine and Barbara Curran arrived in Boston and Portland respectively in May and June 1872. They filed their intentions to marry on July 31, 1875, and became American citizens five years later on September 11, 1880. The John Augustine Feeney family resided on Sheridan Street, in the Irish neighborhood of Munjoy Hill in Portland, Maine, and his father worked a variety of odd jobs to support the family – farming, fishing, a laborer for the gas company, saloon keeping, and an alderman. John and Barbara had eleven children: Mamie (Mary Agnes), born 1876; Delia (Edith), 1878–1881; Patrick; Francis Ford, 1881–1953; Bridget, 1883–1884; Barbara, born and died 1888; Edward, born 1889; Josephine, born 1891; Hannah (Joanna), born and died 1892; John Martin, 1894–1973; and Daniel, born and died 1896 (or 1898). Feeney attended Portland High School, Portland, Maine, where he played fullback and defensive tackle. He earned the nickname "Bull" because, it is said, of the way he would lower his helmet and charge the line. A Portland pub is named Bull Feeney's in his honor. He later moved to California and in 1914 began working in film production as well as acting for his older brother Francis, adopting "Jack Ford" as a professional name. In addition to credited roles, he appeared uncredited as a Klansman in D. W. Griffith's 1915 The Birth of a Nation. He married Mary McBride Smith on July 3, 1920, and they had two children. His daughter Barbara was married to singer and actor Ken Curtis from 1952 to 1964. The marriage between Ford and Smith lasted for life despite various issues, one being that Ford was Catholic while she was a non-Catholic divorcée. What difficulty was caused by this is unclear as the level of Ford's commitment to the Catholic faith is disputed. Another strain was Ford's many extramarital relationships. Directing career Ford began his career in film after moving to California in July 1914. He followed in the footsteps of his multi-talented older brother Francis Ford, twelve years his senior, who had left home years earlier and had worked in vaudeville before becoming a movie actor. Francis played in hundreds of silent pictures for filmmakers such as Thomas Edison, Georges Méliès and Thomas Ince, eventually progressing to become a prominent Hollywood actor-writer-director with his own production company (101 Bison) at Universal. Ford started out in his brother's films as an assistant, handyman, stuntman and occasional actor, frequently doubling for his brother, whom he closely resembled. Francis gave his younger brother his first acting role in The Mysterious Rose (November 1914). Despite an often combative relationship, within three years Jack had progressed to become Francis' chief assistant and often worked as his cameraman. By the time Jack Ford was given his first break as a director, Francis' profile was declining and he ceased working as a director soon after. One notable feature of Ford's films is that he used a 'stock company' of actors, far more so than many directors. Many famous stars appeared in at least two or more Ford films, including Harry Carey Sr., (the star of 25 Ford silent films), Will Rogers, John Wayne, Henry Fonda, Maureen O'Hara, James Stewart, Woody Strode, Richard Widmark, Victor McLaglen, Vera Miles and Jeffrey Hunter. Many of his supporting actors appeared in multiple Ford films, often over a period of several decades, including Ben Johnson, Chill Wills, Andy Devine, Ward Bond, Grant Withers, Mae Marsh, Anna Lee, Harry Carey Jr., Ken Curtis, Frank Baker, Dolores del Río, Pedro Armendáriz, Hank Worden, John Qualen, Barry Fitzgerald, Arthur Shields, John Carradine, O. Z. Whitehead and Carleton Young. Core members of this extended 'troupe', including Ward Bond, John Carradine, Harry Carey Jr., Mae Marsh, Frank Baker, and Ben Johnson, were informally known as the John Ford Stock Company. Likewise, Ford enjoyed extended working relationships with his production team, and many of his crew worked with him for decades. He made numerous films with the same major collaborators, including producer and business partner Merian C. Cooper, scriptwriters Nunnally Johnson, Dudley Nichols and Frank S. Nugent, and cinematographers Ben F. Reynolds, John W. Brown and George Schneiderman (who between them shot most of Ford's silent films), Joseph H. August, Gregg Toland, Winton Hoch, Charles Lawton Jr., Bert Glennon, Archie Stout and William H. Clothier. Most of Ford's postwar films were edited by Jack Murray until the latter's 1961 death. Otho Lovering, who had first worked with Ford on Stagecoach (1939), became Ford's principal editor after Murray's death. Silent era During his first decade as a director Ford worked on dozens of features (including many westerns) but only ten of the more than sixty silent films he made between 1917 and 1928 still survive in their entirety. However, prints of several Ford 'silents' previously thought lost have been rediscovered in foreign film archives over recent years—in 2009 a trove of 75 Hollywood silent films was rediscovered in the New Zealand Film Archive, among which was the only surviving print of Ford's 1927 silent comedy Upstream. The print was restored in New Zealand by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences before being returned to America, where it was given a "repremiere" at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills on August 31, 2010, featuring a newly commissioned score by Michael Mortilla. Throughout his career, Ford was one of the busiest directors in Hollywood, but he was extraordinarily productive in his first few years as a director—he made ten films in 1917, eight in 1918 and fifteen in 1919—and he directed a total of 62 shorts and features between 1917 and 1928, although he was not given a screen credit in most of his earliest films. There is some uncertainty about the identity of Ford's first film as director—film writer Ephraim Katz notes that Ford might have directed the four-part film Lucille the Waitress as early as 1914—but most sources cite his directorial début as the silent two-reeler The Tornado, released in March 1917. According to Ford's own story, he was given the job by Universal boss Carl Laemmle who supposedly said, "Give Jack Ford the job—he yells good". The Tornado was quickly followed by a string of two-reeler and three-reeler "quickies"—The Trail of Hate, The Scrapper, The Soul Herder and Cheyenne's Pal; these were made over the space of a few months and each typically shot in just two or three days; all are now presumed lost. The Soul Herder is also notable as the beginning of Ford's four-year, 25-film association with veteran writer-actor Harry Carey, who (with Ford's brother Francis) was a strong early influence on the young director, as well as being one of the major influences on the screen persona of Ford's protege John Wayne. Carey's son Harry "Dobe" Carey Jr., who also became an actor, was one of Ford's closest friends in later years and featured in many of his most celebrated westerns. Ford's first feature-length production was Straight Shooting (August 1917), which is also his earliest complete surviving film as director, and one of only two survivors from his twenty-five film collaboration with Harry Carey. In making the film Ford and Carey ignored studio orders and turned in five reels instead of two, and it was only through the intervention of Carl Laemmle that the film escaped being cut for its first release, although it was subsequently edited down to two reels for re-release in the late 1920s. Ford's last film of 1917, Bucking Broadway, was long thought to have been lost, but in 2002 the only known surviving print was discovered in the archives of the French National Center for Cinematography and it has since been restored and digitized. Ford directed around thirty-six films over three years for Universal before moving to the William Fox studio in 1920; his first film for them was Just Pals (1920). His 1923 feature Cameo Kirby, starring screen idol John Gilbert—another of the few surviving Ford silents—marked his first directing credit under the name "John Ford", rather than "Jack Ford", as he had previously been credited. Ford's first major success as a director was the historical drama The Iron Horse (1924), an epic account of the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. It was a large, long and difficult production, filmed on location in the Sierra Nevada. The logistics were enormous—two entire towns were constructed, there were 5000 extras, 100 cooks, 2000 rail layers, a cavalry regiment, 800 Indians, 1300 buffaloes, 2000 horses, 10,000 cattle and 50,000 properties, including the original stagecoach used by Horace Greeley, Wild Bill Hickok's derringer pistol and replicas of the "Jupiter" and "119" locomotives that met at Promontory Summit when the two ends of the line were joined on 10 May 1869. Ford's brother Eddie was a crew member and they fought constantly; on one occasion Eddie reportedly "went after the old man with a pick handle". There was only a short synopsis written when filming began and Ford wrote and shot the film day by day. Production fell behind schedule, delayed by constant bad weather and the intense cold, and Fox executives repeatedly demanded results, but Ford would either tear up the telegrams or hold them up and have stunt gunman Edward "Pardner" Jones shoot holes through the sender's name. Despite the pressure to halt the production, studio boss William Fox finally backed Ford and allowed him to finish the picture and his gamble paid off handsomely—The Iron Horse became one of the top-grossing films of the decade, taking over US$2 million worldwide, against a budget of $280,000. Ford made a wide range of films in this period, and he became well known for his Western and "frontier" pictures, but the genre rapidly lost its appeal for major studios in the late 1920s. Ford's last silent Western was 3 Bad Men (1926), set during the Dakota land rush and filmed at Jackson Hole, Wyoming and in the Mojave Desert. It would be thirteen years before he made his next Western, Stagecoach, in 1939. During the 1920s, Ford also served as president of the Motion Picture Directors Association, a forerunner to today's Directors Guild of America. Talkies: 1928–1939 Ford was one of the pioneer directors of sound films; he shot Fox's first song sung on screen, for his film Mother Machree (1928) of which only four of the original seven reels survive; this film is also notable as the first Ford film to feature the young John Wayne (as an uncredited extra) and he appeared as an extra in several of Ford's films over the next two years. Moreover, Hangman's House (1928) is notable as it features John Wayne's first confirmed onscreen appearance in a Ford film, playing an excitable spectator during the horse race sequence. Just before the studio converted to talkies, Fox gave a contract to the German director F. W. Murnau, and his film Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans (1927), still highly regarded by critics, had a powerful effect on Ford. Murnau's influence can be seen in many of Ford's films of the late 1920s and early 1930s— Four Sons (1928), was filmed on some of the lavish sets left over from Murnau's production. In November that year, Ford directed Fox's first all-talking dramatic featurette Napoleon's Barber (1928), a 3-reeler which is now considered a lost film. Napoleon's Barber was followed by his final two silent features Riley the Cop (1928) and Strong Boy (1929), starring Victor McLaglen; which were both released with synchronised music scores and sound effects, the latter is now lost (although Tag Gallagher's book records that the only surviving copy of Strong Boy, a 35 mm nitrate print, was rumored to be held in a private collection in Australia). The Black Watch (1929), a colonial army adventure set in the Khyber Pass starring Victor McLaglen and Myrna Loy is Ford's first all-talking feature; it was remade in 1954 by Henry King as King of the Khyber Rifles. Ford's output was fairly constant from 1928 to the start of World War II; he made five features in 1928 and then made either two or three films every year from 1929 to 1942, inclusive. Three films were released in 1929—Strong Boy, The Black Watch and Salute. His three films of 1930 were Men Without Women, Born Reckless and Up the River, which is notable as the debut film for both Spencer Tracy and Humphrey Bogart, who were both signed to Fox on Ford's recommendation (but subsequently dropped). Ford's films in 1931 were Seas Beneath, The Brat and Arrowsmith; the last-named, adapted from the Sinclair Lewis novel and starring Ronald Colman and Helen Hayes, marked Ford's first Academy Awards recognition, with five nominations including Best Picture. Ford's legendary efficiency and his ability to craft films combining artfulness with strong commercial appeal won him increasing renown. By 1940 he was acknowledged as one of the world's foremost movie directors. His growing prestige was reflected in his remuneration—in 1920, when he moved to Fox, he was paid $300–600 per week. As his career took off in the mid-Twenties his annual income significantly increased. He earned nearly $134,000 in 1929, and made over $100,000 per annum every year from 1934 to 1941, earning a staggering $220,068 in 1938—more than double the salary of the U.S. president at that time (although this was still less than half the income of Carole Lombard, Hollywood's highest-paid star of the 1930s, who was earning around $500,000 per year at the time). With film production affected by the Depression, Ford made two films each in 1932 and 1933—Air Mail (made for Universal) with a young Ralph Bellamy and Flesh (for MGM) with Wallace Beery. In 1933, he returned to Fox for Pilgrimage and Doctor Bull, the first of his three films with Will Rogers. The World War I desert drama The Lost Patrol (1934), based on the book Patrol by Philip MacDonald, was a superior remake of the 1929 silent film Lost Patrol. It starred Victor McLaglen as The Sergeant—the role played by his brother Cyril McLaglen in the earlier version—with Boris Karloff, Wallace Ford, Alan Hale and Reginald Denny (who went on to found a company that made radio-controlled target aircraft during World War II). It was one of Ford's first big hits of the sound era—it was rated by both the National Board of Review and The New York Times as one of the Top 10 films of that year and won an Oscar nomination for its stirring Max Steiner score. It was followed later that year by The World Moves On with Madeleine Carroll and Franchot Tone, and the highly successful Judge Priest, his second film with Will Rogers, which became one of the top-grossing films of the year. Ford's first film of 1935 (made for Columbia) was the mistaken-identity comedy The Whole Town's Talking with Edward G. Robinson and Jean Arthur, released in the UK as Passport to Fame, and it drew critical praise. Steamboat Round The Bend was his third and final film with Will Rogers; it is probable they would have continued working together, but their collaboration was cut short by Rogers' untimely death in a plane crash in May 1935, which devastated Ford. Ford confirmed his position in the top rank of American directors with the Murnau-influenced Irish Republican Army drama The Informer (1935), starring Victor McLaglen. It earned great critical praise, was nominated for Best Picture, won Ford his first Academy Award for Best Director, and was hailed at the time as one of the best films ever made, although its reputation has diminished considerably compared to other contenders like Citizen Kane, or Ford's own later The Searchers (1956). The politically charged The Prisoner of Shark Island (1936)—which marked the debut with Ford of long-serving "Stock Company" player John Carradine—explored the little-known story of Samuel Mudd, a physician who was caught up in the Abraham Lincoln assassination conspiracy and consigned to an offshore prison for treating the injured John Wilkes Booth. Other films of this period include the South Seas melodrama The Hurricane (1937) and the lighthearted Shirley Temple vehicle Wee Willie Winkie (1937), each of which had a first-year US gross of more than $1 million. During filming of Wee Willie Winkie, Ford had elaborate sets built on the Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, Calif., a heavily filmed location ranch most closely associated with serials and B-Westerns, which would become, along with Monument Valley, one of the director's preferred filming locations, and a site to which Ford would return in the next few years for Stagecoach and The Grapes of Wrath. The longer revised version of Directed by John Ford shown on Turner Classic Movies in November 2006 features directors Steven Spielberg, Clint Eastwood, and Martin Scorsese, who suggest that the string of classic films Ford directed during 1936 to 1941 was due in part to an intense six-month extramarital affair with Katharine Hepburn, the star of Mary of Scotland (1936), an Elizabethan costume drama. 1939–1941 Stagecoach (1939) was Ford's first western since 3 Bad Men in 1926, and it was his first with sound. Orson Welles claimed that he watched Stagecoach forty times in preparation for making Citizen Kane. It remains one of the most admired and imitated of all Hollywood movies, not least for its climactic stagecoach chase and the hair-raising horse-jumping scene, performed by the stuntman Yakima Canutt. The Dudley Nichols–Ben Hecht screenplay was based on an Ernest Haycox story that Ford had spotted in Collier's magazine and he purchased the screen rights for just $2500. Production chief Walter Wanger urged Ford to hire Gary Cooper and Marlene Dietrich for the lead roles, but eventually accepted Ford's decision to cast Claire Trevor as Dallas and a virtual unknown, his friend John Wayne, as Ringo; Wanger reportedly had little further influence over the production. In making Stagecoach, Ford faced entrenched industry prejudice about the now-hackneyed genre which he had helped to make so popular. Although low-budget western features and serials were still being churned out in large numbers by "Poverty Row" studios, the genre had fallen out of favor with the big studios during the 1930s and they were regarded as B-grade "pulp" movies at best. As a result, Ford shopped the project around Hollywood for almost a year, offering it unsuccessfully to both Joseph Kennedy and David O. Selznick before finally linking with Walter Wanger, an independent producer working through United Artists. Stagecoach is significant for several reasons—it exploded industry prejudices by becoming both a critical and commercial hit, grossing over US$1 million in its first year (against a budget of just under $400,000), and its success (along with the 1939 Westerns Destry Rides Again with James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich, Cecil B. DeMille's Union Pacific with Joel McCrea, and Michael Curtiz's Dodge City with Erroll Flynn), revitalized the moribund genre, showing that Westerns could be "intelligent, artful, great entertainment—and profitable". It was nominated for seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and won two Oscars, for Best Supporting Actor (Thomas Mitchell) and Best Score. Stagecoach became the first in the series of seven classic Ford Westerns filmed on location in Monument Valley, with additional footage shot at another of Ford's favorite filming locations, the Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, Calif., where he had filmed much of Wee Willie Winkie two years earlier. Ford skillfully blended Iverson and Monument Valley to create the movie's iconic images of the American West. John Wayne had good reason to be grateful for Ford's support; Stagecoach provided the actor with the career breakthrough that elevated him to international stardom. Over 35 years Wayne appeared in 24 of Ford's films and three television episodes. Ford is credited with playing a major role in shaping Wayne's screen image. Cast member Louise Platt, in a letter recounting the experience of the film's production, quoted Ford saying of Wayne's future in film: "He'll be the biggest star ever because he is the perfect 'everyman.'" Stagecoach marked the beginning of the most consistently successful phase of Ford's career—in just two years between 1939 and 1941 he created a string of classics films that won numerous Academy Awards. Ford's next film, the biopic Young Mr Lincoln (1939) starring Henry Fonda, was less successful than Stagecoach, attracting little critical attention and winning no awards. It was not a major box-office hit although it had a respectable domestic first-year gross of $750,000, but Ford scholar Tag Gallagher describes it as "a deeper, more multi-leveled work than Stagecoach ... (which) seems in retrospect one of the finest prewar pictures". Drums Along the Mohawk (1939) was a lavish frontier drama co-starring Henry Fonda and Claudette Colbert; it was also Ford's first movie in color and included uncredited script contributions by William Faulkner. It was a big box-office success, grossing $1.25 million in its first year in the US and earning Edna May Oliver a Best Supporting Actress Oscar nomination for her performance. Despite its uncompromising humanist and political stance, Ford's screen adaptation of John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (scripted by Nunnally Johnson and photographed by Gregg Toland) was both a big box office hit and a major critical success, and it is still widely regarded as one of the best Hollywood films of the era. Noted critic Andrew Sarris described it as the movie that transformed Ford from "a storyteller of the screen into America's cinematic poet laureate". Ford's third movie in a year and his third consecutive film with Fonda, it grossed $1.1 million in the US in its first year and won two Academy Awards—Ford's second 'Best Director' Oscar, and 'Best Supporting Actress' for Jane Darwell's tour-de-force portrayal of Ma Joad. During production, Ford returned to the Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, Calif., to film a number of key shots, including the pivotal image depicting the migrant family's first full view of the fertile farmland of California, which was represented by the San Fernando Valley as seen from the Iverson Ranch. The Grapes of Wrath was followed by two less successful and lesser-known films. The Long Voyage Home (1940) was, like Stagecoach, made with Walter Wanger through United Artists. Adapted from four plays by Eugene O'Neill, it was scripted by Dudley Nichols and Ford, in consultation with O'Neill. Although not a significant box-office success (it grossed only $600,000 in its first year), it was critically praised and was nominated for seven Academy Awards—Best Picture, Best Screenplay, (Nichols), Best Music, Original Score (Richard Hageman), Best Photography (Gregg Toland), Best Editing (Sherman Todd), Best Effects (Ray Binger & R.T. Layton), and Best Sound (Robert Parrish). It was one of Ford's personal favorites; stills from it decorated his home and O'Neill also reportedly loved the film and screened it periodically. Tobacco Road (1941) was a rural comedy scripted by Nunnally Johnson, adapted from the long-running Jack Kirkland stage version of the novel by Erskine Caldwell. It starred veteran actor Charley Grapewin and the supporting cast included Ford regulars Ward Bond and Mae Marsh, with Francis Ford in an uncredited bit part; it is also notable for early screen appearances by future stars Gene Tierney and Dana Andrews. Although not highly regarded by some critics—Tag Gallagher devotes only one short paragraph to it in his book on Ford—it was fairly successful at the box office, grossing $900,000 in its first year. The film was banned in Australia. Ford's last feature before America entered World War II was his screen adaptation of How Green Was My Valley (1941), starring Walter Pidgeon, Maureen O'Hara and Roddy McDowell in his career-making role as Huw. The script was written by Philip Dunne from the best-selling novel by Richard Llewellyn. It was originally planned as a four-hour epic to rival Gone with the Wind—the screen rights alone cost Fox $300,000—and was to have been filmed on location in Wales, but this was abandoned due to the heavy German bombing of Britain. A search of Southern California locations resulted in the set for the village being built on the grounds of the Crags Country Club (later the Fox ranch, now the core of Malibu Creek State Park). Another reported factor was the nervousness of Fox executives about the pro-union tone of the story. William Wyler was originally engaged to direct, but he left the project when Fox decided to film it in California; Ford was hired in his place and production was postponed for several months until he became available. Producer Darryl F. Zanuck had a strong influence over the movie and made several key decisions, including the idea of having the character of Huw narrate the film in voice-over (then a novel concept), and the decision that Huw's character should not age (Tyrone Power was originally slated to play the adult Huw). How Green Was My Valley became one of the biggest films of 1941. It was nominated for ten Academy Awards including Best Supporting Actress (Sara Allgood), Best Editing, Best Script, Best Music and Best Sound and it won five Oscars—Best Director, Best Picture, Best Supporting Actor (Donald Crisp), Best B&W Cinematography (Arthur C. Miller) and Best Art Direction/Interior Decoration. It was a huge hit with audiences, coming in behind Sergeant York as the second-highest-grossing film of the year in the US and taking almost $3 million against its sizable budget of $1,250,000. Ford was also named Best Director by the New York Film Critics, and this was one of the few awards of his career that he collected in person (he generally shunned the Oscar ceremony). War years During World War II, Ford served as head of the photographic unit for the Office of Strategic Services and made documentaries for the Navy Department. He was commissioned as a commander in the United States Navy Reserve. He won two more Academy Awards during this time, one for the semi-documentary The Battle of Midway (1942), and one for the propaganda film December 7th: The Movie (1943). Ford filmed the Japanese attack on Midway from the power plant of Sand Island and was wounded in the left arm by a machine gun slug. Ford was also present on Omaha Beach on D-Day. He crossed the English Channel on the , which anchored off Omaha Beach at 0600. He observed the first wave land on the beach from the ship, landing on the beach himself later with a team of Coast Guard cameramen who filmed the battle from behind the beach obstacles, with Ford directing operations. The film was edited in London, but very little was released to the public. Ford explained in a 1964 interview that the US Government was "afraid to show so many American casualties on the screen", adding that all of the D-Day film "still exists in color in storage in Anacostia near Washington, D.C." Thirty years later, historian Stephen E. Ambrose reported that the Eisenhower Center had been unable to find the film. Ford eventually rose to become a top adviser to OSS head William Joseph Donovan. According to records released in 2008, Ford was cited by his superiors for bravery, taking a position to film one mission that was "an obvious and clear target". He survived "continuous attack and was wounded" while he continued filming, one commendation in his file states. In 1945, Ford executed affidavits testifying to the integrity of films taken to document conditions at Nazi concentration camps. His last wartime film was They Were Expendable (MGM, 1945), an account of America's disastrous defeat in The Philippines, told from the viewpoint of a PT boat squadron and its commander. Ford created a part for the recovering Ward Bond, who needed money. Although he was seen throughout the movie, he never walked until they put in a part where he was shot in the leg. For the rest of the picture, he was able to use a crutch on the final march. Ford repeatedly declared that he disliked the film and had never watched it, complaining that he had been forced to make it, although it was strongly championed by filmmaker Lindsay Anderson. Released several months after the end of the war, it was among the year's top 20 box-office draws, although Tag Gallagher notes that many critics have incorrectly claimed that it lost money. Post-war career After the war, Ford remained an officer in the United States Navy Reserve. He returned to active service during the Korean War, and was promoted to Rear Admiral the day he left service. Ford directed sixteen features and several documentaries in the decade between 1946 and 1956. As with his pre-war career, his films alternated between (relative) box office flops and major successes, but most of his later films made a solid profit, and Fort Apache, The Quiet Man, Mogambo and The Searchers all ranked in the Top 20 box-office hits of their respective years. Ford's first postwar movie My Darling Clementine (Fox, 1946) was a romanticized retelling of the primal Western legend of Wyatt Earp and the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, with exterior sequences filmed on location in the visually spectacular (but geographically inappropriate) Monument Valley. It reunited Ford with Henry Fonda (as Earp) and co-starred Victor Mature in one of his best roles as the consumptive, Shakespeare-loving Doc Holliday, with Ward Bond and Tim Holt as the Earp brothers, Linda Darnell as sultry saloon girl Chihuahua, a strong performance by Walter Brennan (in a rare villainous role) as the venomous Old Man Clanton, with Jane Darwell and an early screen appearance by John Ireland as Billy Clanton. In contrast to the string of successes in 1939–1941, it won no major American awards, although it was awarded a silver ribbon for Best Foreign Film in 1948 by the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists, and it was a solid financial success, grossing $2.75 million in the United States and $1.75 million internationally in its first year of release. The Argosy years Refusing a lucrative contract offered by Zanuck at 20th Century Fox that would have guaranteed him $600,000 per year, Ford launched himself as an independent director-producer and made many of his films in this period with Argosy Pictures Corporation, which was a partnership between Ford and his old friend and colleague Merian C. Cooper. Ford and Cooper had previously been involved with the distinct Argosy Corporation, which was established after the success of Stagecoach (1939); Argosy Corporation produced one film, The Long Voyage Home (1940), before the Second World War intervened. The Fugitive (1947), again starring Fonda, was the first project of Argosy Pictures. It was a loose adaptation of Graham Greene's The Power and the Glory, which Ford had originally intended to make at Fox before the war, with Thomas Mitchell as the priest. Filmed on location in Mexico, it was photographed by distinguished Mexican cinematographer Gabriel Figueroa (who later worked with Luis Buñuel). The supporting cast included Dolores del Río, J. Carrol Naish, Ward Bond, Leo Carrillo and Mel Ferrer (making his screen début) and a cast of mainly Mexican extras. Ford reportedly considered this his best film but it fared relatively poorly compared to its predecessor, grossing only $750,000 in its first year. It also caused a rift between Ford and scriptwriter Dudley Nichols that brought about the end of their highly successful collaboration. Greene himself had a particular dislike of this adaptation of his work. Fort Apache (Argosy/RKO, 1948) was the first part of Ford's so-called 'Cavalry Trilogy', all of which were based on stories by James Warner Bellah. It featured many of his 'Stock Company' of actors, including John Wayne, Henry Fonda, Ward Bond, Victor McLaglen, Mae Marsh, Francis Ford (as a bartender), Frank Baker, Ben Johnson and also featured Shirley Temple, in her final appearance for Ford and one of her last film appearances. It also marked the start of the long association between Ford and scriptwriter Frank S. Nugent, a former New York Times film critic who (like Dudley Nichols) had not written a movie script until hired by Ford. It was a big commercial success, grossing nearly $5 million worldwide in its first year and ranking in the Top 20 box office hits of 1948. During that year Ford also assisted his friend and colleague Howard Hawks, who was having problems with his current film Red River (which starred John Wayne) and Ford reportedly made numerous editing suggestions, including the use of a narrator. Fort Apache was followed by another Western, 3 Godfathers, a remake of a 1916 silent film starring Harry Carey (to whom Ford's version was dedicated), which Ford had himself already remade in 1919 as Marked Men, also with Carey and thought lost. It starred John Wayne, Pedro Armendáriz and Harry "Dobe" Carey Jr (in one of his first major roles) as three outlaws who rescue a baby after his mother (Mildred Natwick) dies giving birth, with Ward Bond as the sheriff pursuing them. The recurrent theme of sacrifice can also be found in The Outcasts of Poker Flat, Three Godfathers, The Wallop, Desperate Trails, Hearts of Oak, Bad Men, Men without Women. In 1949, Ford briefly returned to Fox to direct Pinky. He prepared the project but worked only one day before being taken ill, supposedly with shingles, and Elia Kazan replaced him (although Tag Gallagher suggests that Ford's illness was a pretext for leaving the film, which Ford disliked). His only completed film of that year was the second installment of his Cavalry Trilogy, She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Argosy/RKO, 1949), starring John Wayne and Joanne Dru, with Victor McLaglen, John Agar, Ben Johnson, Mildred Natwick and Harry Carey Jr. Again filmed on location in Monument Valley, it was widely acclaimed for its stunning Technicolor cinematography (including the famous cavalry scene filmed in front of an oncoming storm); it won Winton Hoch the 1950 Academy Award for Best Color Cinematography and it did big business on its first release, grossing more than $5 million worldwide. John Wayne, then 41, also received wide praise for his role as the 60-year-old Captain Nathan Brittles. 1950s Ford's first film of 1950 was the offbeat military comedy When Willie Comes Marching Home, starring Dan Dailey and Corinne Calvet, with William Demarest, from Preston Sturges 'stock company', and early (uncredited) screen appearances by Alan Hale Jr. and Vera Miles. It was followed by Wagon Master, starring Ben Johnson and Harry Carey Jr, which is particularly noteworthy as the only Ford film since 1930 that he scripted himself. It was subsequently adapted into the long-running TV series Wagon Train (with Ward Bond reprising the title role until his sudden death in 1960). Although it did far smaller business than most of his other films in this period, Ford cited Wagon Master as his personal favorite out of all his films, telling Peter Bogdanovich that it "came closest to what I had hoped to achieve". Rio Grande (Republic, 1950), the third part of the 'Cavalry Trilogy', co-starred John Wayne and Maureen O'Hara, with Wayne's son Patrick Wayne making his screen debut (he appeared in several subsequent Ford pictures including The Searchers). It was made at the insistence of Republic Pictures, who demanded a profitable Western as the condition of backing Ford's next project, The Quiet Man. A testament to Ford's legendary efficiency, Rio Grande was shot in just 32 days, with only 352 takes from 335 camera setups, and it was a solid success, grossing $2.25 million in its first year. Republic's anxiety was erased by the resounding success of The Quiet Man (Republic, 1952), a pet project which Ford had wanted to make since the 1930s (and almost did so in 1937 with an independent cooperative called Renowned Artists Company). It became his biggest grossing picture to date, taking nearly $4 million in the US alone in its first year and ranking in the top 10 box office films of its year. It was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won Ford his fourth Oscar for Best Director, as well a second Best Cinematography Oscar for Winton Hoch. It was followed by What Price Glory? (1952), a World War I drama, the first of two films Ford made with James Cagney (Mister Roberts was the other) which also did good business at the box office ($2 million). The Sun Shines Bright (1953), Ford's first entry in the Cannes Film Festival, was a western comedy-drama with Charles Winninger reviving the Judge Priest role made famous by Will Rogers in the 1930s. Ford later referred to it as one of his favorites, but it was poorly received, and was drastically cut (from 90 mins to 65 mins) by Republic soon after its release, with some excised scenes now presumed lost. It fared poorly at the box office and its failure contributed to the subsequent collapse of Argosy Pictures. Ford's next film was the romance-adventure Mogambo (MGM, 1953), a loose remake of the celebrated 1932 film Red Dust. Filmed on location in Africa, it was photographed by British cinematographer Freddie Young and starred Ford's old friend Clark Gable, with Ava Gardner, Grace Kelly (who replaced an ailing Gene Tierney) and Donald Sinden. Although the production was difficult (exacerbated by the irritating presence of Gardner's then husband Frank Sinatra), Mogambo became one of the biggest commercial hits of Ford's career, with the highest domestic first-year gross of any of his films ($5.2 million); it also revitalized Gable's waning career and earned Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress Oscar nominations for Gardner and Kelly (who was rumored to have had a brief affair with Gable during the making of the film). In 1955, Ford made the lesser-known West Point drama The Long Gray Line for Columbia Pictures, the first of two Ford films to feature Tyrone Power, who had originally been slated to star as the adult Huw in How Green Was My Valley back in 1941. Later in 1955, Ford was hired by Warner Bros to direct the Naval comedy Mister Roberts, starring Henry Fonda, Jack Lemmon, William Powell, and James Cagney, but there was conflict between Ford and Fonda, who had been playing the lead role on Broadway for the past seven years and had misgivings about Ford's direction. During a three-way meeting with producer Leland Hayward to try and iron out the problems, Ford became enraged and punched Fonda on the jaw, knocking him across the room, an action that created a lasting rift between them. After the incident Ford became increasingly morose, drinking heavily and eventually retreating to his yacht, the Araner, and refusing to eat or see anyone. Production was shut down for five days and Ford sobered up, but soon after he suffered a ruptured gallbladder, necessitating emergency surgery, and he was replaced by Mervyn LeRoy. Ford also made his first forays into television in 1955, directing two half-hour dramas for network TV. In the summer of 1955 he made Rookie of the Year (Hal Roach Studios) for the TV series Studio Directors Playhouse; scripted by Frank S. Nugent, it featured Ford regulars John and Pat Wayne, Vera Miles and Ward Bond, with Ford himself appearing in the introduction. In November he made The Bamboo Cross (Lewman Ltd-Revue, 1955) for the Fireside Theater series; it starred Jane Wyman with an Asian-American cast and Stock Company veterans Frank Baker and Pat O'Malley in minor roles. Ford returned to the big screen with The Searchers (Warner Bros, 1956), the only Western he made between 1950 and 1959, which is now widely regarded as not only one of his best films, but also by many as one of the greatest westerns, and one of the best performances of John Wayne's career. Shot on location in Monument Valley, it tells of the embittered Civil War veteran Ethan Edwards who spends years tracking down his niece, kidnapped by Comanches as a young girl. The supporting cast included Jeffrey Hunter, Ward Bond, Vera Miles and rising star Natalie Wood. It was Hunter's first film for Ford. It was very successful upon its first release and became one of the top 20 films of the year, grossing $4.45 million, although it received no Academy Award nominations. However, its reputation has grown greatly over the intervening years—it was named the Greatest Western of all time by the American Film Institute in 2008 and also placed 12th on the institute's 2007 list of the Top 100 greatest movies of all time. The Searchers has exerted a wide influence on film and popular culture—it has inspired (and been directly quoted by) many filmmakers including David Lean and George Lucas, Wayne's character's catchphrase "That'll be the day" inspired Buddy Holly to pen his famous hit song of the same name, and the British pop group The Searchers also took their name from the film. The Searchers was accompanied by one of the first "making of" documentaries, a four-part promotional program created for the "Behind the Camera" segment of the weekly Warner Bros. Presents TV show, (the studio's first foray into TV) which aired on the ABC network in 1955–56. Presented by Gig Young, the four segments included interviews with Jeffrey Hunter and Natalie Wood and behind-the-scenes footage shot during the making of the film. The Wings of Eagles (MGM, 1957) was a fictionalized biography of Ford's old friend, aviator-turned-scriptwriter Frank "Spig" Wead, who had scripted several of Ford's early sound films. It starred John Wayne and Maureen O'Hara, with Ward Bond as John Dodge (a character based on Ford himself). It was followed by one of Ford's least known films, The Growler Story, a 29-minute dramatized documentary about the USS Growler. Made for the US Navy and filmed by the Pacific Fleet Command Combat Camera Group, it featured Ward Bond and Ken Curtis alongside real Navy personnel and their families. Ford's next two films stand somewhat apart from the rest of his films in terms of production, and he notably took no salary for either job. The Rising of the Moon (Warner Bros, 1957) was a three-part 'omnibus' movie shot on location in Ireland and based on Irish short stories. It was made by Four Province Productions, a company established by Irish tycoon Lord Killanin, who had recently become Chair of the International Olympic Committee, and to whom Ford was distantly related. Killanin was also the actual (but uncredited) producer of The Quiet Man. The film failed to recoup its costs, earning less than half ($100,000) its negative cost of just over $256,000 and it stirred up some controversy in Ireland. Both of Ford's 1958 films were made for Columbia Pictures and both were significant departures from Ford's norm. Gideon's Day (titled Gideon of Scotland Yard in the US) was adapted from the novel by British writer John Creasey. It is Ford's only police genre film, and one of the few Ford films set in the present day of the 1950s. It was shot in England with a British cast headed by Jack Hawkins, whom Ford (unusually) lauded as "the finest dramatic actor with whom I have worked". It was poorly promoted by Columbia, who only distributed it in B&W, although it was shot in color, and it too failed to make a profit in its first year, earning only $400,000 against its budget of $453,000. The Last Hurrah, (Columbia, 1958), again set in present-day of the 1950s, starred Spencer Tracy, who had made his first film appearance in Ford's Up The River in 1930. Tracy plays an aging politician fighting his last campaign, with Jeffrey Hunter as his nephew. Katharine Hepburn reportedly facilitated a rapprochement between the two men, ending a long-running feud, and she convinced Tracy to take the lead role, which had originally been offered to Orson Welles (but was turned down by Welles' agent without his knowledge, much to his chagrin). It did considerably better business than either of Ford's two preceding films, grossing $950,000 in its first year although cast member Anna Lee stated that Ford was "disappointed with the picture" and that Columbia had not permitted him to supervise the editing. Korea: Battleground for Liberty (1959), Ford's second documentary on the Korean War, was made for the US Department of Defense as an orientation film for US soldiers stationed there. It was followed by his last feature of the decade, The Horse Soldiers (Mirisch Company-United Artists, 1959), a heavily fictionalised Civil War story starring John Wayne, William Holden and Constance Towers. Although Ford professed unhappiness with the project, it was a commercial success, opening at #1 and ranking in the year's Top 20 box-office hits, grossing $3.6 million in its first year, and earning Ford his highest-ever fee—$375,000, plus 10% of the gross. The production was reportedly a difficult one for director and cast, and it incurred significant cost overruns, exacerbated by the unprecedented salaries awarded to Holden and Wayne ($750,000, plus 20% of the overall profit, each). Mirroring the on-screen tensions between Wayne and Holden's characters, the two actors argued constantly; Wayne was also struggling to help his wife Pilar overcome a barbiturate addiction, which climaxed with her attempted suicide while the couple were on location together in Louisiana. Ford's problems peaked with the tragic death of stuntman Fred Kennedy, who suffered a fatal neck fracture while executing a horse fall during the climactic battle sequence. Ford was devastated by the accident and lost interest in the film, moving the production back to Hollywood. He also scrapped the planned ending, depicting the Marlowe's triumphant entry into Baton Rouge, instead concluding the film with Marlowe's farewell to Hannah Hunter and the crossing and demolition of the bridge. Last years, 1960–1973 In his last years Ford was dogged by declining health, largely the result of decades of heavy drinking and smoking, and exacerbated by the wounds he suffered during the Battle of Midway. His vision, in particular, began to deteriorate rapidly and at one point he briefly lost his sight entirely; his prodigious memory also began to falter, making it necessary to rely more and more on assistants. His work was also restricted by the new regime in Hollywood, and he found it hard to get many projects made. By the 1960s he had been pigeonholed as a Western director and complained that he now found it almost impossible to get backing for projects in other genres. Sergeant Rutledge (Ford Productions-Warner Bros, 1960) was Ford's last cavalry film. Set in the 1880s, it tells the story of an African-American cavalryman (played by Woody Strode) who is wrongfully accused of raping and murdering a white girl. It was erroneously marketed as a suspense film by Warners and was not a commercial success. During 1960, Ford made his third TV production, The Colter Craven Story, a one-hour episode of the network TV show Wagon Train, which included footage from Ford's Wagon Master (on which the series was based). He also visited the set of The Alamo, produced, directed by, and starring John Wayne, where his interference caused Wayne to send him out to film second-unit scenes which were never used (nor intended to be used) in the film. Two Rode Together (Ford Productions-Columbia, 1961) co-starred James Stewart and Richard Widmark, with Shirley Jones and Stock Company regulars Andy Devine, Henry Brandon, Harry Carey Jr, Anna Lee, Woody Strode, Mae Marsh and Frank Baker, with an early screen appearance by Linda Cristal, who went on to star in the Western TV series The High Chaparral. It was a fair commercial success, grossing $1.6m in its first year. The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (Ford Productions-Paramount, 1962) is frequently cited as the last great film of Ford's career. Starring John Wayne and James Stewart, the supporting cast features leading lady Vera Miles, Edmond O'Brien as a loquacious newspaper publisher, Andy Devine as the inept marshal Appleyard, Denver Pyle, John Carradine, and Lee Marvin in a major role as the brutal Valance, with Lee Van Cleef and Strother Martin as his henchmen. It is also notable as the film in which Wayne most often used his trademark phrase "Pilgrim" (his nickname for James Stewart's character). The picture was very successful, grossing over $3 million in its first year, although the lead casting stretched credibility—the characters played by Stewart (then 53) and Wayne (then 54) could be assumed to be in their early 20s given the circumstances, and Ford reportedly considered casting a younger actor in Stewart's role but feared it would highlight Wayne's age. Though it is often claimed that budget constraints necessitated shooting most of the film on soundstages on the Paramount lot, studio accounting records show that this was part of the film's original artistic concept, according to Ford biographer Joseph McBride. According to Lee Marvin in a filmed interview, Ford had fought hard to shoot the film in black-and-white to accentuate his use of shadows. Still, it was one of Ford's most expensive films at US$3.2 million. After completing Liberty Valance, Ford was hired to direct the Civil War section of MGM's epic How The West Was Won, the first non-documentary film to use the Cinerama wide-screen process. Ford's segment featured George Peppard, with Andy Devine, Russ Tamblyn, Harry Morgan as Ulysses S. Grant, and John Wayne as William Tecumseh Sherman. Wayne had already played Sherman in a 1960 episode of the television series Wagon Train that Ford directed in support of series star Ward Bond, "The Coulter Craven Story", for which he brought in most of his stock company. Also in 1962, Ford directed his fourth and last TV production, Flashing Spikes a baseball story made for the Alcoa Premiere series and starring James Stewart, Jack Warden, Patrick Wayne and Tige Andrews, with Harry Carey Jr. and a lengthy surprise appearance by John Wayne, billed in the credits as "Michael Morris", as he also had been for the Wagon Train episode directed by Ford. Donovan's Reef (Paramount, 1963) was Ford's last film with John Wayne. Filmed on location on the Hawaiian island of Kauai (doubling for a fictional island in French Polynesia), it was a morality play disguised as an action-comedy, which subtly but sharply engaged with issues of racial bigotry, corporate connivance, greed and American beliefs of societal superiority. The supporting cast included Lee Marvin, Elizabeth Allen, Jack Warden, Dorothy Lamour, and Cesar Romero. It was also Ford's last commercial success, grossing $3.3 million against a budget of $2.6 million. Cheyenne Autumn (Warner Bros, 1964) was Ford's epic farewell to the West, which he publicly declared to be an elegy to the Native American. It was his last Western, his longest film and the most expensive movie of his career ($4.2 million), but it failed to recoup its costs at the box office and lost about $1 million on its first release. The all-star cast was headed by Richard Widmark, with Carroll Baker, Karl Malden, Dolores del Río, Ricardo Montalbán, Gilbert Roland, Sal Mineo, James Stewart as Wyatt Earp, Arthur Kennedy as Doc Holliday, Edward G. Robinson, Patrick Wayne, Elizabeth Allen, Mike Mazurki and many of Ford's faithful Stock Company, including John Carradine, Ken Curtis, Willis Bouchey, James Flavin, Danny Borzage, Harry Carey Jr., Chuck Hayward, Ben Johnson, Mae Marsh and Denver Pyle. William Clothier was nominated for a Best Cinematography Oscar and Gilbert Roland was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as Cheyenne elder Dull Knife. In 1965 Ford began work on Young Cassidy (MGM), a biographical drama based upon the life of Irish playwright Seán O'Casey, but he fell ill early in the production and was replaced by Jack Cardiff. Ford's last completed feature film was 7 Women (MGM, 1966), a drama set in about 1935, about missionary women in China trying to protect themselves from the advances of a barbaric Mongolian warlord. Anne Bancroft took over the lead role from Patricia Neal, who suffered a near-fatal stroke two days into shooting. The supporting cast included Margaret Leighton, Flora Robson, Sue Lyon, Mildred Dunnock, Anna Lee, Eddie Albert, Mike Mazurki and Woody Strode, with music by Elmer Bernstein. Unfortunately, it was a commercial flop, grossing only about half of its $2.3 million budget. Unusual for Ford, it was shot in continuity for the sake of the performances and he, therefore, exposed about four times as much film as he usually shot. Anna Lee recalled that Ford was "absolutely charming" to everyone and that the only major blow-up came when Flora Robson complained that the sign on her dressing room door did not include her title ("Dame") and as a result, Robson was "absolutely shredded" by Ford in front of the cast and crew. Ford's next project, The Miracle of Merriford, was scrapped by MGM less than a week before shooting was to have begun. His last completed work was Chesty: A Tribute to a Legend, a documentary on the most decorated U.S. Marine, General Lewis B. Puller, with narration by John Wayne, which was made in 1970 but not released until 1976, three years after Ford's death. Ford's health deteriorated rapidly in the early 1970s; he suffered a broken hip in 1970 which put him in a wheelchair. He had to move from his Bel Air home to a single-level house in Palm Desert, California, near Eisenhower Medical Center, where he was being treated for stomach cancer. The Screen Directors Guild staged a tribute to Ford in October 1972, and in March 1973 the American Film Institute honored him with its first Lifetime Achievement Award at a ceremony which was telecast nationwide, with President Richard Nixon promoting Ford to full Admiral and presenting him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. According to Ford's longtime partner and friend, John Wayne, Ford could have continued to direct movies. He told Roger Ebert in 1976: Up until the very last years of his life ... Pappy could have directed another picture, and a damned good one. But they said Pappy was too old. Hell, he was never too old. In Hollywood these days, they don't stand behind a fella. They'd rather make a goddamned legend out of him and be done with him.Ford died on 31 August 1973 at Palm Desert and his funeral was held on 5 September at Hollywood's Church of the Blessed Sacrament. He was interred in Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Personality and directing style Personality Ford was renowned for his intense personality and his many idiosyncrasies and eccentricities. From the early Thirties onwards, he always wore dark glasses and a patch over his left eye, which was only partly to protect his poor eyesight. He was an inveterate pipe-smoker and while he was shooting he would chew on a linen handkerchief—each morning his wife would give him a dozen fresh handkerchiefs, but by the end of a day's filming the corners of all of them would be chewed to shreds. He always had music played on the set and would routinely break for tea (Earl Grey) at mid-afternoon every day during filming. He discouraged chatter and disliked bad language on set; its use, especially in front of a woman, would typically result in the offender being thrown off the production. He rarely drank during the making of a film, but when a production wrapped he would often lock himself in his study, wrapped only in a sheet, and go on a solitary drinking binge for several days, followed by routine contrition and a vow never to drink again. He was extremely sensitive to criticism and was always particularly angered by any comparison between his work and that of his elder brother Francis. He rarely attended premieres or award ceremonies, although his Oscars and other awards were proudly displayed on the mantel in his home. There were occasional rumors about his sexual preferences, and in her 2004 autobiography Tis Herself, Maureen O'Hara recalled seeing Ford kissing a famous male actor (whom she did not name) in his office at Columbia Studios. He was famously untidy, and his study was always littered with books, papers, and clothes. He bought a brand new Rolls-Royce in the 1930s, but never rode in it because his wife, Mary, would not let him smoke in it. His own car, a battered Ford roadster, was so dilapidated and messy that he was once late for a studio meeting because the guard at the studio gate did not believe that the real John Ford would drive such a car, and refused to let him in. Ford was also notorious for his antipathy towards studio executives. On one early film for Fox he is said to have ordered a guard to keep studio boss Darryl F. Zanuck off the set, and on another occasion, he brought an executive in front of the crew, stood him in profile and announced, "This is an associate producer — take a good look, because you won't be seeing him on this picture again". While shooting Rio Grande in 1950, producer Herbert Yates and Republic executive Rudy Ralston visited the location and when Yates pointed out the time (it was 10am) and asked when Ford intended to start shooting, Ford barked: "Just as soon as you get the hell off my set!" At dinner, Ford reportedly recruited cast member Alberto Morin to masquerade as an inept French waiter, who proceeded to spill soup over them, break plates and cause general mayhem, but the two executives apparently didn't realise they were the victims of one of Ford's practical jokes. His pride and joy was his yacht, Araner, which he bought in 1934 and on which he lavished hundreds of thousands of dollars in repairs and improvements over the years; it became his chief retreat between films and a meeting place for his circle of close friends, including John Wayne and Ward Bond. Ford was highly intelligent, erudite, sensitive and sentimental, but to protect himself in the cutthroat atmosphere of Hollywood he cultivated the image of a "tough, two-fisted, hard-drinking Irish sonofabitch". One famous event, witnessed by Ford's friend, actor Frank Baker, strikingly illustrates the tension between the public persona and the private man. During the Depression, Ford—by then a very wealthy man—was accosted outside his office by a former Universal actor who was destitute and needed $200 for an operation for his wife. As the man related his misfortunes, Ford appeared to become enraged and then, to the horror of onlookers, he launched himself at the man, knocked him to the floor and shouted "How dare you come here like this? Who do think you are to talk to me this way?" before storming out of the room. However, as the shaken old man left the building, Frank Baker saw Ford's business manager Fred Totman meet him at the door, where he handed the man a cheque for $1,000 and instructed Ford's chauffeur to drive him home. There, an ambulance was waiting to take the man's wife to the hospital where a specialist, flown in from San Francisco at Ford's expense, performed the operation. Sometime later, Ford purchased a house for the couple and pensioned them for life. When Baker related the story to Francis Ford, he declared it the key to his brother's personality: Any moment, if that old actor had kept talking, people would have realized what a softy Jack is. He couldn't have stood through that sad story without breaking down. He's built this whole legend of toughness around himself to protect his softness. In the book Wayne and Ford, The Films, the Friendship, and the Forging of an American Hero by Nancy Schoenberger, the author dissects the cultural impact of the masculinity portrayed in Ford's films. In an interview with Portland Magazine, Schoenberger states, "Regarding Ford and Wayne "tweaking the conventions of what a 'man' is today," I think Ford, having grown up with brothers he idolized, in a rough-and-tumble world of boxers, drinkers, and roustabouts, found his deepest theme in male camaraderie, especially in the military, one of the few places where men can express their love for other men. But he was concerned with men acting heroically, thus the most macho guy was not always the most heroic. McLaglen often presented the comic side of blustery masculinity. Ford brought out Wayne's tenderness as well as his toughness, especially in Stagecoach." General style Ford had many distinctive stylistic trademarks and a suite of thematic preoccupations and visual and aural motifs recurs throughout his work as a director. Film journalist Ephraim Katz summarized some of the keynote features of Ford's work in his Collins Film Encyclopedia entry: In contrast to his contemporary Alfred Hitchcock, Ford never used storyboards, composing his pictures entirely in his head, without any written or graphic outline of the shots he would use. Script development could be intense but, once approved, his screenplays were rarely rewritten; he was also one of the first filmmakers to encourage his writers and actors to prepare a full back story for their characters. He hated long expository scenes and was famous for tearing pages out of a script to cut dialogue. During the making of Mogambo, when challenged by the film's producer Sam Zimbalist about falling three days behind schedule, Ford responded by tearing three pages out of the script and declaring "We're on schedule" and indeed he never filmed those pages. While making Drums Along the Mohawk, Ford neatly sidestepped the challenge of shooting a large and expensive battle scene—he had Henry Fonda improvise a monologue while firing questions from behind the camera about the course of the battle (a subject on which Fonda was well-versed) and then simply editing out the questions. He was relatively sparing in his use of camera movements and close-ups, preferring static medium or long shots, with his players framed against dramatic vistas or interiors lit in an Expressionistic style, although he often used panning shots and sometimes used a dramatic dolly in (e.g. John Wayne's first appearance in Stagecoach). Ford is famous for his exciting tracking shots, such as the Apache chase sequence in Stagecoach or the attack on the Comanche camp in The Searchers. Recurring visual motifs include trains and wagons—many Ford films begin and end with a linking vehicle such as a train or wagon arriving and leaving—doorways, roads, flowers, rivers, gatherings (parades, dances, meetings, bar scenes, etc.); he also employed gestural motifs in many films, notably the throwing of objects and the lighting of lamps, matches or cigarettes. If a doomed character was shown playing poker (such as Liberty Valance or gunman Tom Tyler in Stagecoach), the last hand he plays is the "death hand"—two eights and two aces, one of them the ace of spades—so-called because Wild Bill Hickok is said to have held this hand when he was murdered. Many of his sound films include renditions or quotations of his favorite hymn, "Shall We Gather at the River?", such as its parodic use to underscore the opening scenes of Stagecoach, when the prostitute Dallas is being run out of town by local matrons. Character names also recur in many Ford films — the name Quincannon, for example, is used in several films including The Lost Patrol, Rio Grande, She Wore A Yellow Ribbon and Fort Apache, John Wayne's character is named "Kirby Yorke" in both Fort Apache and Rio Grande, and the names Tyree and Boone are also recur in several Ford films. Recent works about Ford's depictions of Native Americans have argued that contrary to popular belief, his Indian characters spanned a range of hostile to sympathetic images from The Iron Horse to Cheyenne Autumn. His depiction of the Navajo in Wagon Master included their characters speaking the Navajo language. The distinguishing mark of Ford's Indian-themed Westerns is that his Native characters always remained separate and apart from white society. Ford was legendary for his discipline and efficiency on-set and was notorious for being extremely tough on his actors, frequently mocking, yelling and bullying them; he was also infamous for his sometimes sadistic practical jokes. Any actor foolish enough to demand star treatment would receive the full force of his relentless scorn and sarcasm. He once referred to John Wayne as a "big idiot" and even punched Henry Fonda. Henry Brandon (who played Chief Scar from The Searchers) once referred to Ford as "the only man who could make John Wayne cry". . He likewise belittled Victor McLaglen, on one occasion reportedly bellowing through the megaphone: "D'ya know, McLaglen, that Fox are paying you $1200 a week to do things that I could get any child off the street to do better?". Stock Company veteran Ward Bond was reportedly one of the few actors who were impervious to Ford's taunting and sarcasms. Sir Donald Sinden, then a contract star for the Rank Organisation at Pinewood Studios when he starred in Mogambo, was not the only person to suffer at the hands of John Ford's notorious behaviour. He recalls "Ten White Hunters were seconded to our unit for our protection and to provide fresh meat. Among them was Marcus, Lord Wallscourt, a delightful man whom Ford treated abysmally—sometimes very sadistically. In Ford's eyes the poor man could do nothing right and was continually being bawled out in front of the entire unit (in some ways he occasionally took the heat off me). None of us could understand the reason for this appalling treatment, which the dear kind man in no way deserved. He himself was quite at a loss. Several weeks later we discovered the cause from Ford's brother-in-law: before emigrating to America, Ford's grandfather had been a labourer on the estate in Ireland of the then Lord Wallscourt: Ford was now getting his own back at his descendant. Not a charming sight." "We now had to return to the MGM-British Studios in London to shoot all the interior scenes. Someone must have pointed out to Ford that he had been thoroughly foul to me during the entire location shoot and when I arrived for my first day's work, I found that he had caused a large notice to be painted at the entrance to our sound stage in capital letters reading BE KIND TO DONALD WEEK. He was as good as his word—for precisely seven days. On the eighth day he ripped the sign down and returned to his normal bullying behaviour." Ford usually gave his actors little explicit direction, although on occasion he would casually walk through a scene himself, and actors were expected to note every subtle action or mannerism; if they did not, Ford would make them repeat the scene until they got it right, and he would often berate and belittle those who failed to achieve his desired performance. On The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, Ford ran through a scene with Edmond O'Brien and ended by drooping his hand over a railing. O'Brien noticed this but deliberately ignored it, placing his hand on the railing instead; Ford would not explicitly correct him and he reportedly made O'Brien play the scene forty-two times before the actor relented and did it Ford's way. Despite his often difficult and demanding personality, many actors who worked with Ford acknowledged that he brought out the best in them. John Wayne remarked that "Nobody could handle actors and crew like Jack." Dobe Carey stated that "He had a quality that made everyone almost kill themselves to please him. Upon arriving on the set, you would feel right away that something special was going to happen. You would feel spiritually awakened all of a sudden." Carey credits Ford with the inspiration of Carey's final film, Comanche Stallion (2005). Ford's favorite location for his Western films was southern Utah's Monument Valley. Although not generally appropriate geographically as a setting for his plots, the expressive visual impact of the area enabled Ford to define images of the American West with some of the most beautiful and powerful cinematography ever shot, in such films as Stagecoach, The Searchers, and Fort Apache. A notable example is the famous scene in She Wore a Yellow Ribbon in which the cavalry troop is photographed against an oncoming storm. The influence on the films of classic Western artists such as Frederic Remington and others has been examined. Ford's evocative use of the territory for his Westerns has defined the images of the American West so powerfully that Orson Welles once said that other film-makers refused to shoot in the region out of fears of plagiarism. Ford typically shot only the footage he needed and often filmed in sequence, minimizing the job of his film editors. In the opinion of Joseph McBride, Ford's technique of cutting in the camera enabled him to retain creative control in a period where directors often had little say on the final editing of their films. Ford noted: I don't give 'em a lot of film to play with. In fact, Eastman used to complain that I exposed so little film. I do cut in the camera. Otherwise, if you give them a lot of film 'the committee' takes over. They start juggling scenes around and taking out this and putting in that. They can't do it with my pictures. I cut in the camera and that's it. There's not a lot of film left on the floor when I'm finished. Awards and honors Ford won a total of six Academy Awards. Four of these were for Best Director for The Informer (1935), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), How Green Was My Valley (1941), and The Quiet Man (1952)—none of them Westerns (also starring in the last two was Maureen O'Hara, "his favorite actress"). He was also nominated as Best Director for Stagecoach (1939). He won two Oscars for Best Documentary for The Battle of Midway and December 7th. To this day Ford holds the record for winning the most Best Director Oscars, having won the award on four occasions. William Wyler and Frank Capra come in second having won the award three times. Ford was the first director to win consecutive Best Director awards, in 1940 and 1941. This feat was later matched by Joseph L. Mankiewicz exactly ten years later, when he won consecutive awards for Best Director in 1950 and 1951. As a producer he received nominations for Best Picture for The Quiet Man and The Long Voyage Home. In 1955 and 1957, Ford was awarded The George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film. He was the first recipient of the American Film Institute Life Achievement Award in 1973. Also in that year, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Richard Nixon. Ford directed 10 different actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Victor McLaglen, Thomas Mitchell, Edna May Oliver, Jane Darwell, Henry Fonda, Donald Crisp, Sara Allgood, Ava Gardner, Grace Kelly and Jack Lemmon. McLaglen, Mitchell, Darwell, Crisp and Lemmon won an Oscar for one of their roles in one of Ford's movies. A television special featuring Ford, John Wayne, James Stewart, and Henry Fonda was broadcast over the CBS network on December 5, 1971, called The American West of John Ford, featuring clips from Ford's career interspersed with interviews conducted by Wayne, Stewart, and Fonda, who also took turns narrating the hourlong documentary. In 2007, Twentieth Century Fox released Ford at Fox, a DVD boxed set of 24 of Ford's films. Time magazine's Richard Corliss named it one of the "Top 10 DVDs of 2007", ranking it at No. 1. A statue of Ford in Portland, Maine depicts him sitting in a director's chair. The statue made by New York sculptor George M. Kelly, cast at Modern Art Foundry, Astoria, NY, and commissioned by Louisiana philanthropist Linda Noe Laine was unveiled on 12 July 1998 at Gorham's Corner in Portland, Maine, United States, as part of a celebration of Ford that was later to include renaming the auditorium of Portland High School the John Ford Auditorium. In 2019 Jean-Christophe Klotz released the documentary film John Ford, l'homme qui inventa l'Amérique, about his influence in the legend of the American West in films like Stagecoach (1939), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962) and Cheyenne Autumn (1964). Preservation The Academy Film Archive has preserved a number of John Ford's films, including How Green Was My Valley, The Battle of Midway, Drums Along the Mohawk, Sex Hygiene, Torpedo Squadron 8, and Four Sons. Academy Awards Directed Academy Award Performances Politics Early in life, Ford's politics were conventionally progressive; his favorite presidents were Democrats Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy and Republican Abraham Lincoln. But despite these leanings, many thought he was a Republican because of his long association with actors John Wayne, James Stewart, Maureen O'Hara, and Ward Bond. Ford's attitude to McCarthyism in Hollywood is expressed by a story told by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. A faction of the Directors Guild of America, led by Cecil B. DeMille, had tried to make it mandatory for every member to sign a loyalty oath. A whispering campaign was being conducted against Mankiewicz, then President of the Guild, alleging he had Communist sympathies. At a crucial meeting of the Guild, DeMille's faction spoke for four hours until Ford spoke against DeMille and proposed a vote of confidence in Mankiewicz, which was passed. His words were recorded by a stenographer: Mankiewicz's version of events was contested in 2016, with the discovery of the court transcript, which was released as part of the Mankiewicz archives. Mankiewicz's account gives sole credit to Ford in sinking DeMille. The account has several embellishments. DeMille's move to fire Mankiewicz had caused a storm of protest. DeMille was basically on the receiving end of a torrent of attacks from many speakers throughout the meeting and at one point looked like being solely thrown off the guild board. At this point, Ford rose to speak. His opening was that he rose in defense of the board. He claimed a personal role in a vote of confidence for Joseph Mankiewicz. He then called for an end to politics in the Guild and for it to refocus on working conditions. Ford told the meeting that the guild was formed to ‘protect ourselves against producers.’ Ford argued against ‘putting out derogatory information about a director, whether he is a Communist, beats his mother-in-law, or beats dogs.’ Ford wanted the debate and the meeting to end as his focus was the unity of the guild. He said that Mankiewicz had been vilified and deserved an apology. His final section was to support DeMille against further calls for his resignation. Ford's words about DeMille were, ‘And I think that some of the accusations made here tonight were pretty UnAmerican. I mean a group of men have picked on probably the dean of our profession. I don’t agree with C. B. DeMille. I admire him. I don’t like him, but I admire him. Everything he said tonight he had a right to say. I don’t like to hear accusations against him.’ He concluded by ‘pleading’ with the membership to retain DeMille. Ford feared that DeMille's exit might have caused the body to disintegrate. His second move was to have the entire board resign, which saved face for DeMille and allowed the issue to be settled without forced resignations. The next day, Ford wrote a letter supporting DeMille and then telephoned, where Ford described DeMille as ‘a magnificent figure’ so far above that ‘goddamn pack of rats.' At a heated and arduous meeting, Ford went to the defense of a colleague under sustained attack from his peers. He saw the dangers of expelling DeMille. Ford stared down the entire meeting to ensure that DeMille remained in the guild. He then later offered his own resignation – as part of the entire board – to ensure that the guild did not break and allowed DeMille to go without losing face. As time went on, however, Ford became more publicly allied with the Republican Party, declaring himself a "Maine Republican" in 1947. He said he voted for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election and supported Richard Nixon in 1968 and became a supporter of the Vietnam War. In 1973, he was awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Nixon, whose campaign he had publicly supported. In 1952, Ford hoped for a Robert Taft/Douglas MacArthur Republican presidential ticket. When Dwight Eisenhower won the nomination, Ford wrote to Taft saying that like "a million other Americans, I am naturally bewildered and hurt by the outcome of the Republican Convention in Chicago." In 1966, he supported Ronald Reagan in his governor's race and again for his reelection in 1970. Influence Ford is widely considered to be among the most influential of Hollywood's filmmakers. He was listed as the fifth most influential director of all time by MovieMaker. Below are some of the people who were directly influenced by Ford, or greatly admired his work: Ingmar Bergman – Said of Ford, "the best director in the world". Bahram Beyzai wrote a laudatory critical review of Ford's more famous films in 1961, which is anthologized in Massoud Farasati's 2014 collection of writings by and about Ford in Persian Peter Bogdanovich - Directed by John Ford (1971) Frank Capra – Referred to Ford as the "king of directors" Federico Fellini Jean-Luc Godard – Once compared the ending of The Searchers to "Ulysses being reunited with Telemachus" Howard Hawks Alfred Hitchcock – "A John Ford film was a visual gratification" Elia Kazan Satoshi Kon took inspiration from Ford's Three Godfathers for his animated film Tokyo Godfathers, a riff on Ford's western, set in contemporary Tokyo. Stanley Kubrick Akira Kurosawa – "I have respected John Ford from the beginning. Needless to say, I pay close attention to his productions, and I think I am influenced by them." David Lean took inspiration from The Searchers for his film Lawrence of Arabia Sergio Leone George Lucas Sam Peckinpah Satyajit Ray – "A hallmark is never easy to describe, but the nearest description of Ford's would be a combination of strength and simplicity. The nearest equivalent I can think of is a musical one: middle-period Beethoven." Jean Renoir – After seeing The Informer, he reportedly told George Seaton: "I learned so much today ... I learned how to not move my camera." Martin Scorsese Steven Spielberg Jean-Marie Straub praised Ford as "the most Brechtian of all filmmakers" Bertrand Tavernier François Truffaut John Wayne Orson Welles – When asked to name the directors who most appealed to him, he replied: "I like the old masters, by which I mean John Ford, John Ford and John Ford." Wim Wenders Pedro Costa – "It makes me dream and it makes me come back. I felt so right when I saw a film by John Ford and I was in front of those people. It was a dream thing. It was a real thing." John Ford Ireland In December 2011 the Irish Film & Television Academy (IFTA), in association with the John Ford Estate and the Irish Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, established "John Ford Ireland", celebrating the work and legacy of John Ford. The Irish Academy stated that through John Ford Ireland, they hope to lay the foundations for honoring, examining and learning from the work and legacy of John Ford, who is widely regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of his generation. Symposium The first John Ford Ireland Symposium was held in Dublin, Ireland from 7 to 10 June 2012. The Symposium, designed to draw inspiration from and celebrate Ford's ongoing influence on contemporary cinema, featured a diverse program of events, including a series of screenings, masterclasses, panel discussions, public interviews, and an outdoor screening of The Searchers. Guests who attended included Dan Ford, grandson of John Ford; composer Christopher Caliendo conducted the acclaimed RTÉ Concert Orchestra performing his score to Ford's The Iron Horse, opening the four-day event; author and biographer Joseph McBride gave the Symposium's opening lecture; directors Peter Bogdanovich, Stephen Frears, John Boorman, Jim Sheridan, Brian Kirk, Thaddeus O'Sullivan and Sé Merry Doyle participated in a number of events; Irish writers Patrick McCabe, Colin Bateman, Ian Power and Eoghan Harris examined Ford's work from a screenwriters perspective; Joel Cox delivered an editing masterclass; and composers and musicians, among whom David Holmes and Kyle Eastwood, discussed music for film. The John Ford Ireland Film Symposium was held again in Dublin in Summer 2013. John Ford Award Clint Eastwood received the inaugural John Ford Award in December 2011. It was presented to Mr. Eastwood, at a reception in Burbank, California, by Michael Collins, Irish Ambassador to the United States, Dan Ford, grandson of John Ford, and Áine Moriarty, Chief Executive of the Irish Film & Television Academy (IFTA). Accepting the Award, Mr Eastwood said: "Any kind of association with John Ford is most directors' dream, as he was certainly a pioneer of American filmmaking and I grew up on his films. His Westerns had a great influence on me, as I think they had on everybody. When I worked with Sergio Leone years ago in Italy, his favorite Director was John Ford and he spoke very openly about that influence. I want to thank everybody who is here from the Irish Academy, the John Ford family and thank you to John Ford Ireland." Filmography Awards (military and civil) Ford was awarded the Legion of Merit with Combat "V",The Hall of Valor Project; John Ford Military Times. Retrieved January 11, 2022. a Purple Heart, the Meritorious Service Medal, the Air Medal, the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal with Combat "V", the Navy Combat Action Ribbon the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the China Service Medal the American Defense Service Medal with service star, the American Campaign Medal, the European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with three campaign stars, the Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal also with three campaign stars, the World War II Victory Medal, the Navy Occupation Service Medal, the National Defense Service Medal with service star, the Korean Service Medal with one campaign star, the Naval Reserve Medal, the Order of National Security Merit Samil Medal, the United Nations Korea Medal, the Distinguished Pistol Shot Ribbon (1952-1959), and the Belgian Order of Leopold. See also List of film collaborations References Further reading Brianton, Kevin, Hollywood Divided: The 1950 Screen Directors Guild and the Impact of the Blacklist, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2016. Evans, Alun, Brassey's Guide to War Films, Brassey's, 2000. Lindsay Anderson, Never Apologise: The Collected Writings, London: Plexus, 2004. Republication of "Meeting in Dublin with John Ford: The Quiet Man", Sequence 14, 1952. Lindsay Anderson, About John Ford, London: Plexus, 1981, 1999 edition. Peter Bogdanovich, John Ford, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967, revised 1978. Peter Cowie, John Ford and the American West, New York: Harry Abrams Inc., 2004. Serge Daney, "John Ford", in Dictionnaire du cinéma, Paris, Éditions universitaires, 1966, ripubblicato in Serge Daney, La Maison cinéma et le monde, 1. Le Temps des Cahiers, 1962–1982, Paris: P.O.L., 2001. Toni D'Angela, John Ford. Un pensiero per immagini, Milano, Edizioni Unicopli, 2010. Scott Eyman, Print the Legend: The Life and Times of John Ford, New York, 1999. Dan Ford, The Unquiet Man: The Life of John Ford, London: Kimber. 1982 (1979). Tag Gallagher. John Ford: The Man and His Films. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986. La furia umana, n. 3, 2010. Special issue about John Ford, incorporating texts (in French, Italian, English, Portuguese) by Julio Bressane, Paul Vecchiali, Raymond Bellour, Art Redding, Toni D'Angela, Juan Gorostidi Munguia, Tag Gallagher, Joseph McBride, Jacques Aumont, John Zorn, Barry Gifford, Giulio Giorello, Alberto Abruzzese, Eva Truffaut and others. Jean Mitry, John Ford, Paris, 1954. Pippin, Robert B. Hollywood Westerns and American Myth: The Importance of Howard Hawks and John Ford for Political Philosophy (Yale University Press, 2010) 208 pp. Patrice Rollet and Nicolás Saada, John Ford, Paris: Editions de l'Etoile/Cahiers du cinéma, 1990. Andrew Sinclair, John Ford, New York: Dial Press/J. Wade, 1979. Koszarski, Richard. 1976. Hollywood Directors: 1914-1940''. Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Catalog Number: 76-9262. External links Archival materials John Ford's America, MSS 2076-1 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University John Ford papers at the Lilly Library, Indiana University BloomingtonCriticism Ford's Depth by Miguel Marías The Eloquence of Gesture by Shigehiko Hasumi La furia umana/3, winter 2010, special about John Ford, texts (in French, Italian, English, Portuguese) by Julio Bressane, Paul Vecchiali, Raymond Bellour, Art Redding, Toni D'Angela, Juan Gorostidi Munguia, Tag Gallagher, Joseph McBride, Jacques Aumont, John Zorn, Barry Gifford, Giulio Giorello, Alberto Abruzzese, Eva Truffaut and others; on www.lafuriaumana.it The Influence of Western Painting and Genre Painting on the Films of John Ford Ph.D. Dissertation by William Howze, 1986Official sites''' Website for John Ford Ireland |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Academy Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | American Film Institute |- 1894 births 1973 deaths United States Navy personnel of World War II Battle of Midway American people of Irish descent Best Directing Academy Award winners Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from stomach cancer Irish-American history Operation Overlord people People from Cape Elizabeth, Maine Artists from Portland, Maine Military personnel from Maine Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Recipients of the Legion of Merit United States Navy rear admirals (lower half) Western (genre) film directors People of the Office of Strategic Services Directors Guild of America Award winners Portland High School (Maine) alumni AFI Life Achievement Award recipients Film directors from Maine Maine Republicans

290633

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Object%20of%20My%20Affection

The Object of My Affection

The Object of My Affection is a 1998 American romantic comedy-drama film directed by Nicholas Hytner and starring Jennifer Aniston and Paul Rudd. The film was adapted from the novel of the same name by Stephen McCauley and the screenplay was written by Wendy Wasserstein. The story concerns a pregnant New York social worker who develops romantic feelings for her gay new friend and decides to raise her child with him, and the complications that ensue. It was filmed in 1997 in various locations around New York City, New Jersey, and Connecticut. The film received mixed reviews and was a moderate box office success grossing $46.9 million against a production budget of $15 million. Plot Social worker Nina Borowski (Jennifer Aniston) is a bright young woman living in a cozy Brooklyn apartment. Nina attends a party given by her stepsister Constance (Allison Janney) and her husband, Sidney (Alan Alda). There Nina meets George Hanson (Paul Rudd), a young, handsome, and gay first grade teacher. Nina tells George that her stepsister is constantly trying to fix her up with somebody from higher society, completely ignoring the fact that Nina has a boyfriend, Vince (John Pankow). During the conversation, Nina offers George a room in her apartment as she has just heard from his boyfriend, Dr. Robert Joley (Tim Daly), that George is looking for somewhere to live. George, not knowing about Robert's plans, is taken aback and heartbroken, and after the party the two split up. George accepts Nina's offer and moves into her apartment. The two soon become best friends; they watch films together and go ballroom dancing. Everything is great until Nina announces that she is pregnant. Vince, the baby's father, wants to marry her, but his constant control drives Nina crazy; she leaves him and George offers to help raise her child. For some time, they live together in her apartment in Brooklyn. Everything is perfect again until Nina finds that her love for George is growing every day, especially after he tells her he had a girlfriend in high school, leading her to believe they might develop a romantic relationship. One afternoon, George and Nina are about to have sex when George gets a phone call from Robert who tells him how much he has missed him and invites him away for the weekend. George is confused but agrees to go. Nina feels threatened and gets jealous. George and Robert do not re-establish their relationship, but George meets Paul James (Amo Gulinello), a young actor, and the two are attracted to each other and have sex. Meanwhile, Nina is staying with Constance at a vacation mansion and is extremely moody. She has a horrible time and decides to head back home and asks George to return as well. Her purse is snatched on the way and a friendly police officer, Louis (Kevin Carroll), gives her a ride home. Nina decides to invite Paul and his older acting mentor with whom he lives, Rodney (Nigel Hawthorne), for Thanksgiving after a rather prickly brunch with a late arriving George, and his brother and his brother's latest fiancée. After the evening winds down, Paul stays the night with George, resulting in a heated argument between George and Nina, and heartache for Rodney. At George's brother's wedding, they continue their discussion as Nina has begun to realize the reality of the situation. Nina fully explains to George her feelings for him. George, who loves Nina as his best friend, tells her that, ultimately, he wants to be with Paul. A few hours later, Nina gives birth to a beautiful girl she names Molly. Vince, ecstatic, visits her in the hospital, but when he leaves to complete paperwork, Nina and George remain alone with Molly. Nina asks George when he plans to move out to which he replies that he doesn't know. She asks him to move out of her apartment before she gets home from the hospital, stating that it would hurt her too much to have him stay any longer knowing that he doesn't love her the same way she does him. Eight years later at George's school, everyone goes to see Molly in a musical production that George has directed. George is now the principal of the school. Nina is now in a relationship with Louis, and George is still with Paul, both of them now happy. Rodney is also there, still considered 'one of the family' by Louis and Nina. Nina, George, and young Molly (Sarah Hyland) (who refers to George as her "Uncle George") walk together, hand-in-hand, on their way to get coffee and talk. Cast Production The shooting took place from June to July 1997, in New York. Winona Ryder was initially offered the role of Nina, but turned it down so Uma Thurman was cast opposite Keanu Reeves but both dropped out. Jennifer Aniston and Paul Rudd were cast instead. Release Box office The Object of My Affection was released in US theaters on April 17, 1998, and took in $9,725,855 during its opening weekend, coming in at No. 2 at the box office in 1,890 theaters, averaging $5,146 per theater. The film went on to gross $29,187,243 in the United States alone, over a span of five weekends. The film continued to open in European countries throughout the fall and winter of 1998, and ultimately grossed $17,718,646 outside of the United States. Critical reception Critical reaction to the film was mixed. Roger Ebert gave the film two stars, saying: "The Object of My Affection deals with some real issues and has scenes that work, but you can see the wheels of the plot turning so clearly that you doubt the characters have much freedom to act on their own." Ruthe Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle said the film "occasionally borders on being too clever. But that's a small quibble about a movie that gets so much right." The film holds a rating of 53% on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes based on 59 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Despite heartfelt performances from Jennifer Aniston and Paul Rudd, The Object of My Affection suffers from too many plot contrivances and frequent turns into rom-com sappiness." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 51% based on 18 critics. Accolades In efforts of the film it received a GLAAD Media award nomination for Outstanding Film (Wide Release), and won the London Critics Circle Film award for British Supporting Actor of the Year awarded to actor Nigel Hawthorne. Soundtrack Additional Music References External links 1998 films 1998 comedy films 1998 drama films 1998 LGBT-related films 1990s romantic comedy-drama films 20th Century Fox films American films American LGBT-related films American pregnancy films American romantic comedy-drama films English-language films Films based on American novels Films directed by Nicholas Hytner Films produced by Laurence Mark Films scored by George Fenton Films set in New York City Films shot in Connecticut Films shot in New Jersey Films shot in New York City Gay-related films LGBT-related romantic comedy-drama films 1990s pregnancy films

298178

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will%20Young

Will Young

William Robert Young (born 20 January 1979) is a British actor and singer-songwriter who came to prominence after winning the 2002 inaugural series of the ITV talent contest Pop Idol, making him the first winner of the worldwide Idol franchise. His double A-sided debut single "Anything Is Possible" / "Evergreen" was released two weeks after the show's finale and became the fastest-selling debut single in the UK. Young also came in fifth place in World Idol performing the single "Light My Fire" written by the band the Doors. As a teenager, Young studied politics at the University of Exeter before moving to London, where he studied musical theatre at Arts Educational School. Young put his studies on hold in late 2001 to become a contestant on Pop Idol. After winning the competition the following year, he released his debut album From Now On (2002) which went straight to number one. Friday's Child (2003) followed and enjoyed greater success, eventually going platinum five times in the UK and spawning three top five singles. His following albums Keep On (2005), Let It Go (2008) and Echoes (2011) also went multi-platinum and 85% Proof (2015) became his fourth UK number-one album. His albums have spawned many songs that have achieved top ten positions in the UK, four of which went to the number one spot. Young has also undertaken numerous concert tours, and has accumulated multiple honours, including two Brit Awards from 12 nominations, and the estimated worldwide sale of over eight million albums. Young's net worth was estimated at £13.5 million in April 2012. Alongside his music career, Young has acted in film, on stage and in television. For his performance in the 2013 London revival of the musical Cabaret, he was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in a Musical. He has also participated in philanthropy and released books Anything is Possible (2002), On Camera, Off Duty (2004) and his autobiography Funny Peculiar (2012). Early life and education Early life and family Young was born on 20 January 1979 in Wokingham, Berkshire, and is the second-oldest child of Robin Young, a company director of an engineering firm, and Annabel Young (née Griffith), a plant nursery gardener. Born six weeks prematurely, he was ten minutes older than his twin brother, Rupert (died August 2020). He also has an older sister Emma. Young was born into an affluent, middle-class family, whose paternal ancestry has strong ties to the British government and military services. His grandfather, Digby Aretas Young (d. 1966) served in the Royal Air Force, and his great-great-great-great grandfather was Colonel Sir Aretas William Young, who, in 1795 at seventeen years old, joined the British Army and served in Ireland and Egypt before fighting in the Peninsular War. Aretas was later stationed in Trinidad and eventually took charge of the Trinidadian government, before moving to Demerara where he was appointed Protector of Slaves. Aretas became the sixth Governor of Prince Edward Island in 1831, and three years later was knighted by King William IV. One of Aretas's sons was Sir Henry Young, fifth Governor of South Australia, later first Governor of Tasmania. Education Young was brought up in Hungerford, West Berkshire, and was initially educated at Kingsbury Hill School in Marlborough, Wiltshire, before attending Horris Hill Preparatory School, Newbury, between the ages of eight and thirteen. His first appearance on stage was at the age of four when he played a fir tree in a school production and had one line to speak. At Horris Hill, Young was head chorister in the school choir, and at the age of nine he learned how to play the piano. Young recalls that at Horris Hill, pupils were taught that they were more privileged than pupils from state schools, and that one day he wrote a letter stating, "I must pass common entrance to take me to public school, otherwise I'll be going to state school and everyone will be very disappointed." At thirteen, Young and his brother were enrolled at Wellington College in Crowthorne, Berkshire, a public boarding school. Young appeared in several school productions and often gave speeches in assembly, despite later admitting that he never felt completely comfortable being the centre of attention. It was during this period that he became interested in sports and for a time he dreamed of competing in the Olympic Games in the 400 metre sprint, which he could run in under fifty seconds – the Olympic average is forty-three seconds. He became captain of the school's basketball and athletics teams, and also represented the school in the triple jump, long jump, football and rugby. The only sport he says he felt uncomfortable playing was cricket. Young left school with ten GCSEs, but achieved disappointing A-Level results and had to enroll in D'Overbroeck's College, Oxford, to re-sit his exams. He took a part-time job as a waiter at the Grand Cafe in Oxford, and became interested in environmental issues and local campaigning, joining a group called the Eco Society. He passed his A-Levels the second time, earning As in Politics and Ancient History, and a B in English. In 1998 Young began studying politics at the University of Exeter, choosing the subject because, "I thought I should know more about what was going on in my country." He also took women's studies at university and considers himself a feminist. His interest in performing arts continued, and he joined a theatre group called Footlights where he eventually landed the lead role of Curly in their production of Oklahoma!. "I really enjoyed it and doing that gave me a lot of confidence," he later said of the show. He also took a work experience position at Sony Records to gain insight into the music industry. Other work included runway and photographic modelling, gardening, tearing labels off T-shirts in a clothing factory, and being a waiter. He graduated in 2001 with a 2:2 bachelor's degree. After leaving university, Young knew that he wanted to be a professional singer, but he did not want to be full of naivety and without training. In September 2001 he became a student at the Arts Educational Schools, in Chiswick, London. Career 1999–2001: Early auditions and Pop Idol In 1999 during his second year at university, Young watched an episode of This Morning and learned that the show was holding a competition to find members for a new boy band. He mailed the producers an audition tape and received a letter back from the show telling him he had been selected as one of seventy-five competitors, and that he had to appear in London for an off-camera audition. The 75 auditionees were whittled down to 9 finalists including Young, who were then invited to perform on the show. On 29 May 1999, Young appeared on the programme and performed a short rendition of the Jackson 5 song, I'll Be There, in front of a panel of judges that included Simon Cowell, an artists and repertoire executive at BMG, and Kate Thornton, a former editor of Smash Hits, turned television presenter. One week later, Young was selected into the boy band alongside three other competitors. They were Lee Ryan who later joined the boy band Blue, Declan Bennett who joined the boy band Point Break, signed to Danielle Barnett, the current lead singer of Urban Cookie Collective and Music Manager who contacted him directly following the This Morning audition, and Andy Scott-Lee who went on to compete in the second series of Pop Idol. Cowell said of the group, "We've tried to find people with star quality and these guys can sing and dance", but the band failed to find any success and it soon dis-banded. Young's next audition was at the Guildhall in London to be a jazz singer, but he accidentally arrived on the wrong date. On 20 June 2001, one of Young's university classmates showed him an advertisement in the News of the World for auditionees of Pop Idol, a planned nationwide televised talent show to find a solo pop artist in a similar way that Popstars had created the pop band Hear'Say the previous year. The winner was guaranteed a £1 million recording contract with BMG and representation by 19 Management. He printed out an application form from the website, filled it out and posted it on 28 June. On 7 August 2001, he received a reply which told him he had been accepted for an audition at ExCeL London on 5 September 2001. On the day of the audition, Young performed Aretha Franklin's "Until You Come Back to Me (That's What I'm Gonna Do)" in front of an assistant producer, and was deemed good enough to be given a second audition two days later. For his second audition, Young sang "Blame It on the Boogie" by the Jacksons in front of a show producer and won a place to the third round to perform before the show's judges: Simon Cowell; Nicki Chapman, a Popstars judge who also worked as a publicist at 19 Entertainment, the company that was producing Pop Idol; Pete Waterman, a music producer who had written or produced twenty-one singles that had charted at Number One in the UK Singles Chart, 200 Top Tens, and sold over 500 million records for the artists such as Kylie Minogue, Rick Astley, Bananarama, Steps and Westlife; and Neil "Dr Fox" Fox, a disc jockey who presented the drivetime show on Capital FM and the nationally syndicated Pepsi Chart. He was the final contestant the judges saw, and after a day of watching mostly poor performances they were not in the best spirits. Again, Young performed "Blame It on the Boogie", but the judges thought his overall performance was merely average. Chapman told him that his dance moves had let him down, but his vocal was good. Fox described him as cheesy, Waterman was unimpressed by his stage presence and image – Young was wearing baggy and faded jeans, scuffed shoes and his grandfather's jumper which was stained with egg yolk – but conceded that his voice was "nice". Despite their uncertainty, however, they advanced him through to the next round. The following week, auditions were held at the Criterion Theatre, and Young sang "All or Nothing" by O-Town, the Drifters' "Up on the Roof" and "Fast Love" by George Michael. Still not completely convinced by his performances, he was made to wait in the "Maybe" room until the judges decided to send him through to the Final 50. The first episode of Pop Idol was broadcast on 6 October 2001 on ITV, and Young's audition aired on the third show on 20 October 2001. The next round of the competition was split into five heats that aired every Saturday between 3 November 2001 and 8 December 2001. Each show featured ten of the fifty competitors singing one song in the Pop Idol studios in front of the judges and an audience, but unlike previous rounds, the viewing public decided who would advance to the next round by interactive televoting voting using their telephones, the Red Button on digital television remote controls, and the Pop Idol website. The two singers with the highest number of votes in each heat advanced to the final rounds of the competition. Young competed in Heat 4, broadcast on 24 November, and sang a jazz/lounge interpretation of "Light My Fire" by the Doors. Judges Chapman, Fox and Waterman were all enthusiastic about his performance, but Cowell was unimpressed and called it "distinctly average," adding, "I just thought it was totally normal. In the context of the show I honestly didn't think it was good enough." The other judges and contestants all expressed shock at his comments, and Young responded, telling Cowell that while he was entitled to his opinion, it was wrong. This incident has often been cited as the moment when Young's pop career truly began, standing out to viewers and endeared himself to them. It appeared that the voting audience agreed with Young and disagreed with Cowell, because he was voted through to the next round, in first place, with 41.5% of the overall vote. During Young's next appearance on the show on 15 December 2001, Cowell stated that he had previously made a "huge mistake", and that Young had conducted himself with a dignity that had humbled him. Young later stated that his proudest moment of the entire competition was this incident. Young easily progressed through each subsequent round by performing jazz, lounge and soul versions of songs such as "Wives and Lovers", "Ain't No Sunshine" and "Beyond the Sea". In the first four weeks of the Live Finals, he received the highest percentage of votes. In weeks five, six and seven, he received the second highest percentage of votes, losing out on first place to Gareth Gates each time. In the Semi-final, competing against Gates and Darius Danesh, Young again received the most votes (39.8%). Gates received 39.3% of the votes and won the other place in the Grand Final, while Danesh received 20.9% of the votes and was eliminated from the competition. Throughout the following week, Young and Gates embarked on separate whistle-stop tours of the United Kingdom in large tour buses adorned with their faces, in an attempt to canvass for votes. In election-style campaigns, they made numerous radio and television appearances, were interviewed in magazines, national and local newspapers, and met and performed for their fans. Celebrities such as Noel Gallagher, Robbie Williams, Posh and Becks, Kylie Minogue, Myleene Klass, Michelle Collins, S Club 7 and Jenny Frost announced their support for Young, while Gates was backed by Duncan James, Natasha Hamilton, Richard and Judy, Westlife, Faye Tozer, Denise Van Outen, Ben Adams, Neil Tennant, Andrew Lloyd Webber, Claire Richards, Boy George, Ricky Gervais and Francis Rossi. The media pitted Young and Gates against each other, publishing false news articles claiming that the two contestants were bitter rivals and their parents were bickering and fighting backstage, stories which both camps denied. Although for a brief moment earlier in the series Young was favoured to win, bookmakers gave Gates better odds on the eve of the Grand Final, pointing to his angelic voice, good looks and displays of emotion that appealed to a younger audience, compared with Young's soulful crooning and maturity appealing to housewives and intellectuals. Gates was given various odds of 1/5, 2/9 and 2/7, while Young's odds were quoted at 100/30, 11/4, 3/1 and 5/2 at different times in the week. On 9 February 2002, 13.34 million viewers watched Young and Gates battle each other in the Grand Final for the title of "Pop Idol". Both acts sang "Anything Is Possible" and "Evergreen", which were to be released as a double A-side single by the winner. Young also sang "Light My Fire" a second time as his favourite performance from the series. 8.7 million votes were registered over the two-and-a-half hours that the voting lines were open, which set a new world record. However, some voters complained that their votes had not been registered and that ITV, British Telecom and Telescope (the company responsible for operating the phone system) had not prepared well enough for the volume of calls because the system crashed at one point during the evening. It was also alleged that the phonelines had been fixed and they were involved in vote rigging. Nevertheless, Young was announced the winner of the competition after receiving 4.6 million (53.1%) votes, just 500,000 more than Gates. Young's shock at hearing the news was obvious to viewers as his jaw dropped and he clasped his hands to his face. "When he [Ant McPartlin] said what the votes were, I thought, 'I am second, and I have lost by that much. Oh well, that's not bad'," Young recalled. "When I heard I'd won ... I felt like I'd been hit. I stepped backwards. I could not believe it." In 2011, Young described Pop Idol as "a huge starting point and ... the best ever experience for me, ever." Pop Idol performances and results 2002–2003: From Now On Young's first single was a double A-side featuring Westlife's song "Evergreen" and "Anything Is Possible", a new song written for the winner of the show by Chris Braide and Cathy Dennis. In March 2002, this became the fastest-selling debut in UK chart history, selling 403,027 copies on its day of release (1,108,659 copies in its first week). It went on to sell over 1.7 million copies, and on the official list of the all-time best-selling singles in the UK issued later that year, it was ranked eleventh. In 2008, Official Charts Company released the Top 40 Biggest Selling Singles of the 21st century (so far) in which Young's version of Evergreen topped the chart. On 31 December 2009, Radio 1 confirmed that "Anything Is Possible"/"Evergreen" was the biggest selling single of the 2000s decade in the United Kingdom. This was again confirmed on 7 May 2012 when Radio 1 played a countdown of the top-selling 150 songs of the millennium so far. "Anything Is Possible" won an Ivor Novello Award for Bestselling Song of 2002. In October 2002, Young released his debut album, From Now On, which included "Evergreen" nominated in the Best single category in 2003 at the BRIT Awards and "Anything Is Possible". It produced three singles: "Light My Fire", "The Long and Winding Road" (a duet with Gareth Gates, released as a double A-side with Gates's song "Suspicious Minds") and "Don't Let Me Down"/"You and I" (released in aid of Children in Need). He won his first BRIT Award in February 2003 as Best Breakthrough Artist. Young sang "Try Again", a song featured in Disney's 101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure, the 2003 direct-to-video sequel to Walt Disney's 1961 feature One Hundred and One Dalmatians. 2003–2007: Friday's Child and Keep On Young's second album, Friday's Child, was released in December 2003. It features the singles "Leave Right Now", nominated in the Best British single category of the past 25 years at the 2005 BRIT Awards and winner of the Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically in 2004, "Your Game" (which won Young his second BRIT Award in 2005) and "Friday's Child" In November 2005, Young released his third album, Keep On, which included the single "All Time Love", nominated in the Best British Single category at the 2007 BRIT Awards. Other singles from the album were "Switch It On" and "Who Am I". In May 2006, he sang at the Prince's Trust 30th Birthday, which took place at the Tower of London. From 12 September until 2 October 2006, Young toured the UK with his Keep On Live tour, which included the songs taken from his album Keep On and a selection of past songs. The official merchandise range for the tour, highlighted by the press, included a "tip and strip" pen which, when turned over, reveals Young in his underpants. In October 2006, Young sang at Nitin Sawhney's concert in the BBC Electric Proms series of concerts. He followed this by performing in South Africa for Nelson Mandela's Unite of the Stars charity concerts. In July 2007, he appeared at the Concert for Diana at the new Wembley Stadium. Young was the headline act at the Proms in the Park, which took place in Hyde Park in September 2007 as part of the Last Night of the Proms. In September 2007, Young performed at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club with the Vanguard Big Band. Young took part in the Little Noise Sessions, a series of intimate, acoustic gigs for the learning disability charity, Mencap. He performed in November 2007 with special guests at Islington's Union Chapel. 2008–2010: Let It Go and The Hits On 29 September 2008, Young's fourth album, Let It Go, was released. It peaked at Nº2 in the album charts, having been preceded by the single "Changes", which was released on 15 September and peaked at Nº10 in the UK Singles Chart. His next single "Grace" was released on 1 December 2008, and peaked at Nº33 on the UK Singles Chart. The third single taken from the album, "Let It Go", was released on 2 March 2009 in the UK, and peaked at Nº58 on the UK Singles Chart. The fourth and final single, "Tell Me the Worst", was released in the UK only, on 5 July 2009. It served as a club promo, and featured some Fred Falke remixes. In April 2008, Young again appeared at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club with the Vanguard Big Band. Young is to perform at various festivals during mid-2008, including Glastonbury, T in the Park in Scotland and Bestival on the Isle of Wight. On 24 August 2008, Young appeared at the Olympic Party which took place in the Mall, London. He performed his latest single Changes and I Can See Clearly Now, which was originally sung by Johnny Nash. On an interview with Digital Spy, Will Young revealed that he was working on a Dance-Pop album, which might be released in late 2009. He also confirmed that he was working with British duo Groove Armada, Superbass, who remixed his UK Top 10 single "Changes", and Gregg Alexander, who has previously worked with British pop singers Sophie Ellis-Bextor and Geri Halliwell. He also confirmed that he is working on an album covering songs by Noël Coward, which is as yet in its very early stages and he "doesn't know if it will end up". Young performed in a sell-out theatre tour, commencing on 16 November 2008 and continuing until 13 December 2008 with two dates at the Roundhouse in Camden, London. Young was the featured singer on the X-Factor programme on ITV1 on Saturday 1 November 2008. He also mentored the remaining contestants. On 31 December 2008, Young was featured as a guest on Elton John's Live New Year show at the O2 Arena in London along with that year's X Factor winner Alexandra Burke. He joined Sir Elton in the song "Daniel". Young was one of the performers at the BBC's "Live at Blackpool" programme on BBC Radio 2 on Saturday 5 September 2009. Young's greatest hits collection was released on 16 November 2009. It included two brand new songs, one of them the single "Hopes & Fears". The album was a success on the charts, being certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. In 2010 Will Young collaborated with Groove Armada on their album Black Light, singing vocals on the track 'History'. As part of his 2010 outdoor summer tour, it was announced that he would be a special guest and play on the Queen's Sandringham Estate, Sandringham in Norfolk. Pop singer Sophie Ellis-Bextor was his supporting act for his 2010 tour. His 2003 song "Leave Right Now" was featured on American Idol as the "departing song". He also performed live on the programme on 25 May 2010. Young gave his first US concert on 26 May at West Hollywood's Ultra Suede nightclub. He was also featured on the cover of the US magazine Instinct. Young was told by someone at the record company to re-record his hit single "Leave Right Now" because he sounded too gay on the track. He didn't realize this but he was made to re-record the song until the record executives were satisfied with it. 2011–2016: Echoes, record label change and 85% Proof In early 2011, Young tweeted teaser clips of tracks from his new album, 'Echoes', which was subsequently released on 22 August 2011 and entered the UK Album charts at number one on 29 August 2011 making it Youngs first number one album since "Friday's Child" in 2003. The first single is called 'Jealousy', and premiered on BBC Radio 2, between 9.00am-12noon, Monday 11 July 2011, as confirmed on Young's Facebook page. The single was released on 21 August 2011, preceding the album by 1 day with the single peaking at No.5. "A Night With...Will Young" was aired two days before the release of Echoes on ITV1 presented by Kate Thornton charting all of Young's greatest hits plus performing a few new tracks from the album. Young appeared on the third episode of the Jonathan Ross Show performing Hearts on Fire from Echoes to further promote the album. Young undertook a 23 date UK tour including 2 nights at London's Shepherd's Bush Empire in Autumn 2011. The second single from Echoes was Come On released in November 2011, with the accompanying video featuring Young performing at a dog show. It was confirmed that Young would appear as one of the four judges on singing competition series The Voice UK although on 12 December 2011 it was reported that Young had been replaced by Danny O'Donoghue at the last minute. He performed a special Christmas concert at the London Palladium in December as the final night of his 2011 performances. The following day it was announced that he would be undertaking summer shows as part of the Forestry Commission's summer concert programme, also at Cornbury Festival. 2012 singles releases were Losing Myself and I Just Want a Lover with trademark unique accompanying videos. On 8 November 2012, it was announced Young had left his record company after being with them since winning Pop Idol over ten years ago and signed with Island Records. On Good Morning Britain, Young announced that he was recording his sixth studio album. On 25 March 2015, he announced on his Instagram account that the title of the new album will be 85% Proof. It was released on 25 May. The final single from 85% Proof was "What the World Needs Now", written by Burt Bacharach, which he released towards the end of 2015 as part of WWF's campaign to raise awareness for declining wildlife populations across the globe. 2019–present: Lexicon, Crying on the Bathroom Floor and 20 Years: The Greatest Hits Young's album Lexicon was released on 21 June. Young also released the lead single "All the Songs" from the album the same day and announced he would be embarking on a tour in October 2019 in support of the album. Young had stated in an interview he had no intentions of releasing any more records as he was focusing on acting and his podcast series, however after going into the studio with old friend and producer Richard X the lead single was recorded and the album naturally followed. On 26 March 2021 Young announced the release of his eighth studio album Crying on the Bathroom Floor, which was released on 6 August 2021. Following the release, Young said: "I loved the idea of creating an album that celebrates some of the modern female artists I so admire in pop. In today's times it's so much easier and accepted to occupy other genders, ideas and explore new avenues. I wanted to understand what it might be like to sing their lyrics. A song about a boy called Daniel; crying on the bathroom floor, feeling like Elizabeth Taylor. This is not a covers album as such, well certainly not in the standard way. I wanted to bring songs from female artists who I admire into a new arena. I wanted to work with Richard X again and create a true pop record." "Daniel", the lead single taken from the album, was released on 26 April 2021, with the official video released on the same day. The second song to be lifted from the album was "Elizabeth Taylor", a cover of the Clare Maguire track which was released on 28 May. The title track (a cover of the 2017 Muna single) was released on 8 July 2021. On 25 October 2021, Young announced the compilation 20 Years: The Greatest Hits for release on 27 May 2022, marking 20 years since he won Pop Idol. The album will include his greatest hits alongside two new tracks. Young also plans to tour in support of the album in October 2022. In 2022 Young completed in the third series of The Masked Singer as "Lionfish". He beat Firework in a face-off, but was unmasked. Other ventures Acting career Young added acting to his repertoire when he accepted a role in the BBC film Mrs. Henderson Presents, starring Judi Dench and Bob Hoskins, in which he played Bertie. The film was released in the UK in November 2005 to excellent reviews—not least for Young's performance as both actor and singer in the film. The scene in which Young appears naked postdated his "absolutely thrilled" acceptance of the British male Rear of the Year Award 2005, an accolade to add to the Most Stylish Male Music Star, Best Bod, Sexiest Star, Best Dressed and Best Hair awards he had already won. Young was an Executive Producer for Ralph Fiennes production of Shakespeare's Coriolanus filmed in Serbia, and his documentary on the making of the film features on its DVD release. He was to have a small role in the film as a reporter on the conflict as well as being Executive Producer, but it was decided that his appearance was a "distraction" and it did not make the final cut of the film. Young trod the boards in the Royal Exchange Theatre's production of The Vortex by Noël Coward. This production ran from January to March 2007 and Young played the leading role of Nicky Lancaster. Critics, including Nicholas de Jongh, were very positive. He recently appeared in the musical Cabaret in London, after a short nationwide tour. This marked his West End debut. He was awarded the What's on Stage award for London Newcomer of the Year. He was also nominated for the 2013 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical, but lost out to Michael Ball. Young also appeared in the Marple drama "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side" and guest starred in an episode of Skins in 2010. In 2011, he starred in a new drama series on Sky Living called Bedlam, about supernatural happenings taking place at a disused asylum being converted into loft-style apartments. The £3 million six-part series began airing on 7 February 2011. It was distributed by BBC Worldwide. Young was a guest on Top Gear during season 12 episode 2 and set the fastest wet lap around the track in the Chevrolet Lacetti. On 31 October 2011, Young was also the guest host of Never Mind the Buzzcocks. In November 2004, Young presented a documentary entitled Runaways as part of the Children in Need campaign, highlighting the problems facing distressed teens who run away from home, and the plight they were in being picked up off the streets and railway stations by pimps who offered them work and drugs. The children did not know where to go for immediate help unless they were picked up by the police and sent to a refuge centre. During June 2007 a series of documentaries entitled Saving Planet Earth was shown on BBC Television. Young filmed an episode about saving the gorillas of West Africa during his visit to Africa earlier in the year. In March 2009, ITV1 arts programme, The South Bank Show presented an hour long fly on the wall documentary about Young that they had been filming over the course of the year as he returned to promote the Let It Go album. It showed him in Iceland filming the video for the "Let It Go" single, backstage before his performance on The X Factor and on his UK theatre tour from November 2008 amongst other segments. In August 2011, ITV based an hour-long programme on Young, entitled A Night with Will Young. This was to promote the release of his most recent album Echoes. In October 2007, Young narrated an audio version of the Roald Dahl novel Danny, the Champion of the World. Young was made a "Companion" of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts in 2009. Other activities On 27 October 2008, Young spoke on Celebrity at the Oxford Union, where he showed an interest in forming a band named 'Will Young and the Credit Crunchers'. He was invited to appear on Question Time after he revealed he was a fan of the show. He participated in the edition from Dunstable, Bedfordshire, in February 2009 and March 2012 Young supports the charity Women's Aid, about which he wrote, "I am proud to put my name beside this cause, and hope that I might be able to help more people affected by the terrors of domestic violence, as well as help to create a wider awareness within our society." Young also supports Mencap—about which he wrote, "I'm very much in this for the long term, and I'd like to help continue to break down peoples' misconceptions and prejudices"—The Children's Society Safe and Sound Campaign, and Positive Action Southwest (PASW), for which he performed at his first solo concert, in July 2003, at Killerton House, Exeter. Young has been an ambassador for the Prince's Trust since 2002, and performed at the 30th anniversary concert in the grounds of the Tower of London. Together with Dame Helen Mirren, Helena Bonham Carter and Martin Freeman, Young appeared in a series of advertisements during the Christmas period 2007 for Oxfam; "Oxfam Unwrapped". Young is the ambassador for Mood Foundation, a charity which aims to build a database of private therapists and alternative therapies to treat various types of depressive conditions. It was set up by Young's twin brother Rupert Young. Young is an ambassador for Catch22, a UK young people's charity, which supports young people in tough situations. The young people may come from tough upbringings or districts, where poverty, crime and unemployment are common features. They may be leaving care, truanting, or have been excluded from school. Some of them have started getting into trouble with the police or may have got as far as custody. In April 2011 Young ran the London Marathon for Catch22, competing again for the charity in 2012. On 18 April 2012, Young confirmed he would be releasing his first autobiography. The book was published by Sphere on 11 October 2012 entitled Funny Peculiar. As of March 2014, Young accepted the opportunity to become a spokesperson for the non-for-profit charity organisation gAID. Similar to Woman AID, gAID focuses on domestic violence in homosexual relationships. In August 2016, Young was announced as a contestant participating in the fourteenth series of Strictly Come Dancing. After having competed, with professional dancer Karen Clifton, over the first three weeks of the show, on 11 October he announced that he was quitting the show for "personal reasons". Young is a longtime supporter of wildlife charities, including WWF. He released What the World Needs Now in late 2015, from the album 85% Proof, to raise awareness and funds for declining wildlife populations around the world, saying, "It's shocking to think that in my lifetime global wildlife populations have declined by over 50% and our forests and oceans remain at risk." The music video, produced by WWF, was aired on UK television in late 2015. Young confirmed on 1 September 2020 during BBC2's Newsnight interview that his new book 'To Be a Gay Man' will be published by Virgin Books on 3 September 2020. In it, he writes of the Chris Moyles "rampage of homophobia" in 2009, live on BBC Radio1 which left Young "aghast" and unable to speak out against it, at the time. Personal life In March 2002 after winning Pop Idol, Young publicly came out as gay, pre-empting a tabloid newspaper from outing him. He also stated that he had never hidden it and was comfortable with his sexual orientation. As of 2017 Young was in a relationship. Young's main home is a house in Dalston, East London. He also owns a 17th-century cottage in the middle of Bodmin Moor, Cornwall where he is a keen gardener. On 4 August 2020, it was confirmed that Young's twin brother, Rupert, had died, aged 41. A spokesperson for the family shared, "Will's relationship with Rupert had been tough over the years at times, and they had both spoken about the mental health problems which had made it challenging ... there were hopes he had turned a corner and they are a very loving family - and utterly devastated by his passing." In April 2021, Young opened up about his experience at prep school, claiming to have suffered from PTSD. “I’ve been thinking a lot about prep school, and wondering if any of those institutions will be brought to justice for the things that I saw happen...kids thrown against radiators. Other things I can't talk about.” Young also remembered drunk teachers “rolling around dormitories”, and one “you wouldn't go for a ride with”... Teachers looking at our penises in the shower, in the bath...There was such a sense of injustice from things that I experienced and witnessed...I think I escaped – not that it didn't damage me.” Discography From Now On (2002) Friday's Child (2003) Keep On (2005) Let It Go (2008) Echoes (2011) 85% Proof (2015) Lexicon (2019) Crying on the Bathroom Floor (2021) Tours Headlining Will Young Live Keep On Live Let It Go Tour The Hits Tour Echoes Tour Love Revolution Tour An Evening with Will Young An Intimate Evening with Will Young 20 Years Tour Co-headlining Pop Idol Tour (with Jessica Garlick, Korben, Zoe Birkett, Gareth Gates, Hayley Evetts, Laura Doherty, Aaron Bayley, Darius Danesh and Rosie Ribbons) Will & Gareth Live (with Gareth Gates) Filmography Accolades BT Digital Music Awards Launched in 2002, the BT Digital Music Awards were held annually in the United Kingdom. !Ref. |- |2003 |rowspan=2|Himself |rowspan=2|Artist of the Year | | |- | rowspan=4|2004 | | |- | "Friday's Child" | Best Music Video | | Brit Awards The Brit Awards are the British Phonographic Industry's (BPI) annual pop music awards. !Ref. |- | rowspan=3|2003 | "Anything is Possible" |British Single of the Year | |rowspan=3| |- | rowspan=4|Himself |British Breakthrough Act | |- |Best Pop Act | |- |2004 | rowspan=2|British Male Solo Artist | | |- |rowspan=3|2005 | |rowspan=3| |- |"Leave Right Now" | British Song of 25 Years | |- |"Your Game" |British Single of the Year | |- |2006 | Himself | British Male Solo Artist | | |- |2007 |"All Time Love" |British Single of the Year | | |- |2009 | Himself | British Male Solo Artist | | Gay Music Chart Awards !Ref. |- | rowspan=4|2015 | rowspan=4|"Brave Man" | Best Transgender Music Video | | rowspan=4| |- | Best Song/Music Video with a Message | |- | Best Song | |- | Best British Music Video | Camerimage Camerimage is a Polish film festival dedicated to the celebration of cinematography. !Ref. |- |2008 |"Changes" | Best Cinematography | | D&AD Awards Design and Art Direction (D&AD) is a British educational charity which exists to promote excellence in design and advertising. !Ref. |- | rowspan=2|2009 | rowspan=2|"Changes" | Best Music Video | style="background:#BF8040"| Wood Pencil | |- | Best Cinematography | style="background:#FFBF00"| Yellow Pencil | Popjustice £20 Music Prize The Popjustice £20 Music Prize is an annual prize awarded by a panel of judges organized by music Web site Popjustice to the singer(s) of the best British pop single of the past year. To qualify, a single must be by (a) British artist(s) and have been released within the 12 months before the award nominations in July. ! Ref. |- | 2004 | "Leave Right Now" | rowspan=3|Best British Pop Single | | rowspan=3| |- | 2006 | "Who Am I" | |- | 2012 | "Jealousy" | Silver Clef Awards !Ref. |- | 2004 | Himself | Artist of the Year | | Smash Hits Poll Winners Party The Smash Hits Poll Winners Party was an awards ceremony held annually by British magazine Smash Hits, and broadcast on BBC One. !Ref. |- | rowspan=6|2002 | rowspan=4|Himself | Best Newcomer | |rowspan=6| |- | Best Live Act | |- | Most Fanciable Male | |- | Best Male Solo | |- | "Evergreen" | Best Single | |- | From Now On | rowspan=2|Best Album | |- | 2004 | Friday's Child | | The Record of the Year The Record of the Year was an award voted by the UK public. The award began in 1998, and was televised on ITV before being dropped in 2006 after disagreements over the phone voting element. Since then it has been an online poll, administered through the Record of the Year website. In 2013, it was axed, signaling the end of the award. ! Ref. |- | 2002 | "Evergreen" | rowspan=2|The Record of the Year | | rowspan=2| |- | 2004 | "Leave Right Now" | Top of the Pops Awards The Top of the Pops Awards were awarded annually by television programme Top of the Pops. !Ref. |- | rowspan=4|2002 | rowspan=3|Himself | Top Fan Site | | |- | Best Pop Act | | |- | Best Newcomer | | |- | "Evergreen" | Best Single | | |- | rowspan=6|2003 | rowspan=4|Himself | Singer of the Year | | |- | Best Newcomer | | |- | Best Official Site | | |- | Best Fan Site | | |- | rowspan=2|"Leave Right Now" | Song of the Year | | |- | Video of the Year | | UK Music Video Awards The UK Music Video Awards is an annual award ceremony founded in 2008 to recognise creativity, technical excellence and innovation in music videos and moving images for music. ! Ref. |- | 2008 | rowspan=2|"Changes" | UK Music Video Awards - People's Choice Award | |rowspan=5| |- | rowspan=3|2009 | rowspan=2|Best Pop Video | |- | rowspan=2|"Let It Go" | |- | Best Cinematography In A Video | |- | rowspan=3|2012 | rowspan=3|"Losing Myself" | Best Choreography in a Video | |- | Best Pop Video - UK | |rowspan=2| |- | Best Telecine in a Video | Laurence Olivier Awards The Laurence Olivier Award is presented annually by the Society of London Theatre (SLT) to recognize excellence in professional theater. Named after the renowned British actor Laurence Olivier, the awards are a UK equivalent of Broadway's Tony Awards. ! Ref. |- | 2013 | Cabaret | Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical | | See also List of British actors References External links Official website Will Young discography at Discogs. . Will Young Tour Review on the Daily Music Guide, 6 November 2008. The Big Interview on Monocle 24 with Georgina Godwin Interview with Will Young on the Daily Music Guide, 8 November 2008. 1979 births Living people 21st-century British male actors 21st-century British singers 21st-century British male singers 19 Recordings artists Alumni of the University of Exeter Brit Award winners British feminists British male film actors British male stage actors British pop singers English gay actors English gay musicians Feminist musicians Jive Records artists LGBT musicians from England LGBT musicians from the United Kingdom LGBT singers from the United Kingdom Musicians from Berkshire Participants in British reality television series People educated at the Arts Educational Schools People educated at Wellington College, Berkshire People from Hungerford People from Reading, Berkshire People from Wokingham Pop Idol winners RCA Records artists Twin male actors Twin musicians Twin people from England 20th-century LGBT people 21st-century LGBT people

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20places%20named%20after%20people

List of places named after people

There are a number of places named after famous people. For more on the general etymology of place names see toponymy. For other lists of eponyms (names derived from people) see eponym. Continents Americas (North America and South America) – Amerigo Vespucci Countries This is a summary of country name etymologies. Bharat – original name for India, derived from either Dushyanta's son Bharata or Rishabha's son Bharata Bolivia – Simón Bolívar Cambodia – Kambu Svayambhuva Colombia – Christopher Columbus (after the Italian version of his name, Cristoforo Colombo) Cook Islands – Captain James Cook Dominican Republic – Saint Dominic El Salvador – "The Saviour", Jesus Eswatini (Swaziland) – Mswati II Israel – Jacob (alternative name) Kiribati – Thomas Gilbert Liechtenstein – Anton Florian of Liechtenstein Marshall Islands – John Marshall Mauritius – Maurice of Nassau Mozambique – Mussa Bin Bique Philippines – Philip II of Spain Saint Kitts and Nevis – Saint Christopher Saint Lucia – Lucy of Syracuse (?) Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Saint Vincent San Marino – Saint Marinus São Tomé and Príncipe – Saint Thomas Saudi Arabia – Muhammad bin Saud Seychelles – Jean Moreau de Sechelles Solomon Islands – Solomon Uzbekistan- Öz Beg Khan of Golden Horde Former countries Principality of Antioch, now part of Turkey – Antiochus, father of Seleucus I Nicator Lotharingia (Lorraine), now part of Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands – Lothair I Northern Rhodesia (Now Zambia) – Cecil Rhodes Southern Rhodesia (Now Zimbabwe) – Cecil Rhodes Terra Mariana ("Land of Mary") (Now Estonia and Latvia) – Mary, mother of Jesus Self-governing overseas territories Bermuda – Juan de Bermúdez (British overseas territory) Falkland Islands – Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland (British overseas territory) Gibraltar – Tariq ibn Ziyad (from the Arabic Jabal Tariq, meaning The Mountain of Tariq. British overseas territory) Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha – Helena of Constantinople, and Tristão da Cunha (British overseas territory) South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands – George III of the United Kingdom, and John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich respectively (British overseas territory) "Lands" of Antarctica Adélie Land – Adèle Dumont d'Urville Edward VII Land – King Edward VII Queen Maud Land – Queen Maud of Norway Ross Dependency – James Clark Ross Victoria Land – Queen Victoria Towns and cities Caesarea (various cities in various countries) – Julius Caesar or Roman emperors Afghanistan Ahmad Abad, Afghanistan – Ahmad Shah Massoud Ahmad Shah Baba Mina – Ahmad Shah Durrani Ai-Khanoum, formerly named Alexandria on the Oxus – Alexander the Great Ayub Khan Mena (Kabul) – Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan) Ghaziabad, Kunar – Amir Muhammad Ghazi Khan Shaheed (died in 1980s) Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town – Amanullah Khan Jalalabad – Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar Jamal Mena, Kabul – Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī Kandahar – Alexander the Great Khwaja Bahauddin District- Khwaja Bahauddin, Naqshband of Turkistan Khushal Khan Mena – Khushal Khattak Mohammad Agha District – Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, a founder of the Qajar dynasty Nadir Shah Kot District – Mohammed Nadir Shah Sheberghan – Shapur II Sher Khan Bandar – Sher Khan Nashir Wazir Akbar Khan, Kabul and Wazirabad, Kabul – Wazir Akbar Khan Albania Ali Demi (neighborhood) – Ali Demi Asim Zeneli (Albania) – Asim Zeneli, Albanian hero Bajram Curri (town) – Albanian activist of Independence Bajram Curri Blloku Vasil Shanto – Vasil Shanto, Albanian hero Don Bosco (Tirana) – John Bosco Kastriot, Albania – George Kastrioti Skanderbeg Mihal Grameno (neighborhood) – Mihal Grameno Skënderbegas – George Kastrioti Skanderbeg Algeria Abdelkader Azil – Abdelkader Azil (1927–1959), Algerian activist Abou El Hassen – Abu al-Hassan (1934–1962), Algerian independence hero Ahmed Rachedi, Mila – Ahmed Rachedi (1930–1957), Algerian revolutionary martyr Assi Youcef – Bouiri Boualem (Youcef) (1927–1960), Algerian military Bekkouche Lakhdar – Bekkouche Lakhdar (d.1958), Algerian martyr Belouizdad, Algiers – Algerian militant and nationalist Mohamed Belouizdad Benabdelmalek Ramdane – Abdelmalek Ramdane (d.1954), first martyr of the revolution Bennasser Benchohra – Al-Nasser Bin Fameh (1804–1884) Bordj Badji Mokhtar – Badji Mokhtar (1919–1954), Algerian revolutionary Bordj Emir Khaled – Khalid ibn Hashim, grandson of the military leader Abd al Qadir Bordj Omar Driss – Commander Omar Driss (1931–1959) Bouraoui Belhadef – Bouraoui Ali Ben Cherif, a local hero of the national liberation war Constantine (Algeria) – Constantine the Great Didouche Mourad – Mourad Didouche, a veteran of the Algerian War of independence El Emir Abdelkader, Aïn Témouchent and Emir Abdelkader, Jijel – Emir Abdelkader Hassani Abdelkrim – Hassani Abdul Karim (d.1960) Hussein Dey (commune) – Hussein Dey Méchraâ Houari Boumédienne – Houari Boumédiène, President of Algeria Messaoud Boudjeriou – Messaoud Boudjeriou (1930–1961), Algerian revolutionary Mohammed Boudiaf (M'Sila) – Mohamed Boudiaf, President of Algeria Mostefa Ben Brahim, Sid Bel Abbés – Mostefa Ben Brahim (1800–1867), Algerian poet Ramdane Djamel – Ramdane Ahcène (1934–1962), hero of the national liberation Salah Bey (town) – Salah Bey ben Mostefa Salah Bouchaour – Salah Bouchaour (1933–1962), Algerian revolutionary martyr Sidi Bel Abbès – Sidi Bel Abbès El Bouzidi (d.1780), a Muslim marabout Sidi M'Hamed – Sidi M'hamed Bou Qobrine Zighoud Youcef (Town) – Youcef Zighoud, guerrilla leader Zmalet El Emir Abdelkader – Emir Abdelkader Angola Comandante Valódia (Luanda) – Joaquim Domingos Augusto "Valódia" (died 1975), one of the prominent generals during the Angolan War of Independence Moçâmedes – Governor General of Angola, José D'Almeida Vasconcelos de Oliveira de Soveral e Carvalho, Baron of Mossâmedes (died 1805) Nelito Soares (Luanda) – Nelito Soares (1943–1975), Angolan revolutionary Patrice Lumumba, Luanda – Patrice Lumumba, Congolese Prime Minister Porto Alexandre, Angola - James Edward Alexander Rocha Pinto (Luanda) – João Teixeira Pinto Sá da Bandeira (Huambo) - Bernardo de Sá Nogueira de Figueiredo, 1st Marquis of Sá da Bandeira Viana, Luanda – Governor General of Angola, Horácio José de Sá Viana Rebelo (1910–1995) Former: Carmona was the name of Uíge - Oscar Carmona, Portuguese President Henrique de Carvalho was the name of Saurimo - Henrique de Carvalho (1844-1909) Sá da Bandeira was the name of Lubango - Bernardo de Sá Nogueira de Figueiredo, 1st Marquis of Sá da Bandeira Serpa Pinto was the name of Menongue - Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Portuguese explorer Silva Porto was the name of Cuito - António da Silva Porto Vila Arriaga was the name of Bibala - Portuguese President Manuel José de Arriaga Vila Gago Coutinho was the name of Lumbala N'guimbo - Carlos Viegas Gago Coutinho Villa João de Almeida was the name of Chibia - João de Almeida (1873-1953), Portuguese military Vila Pereira d'Eça was the name of Ondjiva - António Júlio da Costa Pereira de Eça Vila Robert Williams was the name of Caála - Sir Robert Williams, 1st Baronet, of Park Vila Roçadas was the name of Xangongo - José Augusto Alves Roçadas Vila Salazar was the name of N'dalatando - António de Oliveira Salazar, Portuguese dictator Vila Teixeira da Silva was the name of Bailundo - Francisco Teixeira da Silva (1826-1894), Portuguese colonial administrator Andorra Meritxell – Our Lady of Meritxell Antigua and Barbuda Codrington, Antigua and Barbuda – Christopher Codrington Argentina Avellaneda – Nicolás Avellaneda Doctor Atilio Oscar Viglione – Atilio Oscar Viglione (1914–2010), Governor of Chubut (General) Belgrano – Many cities and towns after Manuel Belgrano Castelli – Many places after Juan José Castelli Ciudad Evita (means Evita City) – Eva Perón, First Lady of Argentina General Pueyrredón – second-level administrative subdivision named after Juan Martín de Pueyrredón Las Heras – Many places after Juan Gregorio de las Heras Presidencia de la Plaza – Victorino de la Plaza, President of Argentina Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña – Roque Sáenz Peña, President of Argentina Presidente Perón Partido – Juan Domingo Peron, President of Argentina Pueblo Illia (Misiones) – Arturo Umberto Illia, President of Argentina Rafaela, Santa Fe Province – Rafaela Rodríguez de Egusquiza Rawson – Guillermo Rawson Rivadavia Department – Many cities and towns after Bernardino Rivadavia, First President of Argentina Rosario Vera Peñaloza Department – Rosario Vera Peñaloza (1873–1950), Argentine teacher (General) San Martín – Many cities and towns after José de San Martín Sarmiento – Many municipalities and cities after Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Trelew – Lewis Jones Uriburu, La Pampa – Jose Felix Uriburu, President of Argentina Vicente López, Buenos Aires – Vicente López y Planes Villa General Mitre – Bartolomé Mitre formerly: Ciudad Eva Perón (means Eva Perón City) – Eva Perón, First Lady of Argentina; now La Plata Armenia Abovyan and Abovyan, Ararat – Khachatur Abovyan, writer Anushavan – Dr. Anushavan Galoyan (1901–1945), World War II hero Artashat (Artaxata) – Artaxias I, Armenian king Baghramyan, Ararat, Baghramyan, Armavir and Baghramyan, Echmiadzin – Hovhannes Bagramyan, Armenian marshal and military commander Bagratashen – Bagrat Vardanian (1894–1971), hero of Socialist Labor Beniamin – Beniamin Galstian (1902–1942), World War II general Charentsavan – Yeghishe Charents, poet Chkalov, Armenia and Chkalovka – Valery Chkalov, Russian pilot David Bek, Armenia – Davit Bek, Armenian patriot Dimitrov, Armenia – Georgi Dimitrov, Bulgarian Communist leader Ferik – Ferik Polatbekov (1897–1918), revolutionary and poet Fioletovo – Ivan Fioletov, socialist martyr and Baku Commissar Gagarin, Armenia – Yuri Gagarin, Russian cosmonaut Gharibjanian – Bagrat Gharibjanian (1890–1920), Bolshevik martyr Ghukasavan – Ghukas Ghukasian (1899–1920), founder of Armenia's Communist Youth Movement Griboyedov, Armenia – Alexandr Griboyedov, Russian diplomat and author Gusanagyugh – "Gusan" (given name: Nakhshikar Sargis), bard Imeni Kirova, Armenia – Sergey Kirov, Bolshevik leader Imeni Tairova – Alexander Tairov, Armenian theater director Isahakyan – Avetik Isahakyan, poet Kamo, Armenia – Kamo (Bolshevik) (1882–1922), nom de guerre of Simon Ter-Petrossian Khanjian, Armenia – Aghasi Khanjian, first secretary of the Armenian Communist Party Kuchak – Nahapet Kuchak, 16th-century bard Kuybyshev, Armenia – Valerian Kuybyshev, Russian politician Lermontovo – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian writer and poet Lukashin and Lukashin, Yerevan – Sargis Lukashin, Armenian prime minister Martiros, Vayots Dzor – Armenian Prince Martireni, who was martyred against Persian forces Martuni, Armenia, Martuni (village) and Myasnikyan – Aleksandr Myasnikyan, first Communist president of Armenia, whose nom de guerre was "Martuni" Mayakovski, Armenia – Vladimir Mayakovsky, Russian poet Mergelyan (Yerevan) – Sergey Mergelyan, Armenian scientist Mikhaylovka, Armenia – Timofei Mikhailov, Russian revolutionary and regicide Mkhchyan – after an Armenian commander Musayelyan, Ashotsk – Capt. Sargis Musayelian (1882–1920), Bolshevik military leader Nagapetavan – Nahapet Kurghinian, participant in the Bolshevik uprising in May 1920 Nalbandyan, Armenia – Mikael Nalbandian, writer Narek, Ararat – Grigor Narekatsi, medieval monk and poet Nizami, Armenia – Nizami Ganjevi, Persian poet Paruyr Sevak, Armenia – Paruyr Sevak, poet Poselok Imeni Kalinina – Mikhail Kalinin, Soviet leader Pushkino, Armenia – Alexander Pushkin, Russian author and poet Sarukhan – Hovhannes Sarukhanian (1882–1920), Communist revolutionary Sayat-Nova, Armenia – Harutyun Sayatyan, poet Shahumyan, Ararat, Shahumyan, Armavir, Shahumyan, Lori, Shahumyan, Yerevan and Stepanavan – Stepan Shahumyan, Bolshevik commissar Spandaryan, Shirak, Spandaryan, Syunik and Surenavan – Suren Spandaryan, Armenian revolutionary Sverdlov, Armenia – Yakov Sverdlov, Bolshevik leader Tumanyan, Armenia – Hovhannes Tumanyan, writer Yenokavan – Enok Mkrtumian (1896–1920), early Communist Zhdanov, Lori – Andrei Zhdanov Former: Akhundov was the name of Punik – Mirza Fatali Akhundov, author Azizbekov was the name of Aregnadem – Meshadi Azizbekov, Soviet revolutionary Azizbekov was the name of Vayk – Meshadi Azizbekov Azizbekov was the name of Zarritap – Meshadi Azizbekov Batikian was the name of Gandzak, Armenia – Batik Batikian (1892–1920), Communist martyr Danushavan was the name of Aygehat – Danush Shahverdian, Armenian politician and diplomat Ghukasyan was the name of Ashotsk – Ghukas Ghukasian, founder of Armenia's Communist Youth Movement Imeni Beriya was the name of Shahumyan, Ararat – Lavrentiy Beria, Soviet politician and head of the secret police Imeni Beriya was the name of Zhdanov, Armavir – Lavrentiy Beria Imeni Stalina was the name of Sovkhoz Nomer Shest – Joseph Stalin Imeni Voroshilova was the name of Hatsik, Armavir – Kliment Voroshilov, Marshal of the Soviet Union Kalinin was the name of Noramarg – Mikhail Kalinin, Soviet leader Kalinino was the name of Tashir – Mikhail Kalinin Kamo was the name of Gavar – Kamo (Bolshevik) (1882–1922), nom de guerre of Simon Ter-Petrossian Kirov was the name of Amrakits – Sergey Kirov, early Bolshevik leader Kirov was the name of Taperakan – Sergey Kirov Kirovakan was the name of Vanadzor – Sergey Kirov Kirovka was the name of Mamai, Armenia – Sergey Kirov Kuybyshev was the name of Haghartsin, Armenia – Valerian Kuybyshev, Soviet leader Maksim Gorkiy was the name of Bovadzor – Maxim Gorky, Soviet author Mikoyan was the name of Yeghegnadzor – Anastas Mikoyan, Soviet leader Mravyan was the name of Yeghipatrush – Askanaz Mravyan, leader of Soviet Armenia Ordzhonikidze was the name of Vahan, Armenia – Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Soviet leader Samed Vurgun was the name of Hovk – Samad Vurgun, Soviet poet Shavarshavan was the name of Koti, Armenia – Shavarsh Amirkhanian, leader of the precursor to the Armenian KGB Spandaryan was the name of Silikyan – Suren Spandaryan, Armenian revolutionary Tumanyan was the name of Dsegh – Hovhannes Tumanyan, writer Vagharshapat was the name of Echmiadzin – King Vologases I (Vagharsh I) Vorontsovka was the name of Tashir – Prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov, viceroy of the Caucasus Australia Austria Amaliendorf-Aalfang – Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma Arnoldstein – Austrian knight and founder named Arnold Elisabeth-Vorstadt (Salzburg) – Empress Elisabeth of Austria Hugo Breitner Hof (Vienna) – Hugo Breitner (1873–1946), Social Democrat politician Jakomini – Kaspar Andreas von Jacomini (1726–1805), speculator Josefstadt – Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor Josef-Rautmann-Hof (Vienna) – Josef Rautmann (1890–1970) Kaisersdorf – Franz Joseph I of Austria Leopoldsdorf – Archduke Leopold Ferdinand of Austria Leopoldskron-Moos (Salzburg) – Leopold Anton von Firmian (1679–1744), Archbishop of Salzburg Leopoldstadt – Leopold I Holy Roman Emperor Per-Albin-Hansson-Siedlung (Wien) – Per Albin Hansson, Swedish politician Rennersdorf, Austria – Karl Renner Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus – Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria St. Pölten – The name Sankt Pölten is derived from Hippolytus of Rome. The city was renamed to Sankt Hippolyt, then Sankt Polyt and finally Sankt Pölten. Sankt Wolfgang-Kienberg – Wolfgang of Regensburg Wilhelmsburg, Austria – William, Duke of Austria Wilhelmsdorf (Wien) – Father Wilhelm Sedlaczek (1793–1848) Azerbaijan Bahamas George Town, Bahamas – George III of Great Britain Matthew Town – George Buckley-Mathew, Bahamian governor in 1844–1849 Nassau, Bahamas – William III of England Nicholls Town – Edward Nicolls Bahrain Hamad Town – Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifah Isa Town – Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifah Bangladesh Cox's Bazar – Captain Hiram Cox Faridpur District – Sufi saint Shah Fariduddin Masud, a follower of the Chishti order of Ajmer Madaripur District – Sufi saint 'Sayed Badiuddin Zinda Shah Madar Mostafapur Union – Sufi saint Shah Mustafa Moulvibazar, Moulvibazar Sadar, Moulvibazar District – Syed Moulvi Qudratullah Munsef, Muslim cleric and judge Mujibnagar – Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, President of Bangladesh Osmani Nagar Upazila – General M.A.G Osmani Pirojpur District – Firoz Shah Rajshahi District – the Puthia Raj family Shariatpur District – Haji Shariatullah, an eminent Islamic reformer of the Indian subcontinent in British India Sher-e-Bangla Nagar – A. K. Fazlul Huq, a Bengali lawyer, legislator and statesman Sherpur District – Sher Ali Gazi, the last jaghirdar of the Gazi dynasty Barbados Speightstown – William Speight (legislator) Belarus Barysaw – Boris-Rogvolod Vseslavich Braslaw – Bryachislav of Polotsk Budenovka (Minsk) - Semyon Budyonny Davyd-Haradok – Prince David Igorevich Dzyarzhynsk – Felix Dzerzhinsky Gusarovka (Gomel) – Nikolai Gusarov Kirawsk – Sergey Kirov Leninski, Belarus – Vladimir Lenin Molotovki (Mogilev) – Vyacheslav Molotov Belgium Albert Canal – Albert I of Belgium Charleroi – Charles II of Spain Geraardsbergen – Geraard van Hunnegem, a manor local Leopoldsburg – Leopold I of Belgium and Bourg, urban planner of the city Martelange – Martelius Philippeville – Philip II of Spain Quartier Marais-Jacqmain (Brussels) – Émile Jacqmain (1860–1933), Belgian engineer Quartier Midi-Lemonnier (Brussels) – Charles Lemonnier, Belgian liberal politician Saint-Georges-sur-Meuse – Saint George Saint-Gilles – Saint Giles Saint-Hubert – Hubertus Saint-Nicolas – Saint Nicholas Sint-Agatha-Berchem – Agatha of Sicily Sint-Amands – Saint Amand Sint-Gillis-Waas – Saint Giles Sint-Laureins – Lawrence of Rome Sint-Martens-Latem – Martin of Tours Sint-Niklaas – Saint Nicholas Sint-Pieters-Leeuw – Saint Peter Sint-Truiden – Trudo Woluwe-Saint-Lambert – Lambert of Maastricht Woluwe-Saint-Pierre – Saint Peter Belize Albert (Belize House constituency) – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale Flowers Bank – William Flowers (d.1786) Fort George (Belize House constituency) – George III of the United Kingdom Victoria Peak (Belize) – Queen Victoria Benin Malanville – Henri Malan, French Governor of Dahomey Bermuda Hamilton – Henry Hamilton Bhutan Jigme Dorji – King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck Wangdue Phodrang – Wangdi, boy playing in a river Bolivia Abel Iturralde Province – Abel Iturralde Palacios (1869–1935), Bolivian politician Alonso de Ibáñez Province – José Alonso de Ibáñez, resistance hero from Potosi Andrés Ibáñez Province – Andrés Ibáñez (1844–1877), leader of the federal revolution in Santa Cruz Ángel Sandoval Province – Dr. Angel Sandoval Peña (1871–1941) Aniceto Arce Province – Aniceto Arce Ruiz, President of Bolivia Antonio Quijarro Province – Dr. Antonio Quijarro Quevedo (1831–1903), Bolivian politician Azurduy Province – Juana Azurduy de Padilla, revolutionary guerrilla Bautista Saavedra Province – Bautista Saavedra Mallea, President of Bolivia Belisario Boeto Province – Belisario Boeto (1841–1900), Bolivian diplomat during a War of the Pacific Bernardino Bilbao Province – General Bernardino Bilbao Rioja (1895–1983), Bolivian military figure and politician Bolívar Province, Cochabamba – Simon Bolivar, Venezuelan military and political leader Burdett O'Connor Province – Francisco Burdett O'Connor, chronicler of the South American War of Independence and the making of Tarija Carlos Medinaceli (Potosi) – Carlos Medinaceli Lizarazu (1789–1841), Bolivian military Carrasco Province – Dr. Jose Carrasco Torrico (1863–1921), Vice president of Bolivia Cornelio Saavedra Province – Cornelio Saavedra, president of the Argentine First Junta Daniel Campos Province – Daniel Campos Cortes (1829–1902), Bolivian poet Eduardo Abaroa Province – Colonel Eduardo Abaroa, hero of the War of the Pacific El Carmen Rivero Tórrez (Santa Cruz) – Juan Rivero Tórres (1897–1951), a Bolivian engineer Eliodoro Camacho Province – Eliodoro Camacho, Bolivian politician, party leader, and presidential candidate Enrique Baldivieso Province – Enrique Baldivieso, Vice president of Bolivia under German Busch Esteban Arce Province – General Esteban Arce (1765–1815), Bolivian independence hero Eustaquio Méndez Province – Eustaquio Méndez Arenas (1784–1841), warrior leader of Tarija Franz Tamayo Province – Franz Tamayo, Bolivian intellectual, writer and politician Federico Román Province – General Federico Roman Calderon (1875–1943), Hero of the Chaco War Germán Busch Province – Germán Busch Becerra, former Bolivian military officer, hero of the Chaco War, and President of Bolivia Germán Jordán Province – Germán Jordán (1890–1932), a hero of the Chaco War Gualberto Villarroel Province – Gualberto Villarroel, President of Bolivia, who was killed in 1946 under his presidency Hernando Siles Province – Hernando Siles Reyes, President of Bolivia José Ballivián Province – José Ballivián, President of Bolivia José Manuel Pando Province – José Manuel Pando (1848–1917) president of Bolivia José María Avilés Province – General José María Avilés (1784–1838), a hero who was fighting during the Peru-Bolivian Confederation campaign José María Linares Province – José María Linares, President of Bolivia Ladislao Cabrera Province – Ladislao Cabrera, Bolivian hero during the War of the Pacific Loayza Province – Jose Ramon Loayza (1751–1839), President of Bolivia Luis Calvo – Luis Calvo Calvimontes (1879-1944), Bolivian lawyer and senator Manco Kapac Province – Manco Capac Manuel María Caballero Province – Manuel María Caballero (1819–1865), one of the signatories of the Bolivian constitution of 5 August 1861 Modesto Omiste Province – Modesto Omiste Tinajeros, Bolivian writer and politician Monseñor Salvatierra (Santa Cruz) – José Andrés de Salvatierra (1772–1862), Bolivian priest and independence hero Muñecas Province – Idelfonso de las Muñecas (1776–1816), priest and leader of the War of Independence Narciso Campero Province – Narciso Campero, President of Bolivia Nicolás Suárez Province – Nicolás Suárez Callaú Ñuflo de Chávez Province – conquistador Ñuflo de Chaves Obispo Santistevan Province – Monseñor José Belisario Santistevan Seoane (1843–1931) Oropeza Province – Samuel Oropeza (d.1907), an illustrious Bolivian statesman Padilla, Bolivia – Manuel Ascencio Padilla, an Upper Peruvian guerrilla chief Paz Estenssoro Viejo (Santa Cruz) – Victor Paz Estenssoro, President of Bolivia Puerto Siles – Hernando Siles Reyes Puerto Villarroel – Gualberto Villarroel, President of Bolivia Rafael Bustillo Province – Rafael Bustillo (1813–1873), Bolivian diplomat and foreign secretary Ramón Darío Gutiérrez (Itenez, Beni) – Ramón Darío Gutiérrez (1907–1987), minister of the interior Rufino Carrasco (Potosi) – Rufino Carrasco (1817–1891), Bolivian military during the war of the pacific San Ignacio de Velasco – José Miguel de Velasco Franco, President of Bolivia Sebastián Pagador Province – Sebastián Pagador Miranda (1733–1781), patriot of Upper Peru Sucre – Antonio José de Sucre Tomas Barrón Province – Colonel Tomas Barrón (d.1810), an Independence hero Tomás Frías Province – Tomás Frías Ametller, President of Bolivia Uriondo – Francisco Uriondo (1784–1822) Urriolagoitia, Chuquisaca – Mamerto Urriolagoitía Vaca Díez Province – Antonio Vaca Diez (1840–1897) Villa Abecia – Dr. Valentin Abecia (1846–1910) Villamontes – Ismael Montes, President of Bolivia Villazón – Eliodoro Villazón Warnes, Bolivia – Ignacio Warnes, military leader in the South American war of independence Bosnia and Herzegovina Mrkonjić Grad – King Peter I of Serbia who had taken the nom de guerre "Mrkonjić" while fighting against the Ottoman Empire Tomislavgrad – King Tomislav of Croatia or Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia Botswana Francistown – Daniel Francis (English prospector) Gaborone – Chief Gaborone Brazil For a longer list, please see List of places in Brazil named after people. Salvador, Brazil – Jesus (the Christian Savior) São Luís, Maranhão, Brazil – Louis IX of France (Saint Louis) São Paulo – Saint Paul Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan – Omar Ali Saifuddien III Bulgaria Anton, Sofia Province – partisan Stefan Minev "Anton" (1917–1944) Antonovo – Anton Krastev, who died in a battle of 1944 Asenovgrad – Tsar Ivan Asen II Aksakovo – Russian littérateur Ivan Aksakov Benkovski, Kardzhali Province – revolutionary Georgi Benkovski Blagoevgrad – Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party founder Dimitar Blagoev Botevgrad – Revolutionary and National Hero Hristo Botev Bratya Daskalovi – The Daskalovi brothers Dimitar, Ivan and Nikola Chervenkovtsi (Veliko Tarnovo) – Valko Chervenkov, Prime Minister of Bulgaria Dimitrovgrad – Communist leader and Prime Minister Georgi Dimitrov Dimovo – partisan Zhivko (Dimo) Puev Dobrich – 14th-century Dobrujan ruler Dobrotitsa Dospat – Despot Alexius Slav Dulovo, Bulgaria – early medieval Bulgarian Dulo clan Elena, Bulgaria – Bulgarian bride Elena Elin Pelin – writer Elin Pelin General Toshevo – General Stefan Toshev Georgi Damyanovo – Georgi Damyanov, President of Bulgaria in 1950 until 1958 Georgi Dobrevo – Georgi Dobrev (1893–1966), Bulgarian political figure Gotse Delchev – revolutionary Gotse Delchev Gurkovo – Iosif Gurko, one of Russian commanders in Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) Hadzhidimovo – leftist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) revolutionary Dimo Hadzhidimov Isperih – Khan Asparuh of Bulgaria Ivaylovgrad – Tsar Ivaylo of Bulgaria Kableshkovo (disambiguation) – revolutionary Todor Kableshkov Kapitan Andreevo – Bulgarian officer Nikola Kolev Andreev Krumovgrad – Khan Krum of Bulgaria Kubrat – Khan Kubrat of Bulgaria Kyustendil – 14th-century local feudal Constantine Dragaš Levski (town) – revolutionary and National Hero Vasil Levski Madzharovo – revolutionary Dimitar Madzharov (1882–1949) Momchilgrad – medieval Bulgarian ruler Momchil Nikola Kozlevo – Bulgarian National Revival revolutionary and writer Nikola Kozlev Omurtag – Khan Omurtag of Bulgaria Pavel Banya – St. Pavel (Paul) and Russian Tsar-Liberator's brother Prince Pavel Radomir (town) – Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria Rakovski – revolutionary Georgi Sava Rakovski Roman, Bulgaria – Tsar Roman of Bulgaria Samuil (village) – Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria Sandanski – revolutionary Yane Sandanski Shumen – Bulgarian emperor Simeon the Great Simeonovgrad – Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria St. Anastasia Island – Anastasia of Sirmium St. Ivan Island – St. John the Baptist Stamboliyski – Prime Minister of Bulgaria Aleksandar Stamboliyski Stambolovo, Haskovo Province – Prime Minister of Bulgaria Stefan Stambolov Stefan Karadzhovo – Bulgarian Revolutionary Stefan Karadzha Suvorovo – Alexander Suvorov, one of the famous Russian military commanders Tervel – Khan Tervel of Bulgaria Thompson – British officer William Frank Thompson Tsar Kaloyan – Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria Tsarevo – Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria Tsenovo, Ruse Province – Influential Svishtov merchant Dimitar Apostolov Tsenov (1852–1932) Velingrad – Bulgarian communist revolutionary Vela Peeva Yambol – Roman Emperor Diocletian Zhivkovo (Sofia) – Georgi Zhivkov (1844–1899), minister of education Former: Borisovgrad was the name of Parvomay – Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria Kolarovgrad was the name of Shumen – Vasil Kolarov Stalin was the name of Varna – Joseph Stalin Stanke Dimitrov was the name of Dupnitsa – revolutionary Stanke Dimitrov Tolbukhin was the name of Dobrich – Soviet marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin Burkina Faso Sankara, Burkina Faso – Thomas Sankara, Military, Revolutionary and President of Burkina Faso Cambodia Phnom Penh – said to be named for Lady Penh Sihanoukville (city) – King Norodom Sihanouk Canada Abbotsford, British Columbia – Harry Abbott (Canadian Pacific Railway superintendent) Abbotsford, Quebec – Rev. Joseph Abbott Alberta – Princess Louise Caroline Alberta Barkerville, British Columbia – Billy Barker English prospector Barrie, Ontario – Sir Robert Barrie or Captain A. Barry Bathurst, New Brunswick – Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst Brantford, Ontario – Joseph Brant Brockville, Ontario and Brock, Ontario – Isaac Brock Brooks, Alberta – Noel Edgell Brooks (railway engineer) Burnaby, British Columbia – Robert Burnaby Charlemagne, Quebec – Romuald-Charlemagne Laurier Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island – Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, consort of King George III of the United Kingdom Churchill, Manitoba – John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough Churchill Falls – Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom Collingwood, Ontario – Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood Dawson City – George Mercer Dawson Dollard-des-Ormeaux – Adam Dollard des Ormeaux Drummondville, Quebec – Gordon Drummond Edmundston, New Brunswick – Edmund Walker Head Fredericton, New Brunswick – Prince Frederick, Duke of York Halifax – George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax Hamilton, Ontario – George Hamilton Huntsville, Ontario – Captain George Hunt (settler) Joliette, Quebec – Barthélemy Joliette King George, Saskatoon – George VI of United Kingdom Kirkland, Quebec – Charles-Aimé Kirkland, a Canadian politician Kirkland Lake, Ontario – Ms. Winnifred Kirkland, secretary at the Ontario Department of Mines Kitchener, Ontario – Horatio Kitchener Lethbridge, Alberta – William Lethbridge Maberly, Ontario – William Maberly Markham, Ontario – William Markham Mont-Laurier, Quebec – Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Prime Minister of Canada Morrisburg, Ontario – James Morris Patricia, Alberta – Princess Patricia Peterborough, Ontario – Peter Robinson Port Alberni, British Columbia – Captain Pere d'Alberní Port Hope Simpson – John Hope Simpson, British liberal politician Port Moody, British Columbia – Richard Moody, first Lieutenant-Governor of the Colony of British Columbia. Prince Albert, Saskatchewan – Prince Albert Prince George, British Columbia – King George III Prince Rupert, British Columbia – Prince Rupert of the Rhine Sackville, New Brunswick - George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville Queen Elizabeth, Saskatoon – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother Regina, Saskatchewan – Queen Victoria Robert-Cliche Regional County Municipality – Robert Cliche, a Quebec politician, writer, lawyer and judge Selkirk, Manitoba – Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk Sherbrooke, Quebec and Sherbrooke, Nova Scotia – John Coape Sherbrooke Sydney, Nova Scotia – Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney Thompson, Manitoba – Dr. John F. Thompson (1881–1968), Inco's chairman Timmins, Ontario – Noah Timmins Vancouver, British Columbia – Captain George Vancouver, English explorer of Dutch descent (van Coevorden) Victoria, British Columbia – Queen Victoria Victoriaville, Quebec – Queen Victoria Wolfville, Nova Scotia – Elisha DeWolf Central African Republic Barthélemy Boganda Stadium – Barthélemy Boganda, First Prime Minister Carnot, Central African Republic – Sadi Carnot, French President Possel – Marshal Possel-Deydier, who was killed in combat against Rabih az-Zubayr at Kouno the year before Sibut – Adolphe Pierre Sibut Chad Faya-Largeau – French Colonel, Étienne Largeau (1867–1916) Former: Fort Archambault was the name of Sarh – Gustave Archambaud (1872–1899), French topographer Fort-Lamy was the name of N'Djamena – Amédée-François Lamy, an army officer Chile Capitán Prat Province – Arturo Prat, naval hero Candelario Mancilla – José Candelario Mancilla Uribe (1900–1967), Chilean inhabitant of Lake O'Higgins Cardenal Caro Province – José María Caro Rodríguez, first Cardinal of Chile Cochrane – Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, captain Diego de Almagro, Chile – Diego de Almagro Galvarino – Galvarino, Mapuche leader during the War of Arauco Gorbea – Andrés Antonio de Gorbea, founder and first dean of the Faculty of Mathematical and Exact Sciences of the University of Chile General Lagos – General Pedro Lagos, commander of Chilean troops in the Battle of Arica Lautaro – Lautaro, Mapuche leader during the War of Arauco Molina, Chile – Juan Ignacio Molina, Jesuit Osorno, Chile – Ambrosio O'Higgins, founder and Marquis of Osorno Padre Hurtado – Saint Alberto Hurtado Pedro Aguirre Cerda, Chile – Pedro Aguirre Cerda, President Puerto Ingeniero Ibáñez – Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, President Puerto Montt – Manuel Montt, President Puerto Saavedra – Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez, military figure who played a major role in the Occupation of the Araucanía Puerto Varas – Antonio Varas, minister of the interior Puerto Williams – Juan Williams Rebolledo, Chilean admiral San Fernando – Saint Ferdinand San Pedro de Atacama – Saint Peter Santiago – James, son of Zebedee (Saint James) Teodoro Schmidt – Teodoro Schmidt Valdivia – Pedro de Valdivia, conqueror of Chile Vicuña, Chile – Colonel Joaquín Vicuña Larraín, founder of a city Villa Frei (Coyhaique) – Eduardo Frei Montalva, President Villa O'Higgins – Bernardo O'Higgins, libertador of Chile China Gensi Township – Yang Gensi, Chinese military hero Jingyu, Jilin – General Yang Jingyu Leifeng Subdistrict – Lei Feng, Chinese hero Maoming – Chinese scholar and doctor Pan Maoming Qinhuangdao – Qin Shi Huang, First emperor of China Yingjun – Liu Yingjun (1945–1966), a Chinese military hero Zhidan County – Liu Zhidan, military strategist and high-ranking leader of the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army Zhongshan, Guangdong – Dr. Sun Yat-sen, President of the Republic of China Zichang County – Xie Zichang (1897–1935), Communist martyr Zuoquan County – Zuo Quan, a general in the Red Army during the Chinese revolution Colombia Democratic Republic of the Congo Cité Maman Mobutu (Kinshasa) – Marie-Antoinette Mobutu (1941–1977), First Lady of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Cité Mzee Laurent Désiré Kabila (Kinshasa) – Laurent-Désiré Kabila, President Kasa-Vubu, Kinshasa - Joseph Kasa-Vubu Lumumba (Lodja) – Patrice Lumumba, First Prime Minister Former: Albertville was the name of Kalemie – Albert I of Belgium Coquilhatville was the name of Mbandaka – Camille-Aimé Coquilhat Élisabethville was the name of Lubumbashi – Queen Elizabeth of Belgium Jadotville was the name of Likasi – Jean Jadot Léopoldville was the name of Kinshasa – Leopold II of Belgium Ponthierville was the name of Ubundu – Pierre Ponthier Stanleyville was the name of Kisangani – Henry Morton Stanley Republic of the Congo Brazzaville – Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza Lumumba (Point Noire) – Patrice Lumumba Costa Rica Abangares (canton) – Cacique Avancari Acosta (canton) – Tomás de Acosta y Hurtado de Mendoza (1747–1821), Governor of Province of Costa Rica Alfaro (Alajuela) – Juan Alfaro Ruiz (1810–1856), Costa Rican military and hero of the Filibuster war Alvarado (canton) – Presbyter Joaquin Alvarado Ruiz (d.1890) Anselmo Llorente District and Llorente District – Anselmo Llorente y La Fuente (1800–1871), Costa Rican Bishop Aserrí (canton) – Cacique Aczarri Bagaces – Cacique Bagatzi Barva – Cacique Barvak Biolley (Puntarenas) – Paul Biolley (1862–1908), Swiss educator and naturalist Blanco (Limon) – Maximo Blanco (1824–1886), Costa Rican military hero Bolívar District, Grecia - Simon Bolivar Carrillo (canton) – Braulio Carrillo Colina, a head of state of Costa Rica Cervantes District – Juan de los Santos Madriz y Cervantes Ciudad Cortés – León Cortés Castro. President of Costa Rica Ciudad Neily – Ricardo Neily Jop (1912–2000), a Lebanese citizen and founder of a city Curridabat – Cacique Corriava Daniel Oduber (Liberia) – Daniel Oduber Quirós Dota (canton) – Cacique Ota El Guarco (canton) – Cacique El Guarco Flores (canton) – Don Juan J.Flores Umaña (1843–1903), a Costa Rican physician Flores (Limon) – Alfredo González Flores Garcia Flamenco (Guanacaste) – Marcelino Garcia Flamenco (1888–1918), a Salvadoran teacher Goicoechea (canton) – Fray José Antonio de Liendo y Goicoechea Gutiérrez Braun District – Hernán Gutiérrez Braun (1902–1979), Costa Rican engineer Heredia, Costa Rica –Alonso Fernández de Heredia, a President of the Real Audiencia of Guatemala Jiménez (canton) – Jesús Jiménez Zamora President of Costa Rica Jiménez, Pococí – Jesús Jiménez Zamora President of Costa Rica León Cortés (canton) – León Cortés Castro Montes de Oca (canton) – Don Faustino Montes de Oca (1860–1902), a former congressional representative from the area Montezuma, Costa Rica – Moctezuma II, an Aztec Emperor Mora (canton) – Juan Rafael Mora Porras and Juan Mora Fernández Moravia (canton) – Juan Rafael Mora Porras, President of Costa Rica and National Hero Morazan (San Jose) – Francisco Morazan Naranjito de Aguirre – Rolando Aguirre Lobo (1918–1948) Oreamuno (canton) – Francisco María Oreamuno Bonilla, President of Costa Rica Osa (canton) – Cacique Osa Pérez Zeledón (canton) – Pedro Perez Zeledon (1854–1930), Jurist and diplomat Pittier District – Henri François Pittier Pococí (canton) – Cacique Pococi Puerto Jiménez – Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno President of Costa Rica Quesada, San Carlos – Napoleon Quesada Salazar (1873–1937), Poet Rincón Ulate (Sarchi) – Otilio Ulate Blanco Rio Jiménez, Limon – Jesús Jiménez Zamora President of Costa Rica Rivas, Costa Rica – Domingo Rivas Salvatierra (1836–1900) Rodríguez District - Herminio de Jesus Rodriguez Gonzalez (1892-1960) Santa Bárbara de Heredia – Saint Barbara Santa Ana (canton) – Saint Anne San Carlos (canton) – Saint Charles Borromeo Santo Domingo (canton), Costa Rica – Saint Dominic San Isidro (canton) – Saint Isidro Labrador San José, Costa Rica – Saint Joseph San Mateo de Alajuela – Saint Matthew San Pablo (canton) – Saint Paul of Tarsus San Rafael (canton) – Saint Raphael San Ramón, Costa Rica – Saint Raymond Nonnatus or Ramon Solis and Ramon Rodriguez, two prominent figures in San Ramon Valverde (San Ramon) – Carlos Luis Valverde (1903–1948), Costa Rican physician and revolutionary Vázquez de Coronado (canton) – Conquistador Juan Vázquez de Coronado Former: Aguirre (now Quepos) – Rolando Aguirre Lobo: a hero of Revolution of 1948 Alfaro Ruiz (now Zarcero) – Colonel Juan Alfaro Ruiz, a hero of the National Campaign of 1856 Valverde Vega (now Sarchí) – Dr. Carlos Luis Valverde Vega, a physician and founder of the Unión Médica Nacional (National Medical Union). Croatia Dinko Simunovic (Zagreb) – Dinko Simunovic, Croatian writer Ernestinovo – Mrs. Ernestina Klein Eugen Kvaternik (Zagreb) – Eugen Kvaternik, Croatian nationalist politician Ferdinandovac – Ferdinand I of Austria, President of the German Confederation, King of Hungary Generalski Stol – General Vuk Krsto Frankopan Ivan Mazuranic (Zagreb) – Ivan Mazuranic, Croatian poet, lawyer and politician Karlovac – King Charles II of Austria Maksimir – Maksimilijan Vrhovac, bishop of Zagreb Ošljak – Known in Italian and historical documents as Calugerà or Calogerà, after the Calogerà family who owned it Oton Zupancic (Zagreb) – Oton Zupancic, Slovene poet Tomislavovac – Tomislav of Yugoslavia Former: Kardeljevo was the name of Ploče from 1950 through 1954 and from 1980 through 1990 – Edvard Kardelj Titova Korenica was the name of Korenica from 1945 through 1997 – Josip Broz Tito Cuba Bartolomé Masó, Cuba – Bartolomé Masó Márquez, a Cuban patriot and President of Cuba Briones Montoto (Cuba) – Antonio Briones Montoto (1940–1967), Cuban revolutionary Calixto García, Cuba – Calixto García Iñiguez, an independence war hero Camilo Cienfuegos (Santa Cruz del Norte) – Camilo Cienfuegos, Cuban revolutionary Cárdenas, Cuba – Mateo de Cárdenas y Vélez de Guevara Central José Smith Comas (Cárdenas) – José Smith Comas (1932–1956) Cespedes, Cuba – Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, Father of the Cuban Fatherland and first President of Cuba Cienfuegos – José Cienfuegos Jovellanos, Captain General of Cuba Ciro Redondo – Ciro Redondo, a Cuban revolutionary Colón, Cuba – Christopher Columbus Emilio Córdova (Encrucijada) – Emilio Córdova Garcia (1938–1958) Frank País, Cuba – revolutionary Frank País Héctor Molina (San Nicolás) – Héctor Molina Riaño (1922–1958) Hermanos Saíz (San Juan y Martínez) – The Saiz Brothers who died in action in 1957 Heriberto Orellanes (La Sierpe) – Heriberto Felipe Orellana (1926–1959) Holguín – Captain García Holguín, Spanish military officer Jesús Menéndez – Cuban trade unionist Jesús Menéndez Larrondo Juan Gualberto Gómez (Matanzas) – Juan Gualberto Gómez Loynaz Hechavarría (Holguin) – Loynaz Hechavarría Cordovés (1911–1956) Manuel Sanguily (Ciego de Avila) – Manuel Sanguily (1848–1925) Mariel, Cuba – Cacique Marien Martí, Cuba – Cuban Independence Hero José Martí Niceto Pérez – Cuban peasant Niceto Perez Garcia Pablo de la Torriente Brau (Bahía Honda) – Pablo de la Torriente Brau (1901–1936) Pedro Betancourt – Pedro Betancourt Dávalos Piti Fajardo (Trinidad) – Manuel "Piti" Fajardo (1930–1960) Ramon Balboa (Cienfuegos) – Ramon Balboa Monzon (1939–1958) Raúl Hernández Vidal (San Antonio de los Baños) – Raúl Hernández Vidal (1948–1978), Cuban pilot Reynold García (Calimete) – Reynold García García (1922–1956) Sabino Hernández (Santo Domingo) – Sabino Hernandez Casal (died in 1959) Sandino, Cuba – Nicaraguan revolutionary Augusto César Sandino Santiago de Cuba – James, son of Zebedee Silvio Caro (Bahía Honda) – Silvio Nestor Caro (1943–1966) Curaçao Willemstad – William II, Prince of Orange or his son William III of England Cyprus Agios Athanasios, Cyprus – Athanasius of Alexandria Ayios Dhometios – Saint Dometius of Persia Ethnomártyras Kyprianós (Strovolos) – Kyprianos of Cyprus Makarios (Kato Polemidia) – Makarios III Paphos – Paphos, daughter of Pygmalion (mythology) Czech Republic Adamov (Blansko District) – Adam Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein, ironworks owner Alojzov – Alois I, Prince of Liechtenstein Barrandov, Prague – Joachim Barrande Františkovy Lázně – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor Golčův Jeníkov – Martin Maxmillian Goltz, general of the Habsburg army Havlíčkův Brod – Karel Havlíček Borovský Jáchymov – St. Joachim Jindřichův Hradec – Jindřich z Hradce, owner of the castle in the town Fortress Josefov and Josefov (Prague) – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor Halasovo Kunštátsko – František Halas Karlín – Caroline Augusta of Bavaria Karlovy Vary – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor Karlštejn Castle and village – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor Mladá Boleslav – Boleslaus II of Bohemia Špindlerův Mlýn – Spindler, a miller Švermova (Bruntál) – Jan Šverma Stará Boleslav – Boleslaus I of Bohemia Terezín – Empress Maria Theresa of Austria Vítkov – Vítek z Kravař Žižkov – Jan Žižka Former: Gottwaldov was the name of Zlín from 1948 through 1990 – Klement Gottwald Denmark Albertslund – Albert de Rault de Ramsault de Tortonval (1778–1855), a French noble Augustenborg – Auguste, duchess of Schleswig-Holstein Carlsberg (district) – Carl Jacobsen, a Danish brewer, art collector and philanthropist Charlottenlund – Princess Charlotte Amalie of Denmark Christiania – Christian IV of Denmark Christiansfeld – Christian VII of Denmark Christianshavn – Christian IV of Denmark Dronninglund – Queen Charlotte Amalie Fredericia – King Frederick III of Denmark Frederiks – King Frederick VI of Denmark Frederiksberg – King Frederick IV of Denmark Frederikshavn – King Frederick VI of Denmark Frederikssund – Frederick III of Denmark Frederiksværk – King Frederick V of Denmark Karlslunde – Kalf Skurfa Liseleje – Elisabeth (Lise) Classen Mariager – Blessed Virgin Mary Marielyst – Marie Kørgensen In Greenland: Christianshåb (Inuit: Qasigiannguit) – King Christian VI of Denmark Frederikshåb (Inuit: Paamiut) – King Frederick V of Denmark Jakobshavn (Inuit: Ilulissat) – Jakob Severin, a fur trader In Bornholm: Gudhjem – God Dominica Salisbury, Dominica – Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury Scotts Head, Dominica – Colonel George Scott (British Army officer) Dominican Republic Cabral, Dominican Republic – José María Cabral Cabrera, María Trinidad Sánchez – General Jose Cabrera (d.1884), hero of the Dominican Restoration Castillo, Dominican Republic – General Manuel María Castillo, hero of the Dominican Restoration Cayetano Germosén – a Dominican patriot and martyr Ciudad Juan Bosch (Santo Domingo) – Juan Bosch (politician), Dominican President Colonia Libertador (Dajabon) – Rafael Trujillo (libertator) Comendador, Dominican Republic – Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres Duarte Province – Juan Pablo Duarte, founder of the Dominican Republic Duvergé – General Antonio Duvergé, Dominican independence hero Espaillat Province – Ulises Francisco Espaillat, 19th-century author and President Emma Balaguer Viuda Vallejo (Azua) – Emma Balaguer Vallejo (1911–1992), Joaquin Balaguer's sister Elupina Cordero de Las Cañitas (Hato Mayor) – Elupina Cordero (1892–1939), a Dominican catholic religious Gaspar Hernández – Gaspar Hernandez, a famous Dominican Priest in the war of independence from Haiti Galván, Dominican Republic – Manuel de Jesús Galván (1834–1910), Dominican writer Hermanas Mirabal Province – Mirabal sisters Hostos – Eugenio María de Hostos Imbert, Dominican Republic – José María Imbert Jimaní – Cacique Ximani Jose Francisco Pena Gomez (Pedernales) – Jose Francisco Pena Gomez, Dominican lawyer and politician Juan de Herrera, Dominican Republic – Juan de Herrera (Spanish farmer) Juan Rodríguez (La Vega) – General Juan Rodriguez Garcia (1886–1960), Dominican military and politician Loma de Cabrera and Cabrera, María Trinidad Sánchez – José Cabrera Gómez (1810–1884), Dominican independence hero Las Matas de Farfán – Bartolome Farfan de los Godos, Spanish merchant Luperón – Gregorio Luperón, Dominican general and statesman Mamá Tingó (Monte Plata) – Mamá Tingó, Dominican activist leader María Trinidad Sánchez Province – María Trinidad Sánchez, a female soldier in the wars of independence Mella, Independencia – Matías Ramón Mella Monseñor Nouel Province – Monseñor Dr. Adolfo Alejandro Nouel y Bobadilla, Archbishop of Santo Domingo and President Padre Las Casas, Dominican Republic – Bartolome de las Casas Pedro Brand – Peter Dorse Brand, a Californian miner Pedro Santana, Dominican Republic – Pedro Santana, first President of Dominican Republic Pepillo Salcedo, Dominican Republic – General José Antonio Salcedo Pimentel, Dominican Republic – Pedro Antonio Pimentel Presidente Don Antonio Guzmán Fernández (Duarte) – Antonio Guzman Fernandez, President of the Republic Ramón Santana – twin brother of Pedro Santana Salcedo, Dominican Republic – Francisco Antonio Salcedo San Antonio de Guerra – Hernando Guerra (founder) Sánchez, Dominican Republic – Francisco del Rosario Sánchez Sánchez Ramírez Province – Juan Sánchez Ramírez, hero of the Battle of Palo Hincado (1808) Santiago Rodríguez Province – Santiago Rodríguez, an officer of the Dominican army in the Dominican War of Independence Santo Domingo – Saint Dominic Valverde Province – José Desiderio Valverde Vicente Noble – General Vicente Noble, Dominican military Villa González – Manuel de Jesus Gonzalez Estevez (1862–1912), founder Villa Riva – Gregorio Riva (1833–1889), Dominican pioneer Villa Tapia – Doroteo Antonio Tapia (1844–1901), Hero of the Dominican Restoration War Villa Vásquez – Horacio Vásquez, President of the Dominican Republic Former: Benefactor Province was the name of San Juan Province (Dominican Republic) – Rafael Trujillo Ciudad Trujillo was the name of Santo Domingo – Rafael Trujillo José Trujillo Valdez Province was the name of Peravia Province – José Trujillo Valdez (1864–1935), Rafael Trujillo's father Julia Molina Province was the name of María Trinidad Sánchez Province – Altagracia Julia Molina (1863–1964), Rafael Trujillo's mother Pacificador Province was the name of Duarte Province – Ulises Heureaux (Peacemaker) San Rafael Province was the name of Elías Piña Province – Rafael Trujillo Villa José Trujillo Valdez was the name of Villa Jaragua – José Trujillo Valdez Villa Julia Molina was the name of Nagua – Altagracia Julia Molina East Timor Dom Aleixo Administrative Post – Aleixo Corte-Real Vila Salazar (Baucau) – António de Oliveira Salazar, a Portuguese statesman Former: Vila Armindo Monteiro was the name of Bobonaro - Armindo Monteiro (1896-1955), Portuguese university professor, businessman, diplomat, and politician Vila Eduardo Marques was the name of Bazartete - Eduardo Marques (1867-1944), Portuguese military and officer Vila Filomeno da Câmara was the name of Same, East Timor - Filomeno da Câmara de Melo Cabral (1873-1934), Governor of Portuguese Timor Vila General Carmona was the name of Aileu - Oscar Carmona, Portuguese president Vila Salazar was the name of Baucau - António de Oliveira Salazar Ecuador Egypt Alexandria – Alexander the Great El Mahmoudiyah – Muhammad Ali of Egypt Faiyum: formerly named Arsinoe – Arsinoe II of Egypt formerly named Ptolemais Euergetis – Ptolemy III Euergetes Ismailia – Isma'il Pasha Kafr El Sheikh – Sheikh Talha al-Tilmisani Port Fouad – Fuad I of Egypt Port Said – Sa'id of Egypt Port Tawfik – Tewfik Pasha Nasser, Egypt – Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser Sadat City – Egyptian President Anwar Sadat Saint Catherine, Egypt – Catherine of Alexandria Sheikh Zayed City – Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan Sheikh Zuweid – Sheikh Zuweid, a commander of the Rashidun Islamic army who fought during the Muslim conquest of Egypt Victoria (neighborhood) – Queen Victoria El Salvador Alegría, Usulután – Presbyter José Miguel Alegria (d.1859) Aguilares – Manuel Aguilar y Bustamante and his brothers Nicolas and Vicente Aguilar Bolívar, La Unión – Simon Bolivar Cabañas Department – José Trinidad Cabañas Carolina, San Miguel – Charles IV of Spain Ciudad Arce – Manuel José Arce, Salvadorian Independence hero Ciudad Barrios – General Gerardo Barrios, President of El Salvador Col. Borja Moran (Ahuachapan) – Dr. Alfonso Borja Moran (1897–1986), Salvadorian deputy Col Francisco Gavidia (San Miguel) – Francisco Gavidia, Salvadorian writer Col. Isidro Menendez (San Salvador) – Isidro Menendez (1795–1858) Colón, La Libertad – Christopher Columbus Comunidad Farabundo Martí (Santa Ana) – Farabundo Martí, Salvadorian revolutionary Delgado, San Salvador – José Matías Delgado, Salvadorian Independence hero La Reina, Chalatenango – Guatemalan resident, Maria Reina Morazán Department – Francisco Morazán Santa Ana, El Salvador – Saint Anne Santiago de María – Santiago González (politician), President of El Salvador with his daughter Maria Concepcion Gonzalez Fortis (1872–1943) San Antonio Pajonal – Antonio Gutiérrez y Ulloa San Cayetano Istepeque – Dr. Cayetano Molina, President of El Salvador San Fernando, Chalatenango – King Ferdinand VII of Spain San Fernando, Morazán – King Ferdinand III of Castile San Francisco Menéndez – Francisco Menéndez, President of El Salvador San Francisco Morazán – Francisco Morazán San Gerardo – Gerardo Barrios, President of El Salvador San Ildefonso, San Vicente – Saint Ildephonsus of Toledo San Jorge, San Miguel – Jorge Meléndez, President of El Salvador San Rafael, San Miguel – Doctor Rafael Zaldivar, President of El Salvador San Rafael Cedros – Dr. Rafael Zaldivar, President of El Salvador San Rafael Obrajuelo – Dr. Rafael Zaldivar San Ramón, Cuscatlán – Presbyter Ramon Garcia San Salvador, El Salvador – Jesus (the Christian Savior) San Vicente, El Salvador – Saint Vincent of Saragossa Segundo Montes, Morazán – Segundo Montes, a Jesuit priest and scholar at the Universidad Centroamericana "José Simeón Cañas" Victoria, Cabañas – Guadalupe Victoria, first President of Mexico Zaragoza, La Libertad – Emperor Caesar Augustus Equatorial Guinea Bioko – Adolfo Bioko, son of the King Möókáta Luba, Equatorial Guinea – Botuku Luba, who led a revolt against the Spanish in 1910 Malabo – Malabo Lopelo Melaka Moka, Equatorial Guinea – King Möókáta (d.1898) Estonia Anna – Saint Anne Järva-Jaani – John the Baptist Juhkentali – Lorenz Jauch, local landowner Kadriorg – Catherine I of Russia Karlova – Carl Gustav von Krüdener, local landowner Katleri – the Kattler family, local landowners Klooga and Kloogaranna – the Klugen noble family, local landowners Kolga-Jaani – John the Evangelist Kristiine – Christina, Queen of Sweden Maarja-Magdaleena – Mary Magdalene Maarjamäe – Marie, wife and/or daughter of Anatol Orlov-Davydov Madise – Saint Matthias Manilaid and Manija – Magnus, Duke of Holstein Peetri – Peter Peter, an 18th-century local farmer Pildiküla – Feliks Pilt (1906–1979), founder of a local housing estate Pirita – Bridget of Sweden Suure-Jaani – John the Evangelist Tondi and Tondiraba – Jobst Dunte, Tallinn Burgermeister Tartu – possibly after Tharapita, God of Estonian mythology Valga (Latvian: Valka) – possibly after the de Walko (de Walco) family, local landowners Former: Harju-Jaani was the name of Raasiku – John the Baptist Kingissepa was the name of Kuressaare – Viktor Kingissepp, Estonian revolutionary and communist Eswatini (Swaziland) Mbabane – Chief Mbabane Kunene Piggs Peak – William Pigg (Early resident) Ethiopia Debre Marqos – Saint Mark the Evangelist Habete Giorgis (Addis Adeba) – Habte Giyorgis Dinagde, Ethiopian military commander Lalibela – Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, Emperor of Ethiopia Ras Makonnen (Addis Adeba) – Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari Makonnen), Emperor of Ethiopia Sheikh Hussein – Sheikh Hussein (saint), a 13th-century Somali Muslim proselytizer Shire Inda Selassie – Imru Haile Selassie, Acting Prime Minister of Ethiopia Waliso – son of Liban, Waliso, an Oromo clan Falkland Islands Darwin – Charles Darwin Stanley – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby Weddell Island – James Weddell Keppel Island – Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel Saunders Island – Charles Saunders (Royal Navy officer) Finland Brahestad (Finnish: Raahe) – Peter Brahe, Governor-General of Finland Fredrikshamn (Finnish: Hamina) – King Frederick I of Sweden Hermanni (Helsinki) (Swedish: Hermanstad) – Herman Standertskjöld-Nordenstam (1854–1934) Jakobstad (Finnish: Pietarsaari) – Jacob De la Gardie (The city was founded by his widow – Ebba Brahe) Kaarina (Swedish: Sankt Karins) – Catherine of Alexandria Kristinestad (Finnish: Kristiinankaupunki) – Queen Christina of Sweden Loviisa (Swedish: Lovisa) – Lovisa Ulrika, Queen of Sweden Mariehamn (Finnish: Maarianhamina) – Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia Mikkeli (Swedish: Sankt Michel) – Archangel Michael Ullanlinna (Swedish: Ulrikasborg) – Ulrika Eleonora, Queen of Sweden Vaasa (Swedish: Vasa) – King Gustav I of Sweden France Albertville – Charles Albert of Sardinia Apatou - Apatou (captain) Carla-Bayle – Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), philosopher and writer Charleville-sous-Bois – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine Châtillon-Coligny – Gaspard de Coligny Crillon-le-Brave (the brave) – Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon Decazeville – Élie, duc Decazes, Prime Minister Descartes – René Descartes Elisabethville (Yvelines) - Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of the Belgians Ferney-Voltaire – Voltaire Flavigny-sur-Ozerain – possibly named after a Roman general Flavius Frédéric-Fontaine – named after Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg Grenoble () – Roman Emperor Gratian Guisanbourg - Jean Samuel Guisan La Louptière-Thénard – Louis Jacques Thénard Mont-Louis – Louis XIV of France Papaïchton-Pompidouville – Georges Pompidou, President of France Place Léon-Blum (Paris) – Léon Blum, a French socialist politician Quartier De Gaulle (Cayenne) - Charles de Gaulle Régina – Louis Athanase Theophane Régina (1868–1922) Saint-Amans-Soult – Jean-de-Dieu Soult, Prime Minister Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni – Auguste Baudin, Governor of French Guiana Saint-Léger-Vauban – Vauban Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin – Louis XIV of France Vendays-Montalivet – Jean-Pierre Bachasson, comte de Montalivet Gabon Bongoville – Omar Bongo, President of Gabon Lastoursville – François Rigail de Lastours Port-Gentil – Émile Gentil Germany Augsburg (state of Bavaria) – Roman Caesar Augustus Brunswick (state of Lower Saxony) – Bruno, Duke of Saxony Charlottenburg (state of Berlin) – Princess Sophia Charlotte of Hanover, queen consort of King Frederick I of Prussia (est. 13th century, incorporated into Berlin on 1 October 1920) Cologne (state of North Rhine-Westphalia; , , CCAA) – Roman Emperor Claudius and Agrippina the Younger, empress consort (lit. Claudian colony and sacrificial altar of the Agrippinensians) Constance (state of Baden-Württemberg; ) – Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus Friedrichstadt (state of Berlin) – King Frederick I of Prussia (est. 1688, incorporated into Berlin on 1 January 1710) Hildesheim (state of Lower Saxony) – farmer Hildwin (landowner in the 10th century) Karlsruhe (state of Baden-Württemberg) – Margrave Charles III William, Margrave of Baden-Durlach Leverkusen (state of North Rhine-Westphalia) – pharmacist Carl Leverkus Ludwigsburg (state of Baden-Württemberg) – Eberhard Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg Ludwigshafen upon Rhine (state of Rhineland-Palatinate) – King Louis I of Bavaria Saarlouis (state of Saarland) – King Louis XIV of France Sankt Pauli (state of Hamburg) – (Saul) Paul of Tarsos Trier (state of Rhineland-Palatinate; ) – Augustus (lit. City of Augustus in the lands of the Treveri people) Wilhelmshaven (state of Lower Saxony) – King William I of Prussia, later also German Emperor (lit. William's harbour) Former: Karl-Marx-Stadt (state of Saxony) was the name of Chemnitz – Karl Marx Stalinstadt (state of Brandenburg) was the name of Eisenhüttenstadt – Joseph Stalin Georgia Agmashenebeli (Batumi) – David IV of Georgia Andriatsminda (Akhaltsikhe) – Saint Andrew Asatiani Settlement (Kutaisi) - Lado Asatiani, Georgian poet Atarbekovka (Abkhazia) – Georgi Atarbekov Bagrationi (Batumi) – Pyotr Bagration Chavchavadze Settlement (Kutaisi) - Ilia Chavchavadze Dedoplistsqaro, Tamariani (Lagodekhi) and Tamarisi – Queen Tamar of Georgia Eliatsminda (Akhaltsikhe) – Saint Elijah Filippovka (Akhalkalaki) – Filipp Makaradze, President of Georgia during the soviet era Gabashvili Hill (Kutaisi) - Revaz Gabashvili, Georgian writer and politician Georgiashvili (Tetritskaro) – Arsen Georgiashvili (1881–1906) Giorgitsminda (Sagarejo) – Saint George Javakhishvili (Batumi) – Ivane Javakhishvili, one of the founding fathers of the Tbilisi State University Kalinino (Gardabani) – Mikhail Kalinin Kazbegi Municipality – Alexander Kazbegi, a Georgian writer Khimshiashvili (Batumi) – Sherip Khimshiashvili Kirov (Zugdidi), Kirovka (Marneuli) – Sergey Kirov Leninisi (Gardabani) – Vladimir Lenin Leselidze (town) – General Konstantin Leselidze, a Georgian Colonel-General and National hero Mikeltsminda (Akhaltsikhe) – Saint Michael Mtskheta – Mtskhetos, epic hero of Georgian mythology Myasnikiani (Akhalkalaki) – Aleksandr Myasnikyan, first Communist President of Armenia Nikoloz Baratashvili district (Rustavi) - Nikoloz Baratashvili Nikortsminda – Saint Nicholas Ninoshvili (Guria) and Ninoshvili (Samtredia) – Egnate Ninoshvili, a Georgian writer Ninotsminda – Saint Nino, an Equal to the Apostles and the Enlightener of Georgia Nutsubidze Plato (Tbilisi) – Shalva Nutsubidze Rustaveli (Batumi) – Shota Rustaveli Saakadze (Gardabani) – Giorgi Saakadze, a Georgian politician and military commander Stalinisubani (Kobuleti) – Joseph Stalin Stepantsminda – Saint Stephen or a Georgian Orthodox monk named Stephan Shaumiani – Stepan Shahumyan, a Georgian revolutionary Shaumyanovka (Abkhazia) – Stepan Shahumyan Tamar (Batumi) – Queen Tamar of Georgia Tsereteli (Marneuli) - Irakli Tsereteli, Georgian political figure Vakhtangisi (Gardabani) – King Vakhtang I of Iberia Vazha-Pshavela (Tbilisi) – Vazha-Pshavela, Georgian writer Vorontsovi (Tbilisi) - Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov Zhdanovakani (Ninotsminda) – Andrey Zhdanov Zhiuli Shartava district (Rustavi) - Zhiuli Shartava Former: Gegechkori was the name of Martvili – Sasha Gegechkori Kazbegi was the name of Stepantsminda – Alexander Kazbegi Leningori was the name of Akhalgori – Vladimir Lenin Luxemburg was the name of Bolnisi – Rosa Luxemburg Macharadze was the name of Ozurgeti – Filipp Makaradze Mayakovsky was the name of Baghdati – Vladimir Mayakovsky Orjonikidze was the name of Kharagauli – Sergo Ordzhonikidze Stalinsi was the name of Khashuri – Joseph Stalin Tskhakaya was the name of Senaki – Mikhail Tskhakaya (1865–1950) Tsulukidze was the name of Khoni – Alexander Tsulukidze Ghana Christiansborg – King Christian IV of Denmark Gwolu – Gwollu (or Gbollu) Koro Limann Kofi Pare – Kofi Pare, a migrant cocoa farmer Queen Anne's Point – Anne, Queen of Great Britain Techiman – Nana Takyi Firi Greece Alexandreia, Greece – Alexander the Great Alexandroupoli – King Alexander of Greece Aristotelis (municipality) – Aristotle, ancient philosopher Athens – Athena Dimitrios Ypsilantis (municipality) – Demetrius Ypsilanti, a 19th-century leader of the Greek struggle for independence Dionysos, Greece – Dionysus, god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility Emmanouil Pappas (municipality) – Emmanouil Pappas, leader in the Greek War of Independence Filippoi – Philip II of Macedon Georgios Karaiskakis (municipality) – Georgios Karaiskakis, a leader of the Greek War of Independence Glaraki – George Glarakis (1789–1855) Gypareika (Athens) – Pavlos Gyparis, Greek army officer Gyzi – Nikolaos Gyzis Heraklion – Heracles Ion Dragoumis (municipality) – Ion Dragoumis, Greek diplomat and protagonist of the Macedonian Struggle Kountouriotika – President of Greece Pavlos Kountouriotis Kypriadou – Epameinondas Kypriadis (1888–1958) Ladopoulou, Patras – Evangelos G. Ladopoulos (1883–1966) Makrygianni, Athens – Yannis Makriyannis Megas Alexandros, Pella – Alexander the Great Nafplion – Nauplius Nikiforos Fokas – 10th century Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas Nikolaos Skoufas (municipality) – Nikolaos Skoufas, a leader of the Greek independence movement Nikos Kazantzakis (municipality) – Nikos Kazantzakis, Greek writer Orestiada – Orestes Pavlos Melas (municipality) – Pavlos Melas, a Greek hero of Macedonian struggle Probonas – Dimitrios Probonas (1874–1949) Ptolemaida – Ptolemy I Soter Pythagoreio – Pythagoras Santorini – Saint Irene Skagiopouleio – Panagiotis Skagiopoulos Theodoros Ziakas (municipality) – Theodoros Ziakas, a 19th-century leader of the Greek struggle for independence Thessaloniki – Thessalonike, sister of Alexander the Great Traianoupoli – Roman emperor Trajan Vironas – Lord Byron, English poet and writer, National hero of Greece Grenada Grenville, Grenada – George Grenville, Prime Minister of United Kingdom Victoria, Grenada – Queen Victoria Guatemala Aguilar Batres (Zacapa) – Raúl Aguilar Batres, Guatemalan civil engineer Aparicio (Suchitepequez) – Francisca Aparicio de Barrios, First lady of Guatemala Asentamiento Mario Alioto (Guatemala) – Mario Alioto Lopez Sanchez (1973–1994), Guatemalan student who was killed during a protest Barberena – Lic. Jose Barberena, Guatemalan secretarian under President Justo Rufino Barrios Barrancas de Gálvez (San Marcos) - Mariano Galvez Cabañas, Zacapa – José Trinidad Cabañas, a Honduran Politician Ciudad Tecun Uman, San Marcos – Cacique Tecun Uman Ciudad Pedro de Alvarado (Jutiapa) – Pedro de Alvarado Colomba – María Colomba Barillas Robles (1874–1975), daughter of Manuel Barillas Col. Martinez de Lejarza (Guatemala) - Juan José Martínez de Lejarza (1785-1824) Col. Miguel Angel Asturias (Quetzaltenango) – Miguel Angel Asturias, Guatemalan diplomatic and writer Col. Monseñor Gerardi (Guatemala) - Monseñor Juan José Gerardi Conedera Col. Perez Guisasola (Guatemala) - Roberto Perez Guisasola (1918-1986) Col. Ulises Rojas (Guatemala) - Dr. Ulises Rojas (1881-1959), botanist Comunidad Hermogenes Lopez (Chimaltenango) – Hermógenes López Coarchita Cooperativa Mario Mendez (Peten) – Mario Mendez Montenegro (1910–1965), political leader Chicacao – Francisco Chicajau, indigenous villager Fraijanes – Two Missioners Juan Milán y Juan Álvarez Francisco Vela (Retahuleu) – Ing. Francisco Vela (1859–1909), Guatemalan cartographer Fray Bartolomé de las Casas – 15th-century Spanish priest, bishop, and writer Bartolomé de Las Casas Flores, El Petén – Dr. Cirlio Flores Estrada, a Guatemalan physician Flores Costa Cuca – Jose Felipe Flores, Physician and Maria Josefa Barrios y Aparicio "Maruca or Cuca" (1878–1959), daughter of Justo Rufino Barrios Galvez (Quetzaltenango) – Mariano Gálvez, Guatemalan Independence hero Granados, Baja Verapaz – former president Miguel García Granados Godinez (Solola) – Juan Godinez, Spanish conquistador Horno de Vides (Chiquimula) – Jose Maria Ignacio Ortiz Vides (1941–1983), a Guatemalan guerrilla Jerez, Jutiapa – Máximo Jerez, a 19th-century Nicaraguan politician, lawyer and military leader Juarez (Quetzaltenango) – Benito Juarez, Mexican President Kaibil Balám (Quiche) – Kaybʼil Bʼalam, a 16th-century leader of the Mam people La Gomera, Escuintla – Antonio Peraza de Ayala y Rojas, conde de la Gomera La Reforma, San Marcos – Justo Rufino Barrios the reformer La Union Barrios (Baja Verapaz) – Justo Rufino Barrios Livingston, Guatemala – American jurist and politician Edward Livingston Los Ochoa (San Marcos) - Bonifacio Ochoa Barrios (1888-1964) and Victor Maria Ochoa Barrios (1872-1951) Melchor de Mencos – Sergeant Major, Melchor de Mencos y Barón de Berrieza (1715-1787) Modesto Méndez (Izabal) – Modesto Méndez (1801–1863), Guatemalan military Morazán, El Progreso – Francisco Morazán, a Central American leader Morales, Guatemala – Guatemalan Lawyer and colonel Próspero Morales Nuevo San Carlos – King Charles III of Spain Palencia, Guatemala – Don Matias de Palencia, Founder Puerto Barrios – Justo Rufino Barrios, President of Guatemala Quirio Cataño (Chiquimula) - Quirio Cataño, Spanish sculptor Recuerdo a Barrios (Quetzaltenango) – Justo Rufino Barrios San Carlos Sija – King Charles III of Spain San Jacinto, Chiquimula – Hyacinth of Poland, Bishop of Cracovia San Joaquin (Alta Verapaz) – Joaquina Cabrera, a former president's mother San Jorge (Zacapa) – Jorge Ubico, president San Luis Jilotepeque – King Louis IX of France San Miguel Dueñas – Don Miguel Dueñas, founder Santa Catarina Barahona – Saint Catherine of Alexandria and Sancho de Barahona, Founder Santa Cruz Barillas, Santa Elena Barillas (Guatemala) – General Manuel Barillas, president of Guatemala Santa Lucía La Reforma – Saint Lucy and Justo Rufino Barrios the liberal reformer Santa Rosa Cuilapa – Rose of Lima Santo Domingo Suchitepéquez – Dominic of Guzman Zaragoza, Chimaltenango – Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus Guinea Bissau São Domingos (Guinea-Bissau) – Saint Dominic of Guzman São Vicente, Guinea-Bissau – Vincent of Saragossa Guyana Anna Regina – Anne, Queen of Great Britain Buxton, Guyana – Fowell Buxton Campbelltown, Guyana – Stephen Campbell, first Amerindian member of Parliament in Guyana Fort Wellington, Guyana – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Georgetown – King George III of the United Kingdom Jonestown – Jim Jones, American religious and cult leader Lethem – Sir Gordon James Lethem Linden, Guyana – Linden Forbes Burnham Sampson, a Prime Minister and President of Guyana Matthews Ridge, Guyana – Matthew Young (1905–1996) Stabroek, Guyana – Nicholaas Geelvinck, Lord of Stabroek, and President of the Dutch West India Company Stewartville, Guyana – John Stewart (1789–1860) Victoria, Guyana – Queen Victoria Haiti André, Ouest – André Rigaud Bombardopolis – German benefactor, Monsieur de Bombarde Dessalines – Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of independent Haiti Dr. Francois Duvalier (Hinche) – François Duvalier Cite Simone (Port-au-Prince) – Simone Duvalier, First lady of Haiti Ennery, Artibonite – Victor-Therese Charpentier, marquis of Ennerry, Governor General of Saint-Domingue Gressier – Edmond Vallery Gressier Justin, Ouest – Justin Lhérisson, Haitian writer, lawyer, journalist, and teacher Killick Stenio Vincent (Port-au-Prince) – Sténio Vincent, President of Haiti Leclerk Bidonville (Port-au-Prince) – Charles Leclerc (general), a French Army general Louverture, (Pétion-ville) – Toussaint Louverture Morne Boyer (Haiti) – Jean-Pierre Boyer, leader of the Haitian Revolution Ouanaminthe – Juana Mendez (1788–1873), mother of Buenaventura Baez, a Dominican president Pétion-Ville – Alexandre Sabès Pétion, President of Haiti Simone (Dessalines) – Simone Duvalier Thomas, Ouest – Thomas Madiou Village Lumane Casimir (Haiti) – Lumane Casimir (1920–1955), Hatian singer Former: Cite Simone was the name of Cité Soleil – Simone Duvalier Duvalierville was the name of Cabaret, Ouest – François Duvalier and Jean-Claude Duvalier Honduras Alfonso XIII (Santa Barbara) – Alfonso XIII of Spain Asentamiento Juan Benito Montoya (Copan) – Juan Benito Montoya, a peasant leader who was killed in Los Horcones in 1975 Barrio Paz Barahona (Cortes) – Miguel Paz Barahona Cabañas, Copán –José Trinidad Cabañas, President of Honduras Cabañas (Danli) – José Trinidad Cabañas Cabañas, La Paz – General José Trinidad Cabañas Col. Alfonso Guillen (Yoro) – Alfonso Guillen Zelaya (1887–1947), Honduran Poet Col. Alfonso Lacayo (Cortes) – Dr. Alfonso Lacayo (1923–1985), Garifuna physician Col. Amaya Amador (Yoro) – Ramon Amaya Amador, Honduran author Col. Francisco J. Mejía (Yoro) – Francisco J. Mejía, Honduran teacher Col. Francisco Murillo Soto (Yoro) – Prof. Francisco Murillo Soto (1893–1982) Col. Jacobo V. Carcamo (Yoro) – Jacobo Carcamo (1916–1959), Honduran Poet Col. Jesús Aguilar Paz (Tegucigalpa) – Jesús Aguilar Paz, Honduran Chemist Col. Medardo Mejia (Olancho) – Medardo Mejia (1907–1981), Honduran poet Col. Rodas Alvarado (Ocotepeque) – Modesto Rodas Alvarado, President of the National Congress Col. Terencio Sierra (Cortes) – Terencio Sierra Col. Víctor F. Ardón (Tegucigalpa) – Víctor F. Ardón (1896–1976), Honduran educator Froylan Turcios (Olancho) – Froylan Turcios, Honduran Poet Guadalupe Carney (Colon) – James Carney (American priest), also known as Father Guadalupe Carney Grupo Villeda Morales (Atlantida) – Ramon Villeda Morales Juan Francisco Bulnes – Juan Francisco Bulnes (1808–1878), Garifuna soldier Jesús de Otoro – Fray Juan Félix de Jesús Zepeda y Zepeda (1808–1885), bishop of Comayagua José Santos Guardiola –José Santos Guardiola, President of Honduras Kennedy (Tegucigalpa) – John F. Kennedy, an American President Marcovia – Marco Aurelio Soto, President of Honduras Marcelino Champagnat (Choluteca) – Saint Marcellin Champagnat Melgar Castro (Marcala, La Paz) – Juan Alberto Melgar Castro, former Head of State of Honduras Monseñor Fiallos (Tegucigalpa) – Monseñor Ernesto Fiallos (1857–1946), a Honduran priest Morazán, Yoro – Francisco Morazán, Honduran liberal politician Policarpo Paz Garcia (Yoro) – Policarpo Paz Garcia Puerto Cortés – Hernán Cortés, Spanish Conquistador Puerto Lempira – cacique Lempira Ramón Villeda Morales (municipality) – Dr. Ramón Villeda Morales, President of Honduras Rodas Alvarado (Danli) – Modesto Rodas Alvarado, a Honduran lawyer San Esteban, Olancho – Fray Esteban Verdelete San Francisco, Atlántida – Francisco Matute, Benefactor of the town. San Francisco del Valle – Saint Francis and José Cecilio del Valle San Jerónimo, Copán – Lic. Jerónimo J.Reina (1876–1918), a Honduran poet and journalist San Jorge, Ocotepeque – Saint George San Luis, Comayagua – King Louis IX of France San Pedro Sula – Saint Peter Santa Rosa de Aguán – Saint Rose of Lima Villeda Morales (Danli) – Ramón Villeda Morales Hong Kong Aberdeen Harbour – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen Belcher Bay – Edward Belcher Cape D'Aguilar – George Charles D'Aguilar Kennedy Town – Arthur Edward Kennedy Mount Davis, Hong Kong – John Francis Davis Stanley, Hong Kong – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby Victoria City – Queen Victoria Hungary Abasár – King Sámuel Aba of Hungary Adyváros – Endre Ady Ambrózfalva – Lajos Ambrózy Antalhegy – István Antal, Hungarian politician Árpádhalom – Árpád, father of the Hungarian fatherland Benczúrfalva (Szécsény) – Gyula Benczúr, Painter Bocskaikert – Stephen Bocskay, aristocrat Cholnokyváros – Jenő Cholnoky (1870–1950) Éhen Gyula-lakótelep – Gyula Éhen (1853–1932) Erzsébetváros – Queen Elisabeth of Bavaria Ferencszállás – Baron Ferenc Gerliczy Ferencváros – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor Harkakötöny – Kötöny Hunyadfalva – Hunyady family Izsófalva – Miklós Izsó, sculptor Jánoshalma – John Hunyadi, commander Józsefváros – Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor József Attila lakótelep (Budapest) – Attila József Katonatelep – Zsigmond Katona (1828–1902) Kossuthfalva (Budapest) – Lajos Kossuth, Governor-President of Hungary Krepuska Géza-telep – Géza Krepuska Krisztinaváros (Budapest) – Archduchess Maria Christina Lipótváros (Budapest) – Leopold II Nyírtass – Tas, grandson of Árpád Petőfibánya – Sándor Petőfi, poet Petőfiszállás – Sándor Petőfi Rákóczibánya – Francis II Rákóczi, Hungarian National hero Rákóczifalva – Francis II Rákóczi Rákócziújfalu – Francis II Rákóczi Rudolftelep – Rudolf Cohacht, Hungarian miner Sándorfalva – Viscount Sándor Pallavicini Solt – Solt Taksony – Taksony of Hungary Tass – Tas, grandson of Árpád Terézváros – Queen Maria Theresa Tiborszállás – Tibor Károlyi, Hungarian politician Törökbálint – Bálint Török Újlipótváros (Budapest) – Leopold II Üllő – Üllő, son of Árpád Zalaszentgrót – Gerard Sagredo Former: Koháryszentlőrinc was the name of Nyárlőrinc – Koháry family Leninváros was the name of Tiszaújváros – Vladimir Lenin Prónayfalva was the name of Tázlár – Prónay family Sztálinváros was the name of Dunaújváros – Joseph Stalin Iceland Grímsey – Grími Ingjaldsson, who have a winter residence in their island Ólafsfjörður – Ólafur Bekkur Karlsson India Indonesia Hatta, Bakauheni, Lampung – Mohammad Hatta, 1st Vice President of Indonesia Jayawijaya Regency – Jaya-Vijaya, two gatekeepers (Dwarapalaka) of the abode of Vishnu Kartini, Sawah Besar – Kartini, Javanese women's rights figure Sudirman, Tanralili, Maros (South Sulawesi) – Sudirman, Indonesian military officer Yos Sudarso Island – Yos Sudarso, naval officer Former: Sukarnapura was the name of Jayapura – Sukarno, President of Indonesia Iran Ahmadabad-e Mosaddeq – Mohammad Mosaddegh Amadegah Shahid Mohammad Montazeri – Mohammad Montazeri Apamea (Media) – Apama, mother of Antiochus I Soter Apamea Ragiana – a royal woman named Apama among the Seleucids Bandar-Abbas – Shah Abbas I Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni – Ruhollah Khomeini a Supreme leader, philosopher, revolutionary, and politician Hamidaniyeh – Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, 14th century Poet and Scholar Hasanabad, Tehran – Mostowfi ol-Mamalek, Prime Minister of Iran Jammi – 15th century Persian Poet Abdurahman Jami Kabak Mohammad Reza – Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, last king Kermanshah – King Bahram IV Khomeyni Shahr – Ruhollah Khomeini Masjed Soleyman – Solomon, a major prophet of Islam Nahavand: formerly named Laodicea – Laodice of Macedonia formerly named Antiochia – Antiochus I Soter Naser Khosrow, Iran – Nasir Khusraw an 11th-century poet Piranshahr – Piran, son of Viseh Rezaiyeh, Razavi Khorasan – Reza Shah Pahlavi Rudaki, Iran – Rudaki, Persian poet Seleucia (Susiana) – Seleucus I Nicator Seleucia (Susiana) – a Seleucus of the Seleucid dynasty Shahrak-e Ayatollah Madani – Mir Asadollah Madani, Iranian politician Susa, formerly named Seleucia – Seleucus I Nicator Yazd – Yazdegerd I, a Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 399 to 420 Yusef Abad – Mirza Yusef Ashtiani (1813–1887) Former: Bandar-e Pahlavi was the name of Bandar-e Anzali – Reza Shah Pahlavi Rezā'īyeh was the name of Urmia – Reza Shah Pahlavi Iraq Al-Aziziyah – Abdülaziz, Ottoman Sultan Al-Sadiyah – Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, commander who led the Arabs to conquer Mesopotamia from the Sasanian Empire Antiochia in Sittacene – Antiochus I Soter Apamea (Babylonia) – a royal woman named Apama among the Seleucids Apamea (Sittacene) – Apama, mother of Antiochus I Soter Charax Spasinu: formerly named Alexandria – Alexander the Great formerly named Antiochia in Susiana – Antiochus IV formerly named Charax of Hyspaosines – Hyspaosines Hamza – Bahraini Shia cleric "Ahmad Ibn Hashim Al-Ghurifi" (a.k.a. Hamza) Al Hashimiyah – Named after the Hashemites Al-Hindiya – "Yahya Asif Al-Dawla Bahadur Al-Hindi", who was a vizier of Bahadur Shah Zafar Iskandariya – Alexander the Great Kadhimiya – Musa al-Kadhim Laodicea (Mesopotamia) – a royal woman named Laodice among the Seleucids Al Midhatiya – Midhat Pasha Nasiriyah – "Nasir al-Saadun Pasha", the sheikh ("chief") of the Muntafiq tribal confederation Al Numaniyah – al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir Al-Qasim – "Al-Qasim" son of Musa al-Kadhim Sadr City – Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr Seleucia – Seleucus I Nicator Seleucia (Sittacene) – Seleucus I Nicator Sulaymaniyah – Sulaiman Baba, the first Baban prince to gain control of the province of Shahrizor and its capital, Kirkuk Yusufiyah – Yūsuf (Joseph) Az Zubayr – Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Ireland (Republic of) Bellewstown – Darren Bellew Binghamstown – Richard Bingham Enniskeane – "island of Cian", Cian Murphy of Cork Canningstown – George Canning, 1st Baron Garvagh Charlestown – Charles Strickland, Land Agent and Town Planner Charleville, Count Cork – Charles II of England Connacht – Conn Cétchathach County Kerry – Ciar Cork – Corc Dún Laoghaire – Lóegaire mac Néill Edgeworthstown – the Anglo-Irish Edgeworth family, such as Henry Essex Edgeworth de Firmont, local rector, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, economist, Michael Pakenham Edgeworth, botanist, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, politician, and Maria Edgeworth, writer Jamestown, County Leitrim – James VI and I Louisburgh, County Mayo – Louis XIV of France Rochfortbridge, County Westmeath – Robert Rochfort Former: Maryborough was the name of Portlaoise – Mary I of England Philipstown was the name of Daingean – Philip II of Spain Kingwilliamstown was the name of Ballydesmond – William IV of the United Kingdom Queenstown was the name of Cobh – Queen Victoria Israel Acre, formerly named Antiochia Ptolemais – Alexander the Great's generals Antiochus and Ptolemy Soter Balfourya – Arthur James Balfour, British Prime Minister Even Shmuel – Samuel Bronfman Givat Brenner – Yosef Haim Brenner Givat Shapira – Hermann Schapira Herzliya – Theodor Herzl, a leader of Zionist movement Hippos, formerly named Antiochia Hippos – an Antiochus of the Seleucid dynasty Kfar Haim – Haim Arlosoroff Kfar Hess – Moses Hess Kfar HaRif – Isaac Alfasi Kfar Maimon – Yehuda Leib Maimon Kfar Masaryk – Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk Kfar Menahem – Menachem Ussishkin Kfar Netter – Charles Netter Kfar Ruppin – Arthur Ruppin Kfar Shmuel – Stephen Samuel Wise Kfar Silver – Abba Hillel Silver Kfar Sirkin – Nachman Syrkin Kfar Truman – Harry S. Truman Kfar Vitkin – Yosef Vitkin Kfar Warburg – Felix M. Warburg Kfar Yavetz – Ze'ev Yavetz Kiryat Wolfson – Isaac Wolfson Kiryat Shmuel, Jerusalem – Shmuel Salant, the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem in 1878–1909 Kokhav Michael – Michael Sobell Mishmar David – Mickey Marcus Netanya – Nathan Strauss Neve Granot – Avraham Granot, a Zionist activist and signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence Neve Yaakov – Yitzchak Yaacov Reines Qiryat Bialik – writer Hayyim Nahman Bialik Ramat Aharon – Rabbi Aharon Kotler Ramat Eshkol – Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel Ramat Sharett – Moshe Sharett, Prime Minister of Israel in 1953–1955 Ramat Shlomo – Shlomo Zalman Auerbach Sde David – Zalman David Levontin (1856–1940) Sde Eliezer – Robert Rothschild Sdei Avraham – Avraham Herzfeld Seleucia Samulias – a Seleucus among the Seleucid dynasty Talmei Eliyahu – Eliyahu Krauze (1878–1962) Talmei Yaffe – Leib Yaffe Tiberias – Tiberius Caesar Augustus Tzur Yitzhak – Yitzhak Rabin Former: Wilhelma (colloquially; formally: Hamîdije Wilhelma) was the name of Bnei Atarot – Sultan Abdul Hamid II, King William II of Württemberg and William II, German Emperor Italy Ivory Coast Bingerville – Louis-Gustave Binger, former French colonial governor Jean-Baptiste Mockey (Abidjan) - Jean-Baptiste Mockey Marie Koré (Abidjan) - Marie Koré (1912-1953), Ivorian independence activist Port-Bouët – Édouard Bouët-Willaumez, French admiral San-Pédro, Ivory Coast – Saint Peter Treichville – Marcel Treich-Laplène, French resident in Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro – Queen Yamoussou Jamaica Aberdeen, Jamaica – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen Alexandria, Jamaica – Alexander Bustamante, First Prime Minister of Jamaica Granville, Jamaica – Granville Sharp Kingston, Jamaica – King William III of England Petersfield, Jamaica – Peter Beckford, Governor of Jamaica Saint Ann's Bay, Jamaica – Lady Anne Hyde Japan Asaka, Saitama – Prince Asaka Yasuhiko, a founder of a collateral branch of the Japanese imperial family Date, Hokkaidō – Date Kunishige, a Japanese samurai Hiroshima – Ōe no Hiromoto + Fukushima Motonaga (disputed) Imakane, Hokkaidō – Imamori Tōjirō (1870–1952) + Kanamori Tōjirō (1865–1909) Imamura, Saga – Hitoshi Imamura, a Japanese general Ina, Saitama – Ina Tadatsugu, a civil officer Kyōgoku, Hokkaidō – Kyōgoku Takanori (1858–1928), a former noble of the Kyōgoku clan Maeda, Aichi – Tadashi Maeda (admiral) Masaki, Ehime – Jinzaburō Masaki, Japanese general Narashino, Chiba – Shinohara Kunimoto (died 1877), a prominent military commander Niki, Hokkaidō – Niki Takeyoshi (1834–1915), a Japanese pioneer Noda, Chiba – Noda Umanosuke, Japanese military commander during the Muromachi period Ono, Fukushima – Ono no Takamura, Japanese poet Sanjō, Niigata – Sanjo Saemon, a legendary hero during the Edo period Tadaoka, Osaka – Taira no Tadayuki, son of a Japanese warrior Tendō, Yamagata – Kitabatake Tendōmaru, owner of Tendō castle during the Muromachi period Torahime, Shiga – Tora Gozen, a late Heian period prostitute Tsukigata, Hokkaidō – Tsukigata Kiyoshi (1847–1895), Japanese Samurai Tsuruga, Fukui – Tsunuga Arashito, Japanese Samurai Uchiyama, Aichi – Eitaro Uchiyama, a lieutenant general Wake, Okayama – Wake no Kiyomaro, a high-ranking Japanese official during the Nara period Yamamoto, Kagawa – Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Marshal Admiral Jordan Abila, formerly named Seleucia – a Seleucus among the Seleucid dynasty Al-Abdali –King Abdullah I of Jordan Amman – Ammon Umm Qais: formerly named Antiochia – Antiochus III the Great formerly named Seleucia – Seleucus II Callinicus Kazakhstan Kenya Karen, Kenya – Karen Blixen, a Danish author of the colonial memoir Out of Africa Kenyatta, Nairobi – Jomo Kenyatta Machakos – Masaku wa Munyati, an Akamba chief who arrived in the area in 1816 from the area around Sultan Hamud Port Victoria (Kenya) – Queen Victoria Thomson's Falls (town) – Joseph Thomson (explorer) Kosovo Ferizaj – Feriz Shasivari Obilić – Miloš Obilić Skenderaj – George Kastrioti Skanderbeg Former: Đeneral Janković was the name of Elez Han – Božidar Janković Kuwait Abdullah as-Salim suburb – Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah Al Ahmadi, Kuwait – Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Fahd al-Ahmad Suburb – Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Jabir al-Ahmad City – Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah Sabah al-Ahmad City – Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Sabah as-Salim suburb – Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah Kyrgyzstan Аbdrakhmanov (Issyk-Kul) – Yusup Abdrakhmanov (1901–1938), Kirghiz politician Abdy-Suerkulov (Toktogul) – Abdy Suerkulov (1912–1992), Kirghiz Prime Minister Absamat Masaliev (Kadamjay) – Absamat Masaliyev Aldashev (Jeti-Ögüz) – Abdulkhai Aldashev (1918–2003), Kirghiz pharmacologist, toxicologist and translator Alla-Anarov (Aravan) – Alla Anarov (1907–1979), cotton producer Aydaraliev (Talas) – Rysbek Aidaraliev (1922–1998), Kirghiz public figure Amanbayevo – Akhmat Amanbayev (1920–1964), Kirghiz compositor Anan'yevo – one of the Panfilov's Twenty-Eight Guardsmen, Nikolay Yakovlevich Anan'yev (1912–1941) Baetov – Kirghiz singer and composer Musa Baetov (1902–1949) Bokonbayevo – Kirghiz poet and dramatist, Dzhoomart Bokonbaev (1910–1944) Dokturbek Kurmanaliev (Ysyk-Ata) – Dokturbek Kurmanaliev (1948–2004) Ibraimov – Kyrgyz Prime Minister Sultan Ibraimov Imeni Aliaskara Toktonalieva (Ysyk-Ata) – Aliaskar Toktonaliev (1929–1990), Finance Minister Imeni Suymenkula Chokmorova – Kyrgyz film actor Suimenkul Chokmorov Imeni Toktomata Zulpueva (Nookat) – Toktomat Zulpuev (1925–1995) Isanov (Osh) – Nasirdin Isanov Jalal-Abad – Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar Karasaev (Tüp) – Kusein Karasaev (1901–1998), Kirghiz linguist Kochubaev (Osh) – Toi'chu Tagaevich Kochubaev (1922–1981), Kirghiz Socialist workers' hero Kulatov (Nookat) – Turabay Kulatov (1908–1984), Kirghiz Prime Minister Kurmanbek (Suzak) – Kurmanbek Batyr, mythical hero Lenin District, Bishkek – Vladimir Lenin Manas District – Manas, mythical Kyrgyz national hero Mavlyanov (Aksy) – Junai Mavlyanov (1923–2003), writer and poet Mombekovo (Nooken) – Yusup Mombekov (1926–1983), Kirghiz socialist workers' hero Nazaraliev (Aksy) – Orozaaly Nazaraliev (1898–1957), Kirghiz educator Nurzhanov (Talas) – Akmatbek Nurzhanov (1922–1987), Kirghiz socialist workers' hero Orozbekovo (Batken) – Abdykadyr Orozbekov (1889–1938), Kirghiz statesman Osmonkulov (Talas) – Iskender Osmonkulov (1907–1992), Kirghiz socialist workers' hero Panfilov District, Kyrgyzstan – Ivan Panfilov Sverdlov District, Bishkek – Yakov Sverdlov Shopokov – Kyrgyz World War II hero Duyshenkul Shopokov (1915–1941) Toktogul – Kyrgyz Musician Toktogul Satilganov Zharkynbayevo – Kyrgyz hero Kazak Zharkynbaev (1911–1969) Former: Frunze was the name of Bishkek from 1926 through 1991 – Mikhail Frunze Przhevalsk was the name of Karakol from 1888 through 1921 and 1939 through 1991 – Nikolai Przhevalsky Laos Kaysone Phomvihane District, Savannakhet Province – Kaysone Phomvihane, President of Laos Latvia Jēkabpils – Jacob Kettler, Duke of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia Lucavsala – Klauss Lucavs Pāvilosta – after Paul von Lilienfeld, governor of Kurzeme Pētersala-Andrejsala – Peter the Great Valdemārpils – Krišjānis Valdemārs, writer and politician Valka (Estonian: Valga) – possibly after the de Walko (de Walco) family Former: Stučka was the name of Aizkraukle – Pēteris Stučka, Latvian revolutionary and communist Lebanon Foch-Allenby district (Beirut) – Ferdinand Foch and Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby Former: Laodicea in Phoenicia was an ancient name of Beirut – royal woman named Laodice among the Seleucid dynasty Lesotho Mohale's Hoek – Mohale, a King Moshoeshoe I's brother Liberia A.B. Tolbert Community – Adolphus Benedict Tolbert (died in 1980), a former President's son Arthington, Liberia – Robert Arthington, an attorney and philanthropist from Leeds, England Barclayville – Edwin Barclay, President of Liberia Buchanan – Thomas Buchanan Careysburg – Lott Carey, a Baptist minister Clay-Ashland – Henry Clay, an American lawyer, planter, and statesman Greenville, Liberia – Judge James Green Harper, Liberia – Robert Goodloe Harper, American politician Monrovia – James Monroe, President of the United States Robertsport – Joseph Jenkins Roberts, First President of Liberia Samuel K. Doe Community (Monrovia) - Samuel Doe Tubmanburg – William Tubman, President of Liberia Libya ʽAziziya – Abdulaziz, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Benghazi – Sidi Ghazi, Benefactor of the city Ptolemais – a king of the Ptolemies, probably Ptolemy III Euergetes Qaryat ‘Umar al Mukhtar – Omar Mukhtar, Libyan resistance leader Lithuania Grigiškės – Hryhoriy Kurec, Belarusian architect Janapolė – Jan Długosz Jonava – Jono Eustachijaus Kaišiadorys – a Tatar noble, Khaishadar Kudirkos Naumiestis – Vincas Kudirka, Lithuanian poet Marijampolė – Blessed Virgin Mary Former: Sniečkus was the name of Visaginas – Antanas Sniečkus, Lithuanian communist politician Luxembourg Ettelbruck – Etzel (Attila the Hun) Macedonia Čučer-Sandevo – Aleksandar Urdarevski-Sande (1920–1943), participant in the National Liberation War Dame Gruev (Skopje) – Dame Gruev Delčevo – Goce Delčev, revolutionary hero Gazi Baba Municipality – Ottoman poet Aşık Çelebi Gjorče Petrov Municipality – revolutionary Gjorče Petrov Jane Sandanski (Skopje) – Yane Sandanski Josifovo – Josif Josifovski (1915–1943) Sveti Nikole – Saint Nicholas Titov Vrv – Josip Broz, President of Yugoslavia Former: Titov Veles (meaning: "Tito's Veles") was the name of Veles – Josip Broz Malaysia Beaufort, Malaysia – Leicester Paul Beaufort, a colonial governor of North Borneo Bandar Dato' Onn – Onn Jaafar, Malayan politician Bandar Menjalara – Paduka Seri Cik Menjalara (d.1941) Bandar Muadzam Shah – Abu Bakar of Pahang Bandar Seri Putra – Tunku Abdul Rahman Bandar Tun Abdul Razak – Abdul Razak Hussein, 2nd Prime Minister of Malaysia Bandar Tun Hussein Onn – Hussein Onn, 3rd Prime Minister of Malaysia Bandar Tun Razak – Abdul Razak Hussein Bandar Tun Razak, Jengka – Abdul Razak Hussein Butterworth, Penang – William John Butterworth, governor of the Straits Settlements Cameron Highlands – William Cameron, British geologist Carey Island – Edward Valentine John Carey, an Englishman planter in Malaya has acquired an island FELDA L.B. Johnson – Lyndon B. Johnson, an American president FELDA Soeharto – Soeharto, Indonesian president Fraser's Hill – Louis James Fraser, Scottish pioneer George Town, Penang – George III of the United Kingdom Gohtong Jaya – Lim Goh Tong, a Malaysian Chinese businessman & entrepreneur Hang Tuah Jaya – Hang Tuah, a legendary hero Kampung Gandhi – Mahatma Gandhi Pekan Gurney – Henry Gurney, a British colonial administrator Port Dickson – John Frederick Dickson, British colonial administrator Putrajaya – Tunku Abdul Rahman, father of Malayan independence Seri Iskandar – Iskandar of Perak, 30th Sultan of Perak Shah Alam – Hisamuddin of Selangor Taman Tun Dr Ismail – Ismail Abdul Rahman Taman Tun Sardon – Sardon Jubir, governor of Penang Taman Tun Teja – Princess Tun Teja Taman U-Thant – U Thant, a UN General Secretary from 1961 until 1971, Templer's Park – Gerald Templer, a senior British Army officer Victoria, Labuan – Queen Victoria Weston – A.J. West, a British North Borneo railway engineer Malawi Aaron, Malawi – biblical prophet Aaron Cape Maclear – Thomas Maclear Livingstonia, Malawi – David Livingstone Former: Fort Hill was the name of Chitipa - Clement Lloyd Hill Fort Johnston was the name of Mangochi - Harry Johnston Fort Lister was the name of Phalombe - Thomas Villiers Lister Fort Manning was the name of Mchinji - William Manning (colonial administrator) Mali Ouezzindougou – Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly, Burkinabé politician Timbuktu – Buktu, a malian old woman who lived in that region Malta Cottonera – Grandmaster Nicolas Cotoner Floriana – architect Pietro Paolo Floriani Manoel Island – Grandmaster António Manoel de Vilhena Paola – Grandmaster Antoine de Paule Paceville – Dr. Giuseppe Pace (1890–1971) Qormi (Città Pinto) – Grandmaster Manuel Pinto da Fonseca San Ġiljan – St. Julian San Ġwann – St. John San Lawrenz – St. Lawrence San Pawl il-Baħar – Paul the Apostle Santa Luċija – St. Lucy Santa Venera – St. Venera Senglea – Grandmaster Claude de la Sengle Siġġiewi (Città Ferdinand) – Grandmaster Ferdinand von Hompesch Valletta – Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette Victoria – Queen Victoria Żabbar (Città Hompesch) – Grandmaster Ferdinand von Hompesch Żebbuġ (Città Rohan) – Grandmaster Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc Żejtun (Città Beland) – Ferdinand von Hompesch's mother Mauritania Boubacar Ben Amer – Abu Bakr Ibn Omar (d.1087) Mauritius Mahébourg – Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais Port Louis – Louis XV of France Souillac – François de Souillac Mexico Ciudad Juárez – Benito Juárez, president Ciudad López Mateos – Adolfo López Mateos, president Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl – Nezahualcoyotl, poet Ciudad Obregón – Álvaro Obregón, president Ciudad Victoria – Guadalupe Victoria, first president General Escobedo – Mariano Escobedo Hermosillo – José María González Hermosillo Guadalupe, Zacatecas and other communities named Guadalupe – Our Lady of Guadalupe (Mary) Guerrero state and several other localities – Vicente Guerrero, independence leader and president Hidalgo, state and several other localities – Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, independence leader and Father of the Nation Morelia – José María Morelos, independence leader Morelos state and several other localities – José María Morelos, independence leader San Luis Potosí City and state – King Louis IX of France San Nicolas de los Garza – Pedro de la Garza, benefactor of the town Tuxtla Gutiérrez – Joaquín Miguel Gutiérrez, independence leader Quintana Roo – Andrés Quintana Roo, politician Moldova Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Cahul – Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Prince of Moldavia Cantemir, Moldova – Dimitrie Cantemir Ciorescu, Chisinau – Ion Gheorghe Ciorescu (founder) Frunză, Ocnița – Mikhail Frunze Ion Vodă, Florești – John III the Terrible Lazo, Ștefan Vodă – Sergey Lazo, Moldavian revolutionary Lebedenco, Cahul – Nikita Lebedenko, Soviet military leader Miciurin – Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin Regina Maria, Soroca – Marie of Romania Ștefan Vodă – Stephen III of Moldavia Former: "Kotovsk" was the name of Hîncești – Grigory Kotovsky "Kutuzov" was the name of Ialoveni – Mikhail Kutuzov "Lazovsk" was the name of Sîngerei – Sergey Lazo "Suvorovo" was the name of Ștefan Vodă – Alexander Suvorov Mongolia Choibalsan city, Dornod – Khorloogiin Choibalsan Choibalsan sum, Dornod – Khorloogiin Choibalsan Khutag-Öndör – Jalkhanz Khutagt Sodnomyn Damdinbazar Magsarjav (Khovd) – Khatanbaatar Magsarjav Öndörkhaan (now Chinggis Khot) – Genghis Khan Renchinlkhümbe – Jambyn Lkhümbe Sükhbaatar city – Damdin Sükhbaatar, Mongolian independence hero Sükhbaatar district – Damdin Sükhbaatar Sükhbaatar Province – Damdin Sükhbaatar Ulaanbaatar – Damdin Sükhbaatar Montenegro Danilovgrad – Danilo I, Prince of Montenegro Herceg Novi – Duke (Herceg) Stjepan Vukčić Kosača Petrovac – King Peter I of Serbia Tomaševo – Tomaš Žižić, Montenegrin national hero Former: Titograd was the name of Podgorica from 1946 to 1992 – Josip Broz Tito Ivangrad was the name of Berane from 1946 to 1992 – Ivan Milutinovic Morocco Mohammedia – King Mohammed V of Morocco Moulay Rachid (district) – Prince Moulay Rachid of Morocco Mozambique Beira, Mozambique - Luís Filipe, Prince Royal of Portugal (titled Prince of Beira) Maputo - Chief Maputsu I of the Tembe clan Mozambique Island – Mussa Bin Bique, a Muslim chief of the early 16th century Ilha Josina Machel (Manhiça) – Josina Machel, a former President's wife Manhiça District – Manacusse, a Tchaka chief, who moved here after some conflict in his native area Ressano Garcia – Frederico Ressano Garcia (1847-1911), Portuguese politician and engineer Vila Eduardo Mondlane – Eduardo Mondlane, President of the Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO) Former: António Enes was the name of Angoche - António José Enes (1848-1901), Portuguese journalist and colonial administrator Augusto Cardoso was the name of Metangula - Augusto Cardoso (1859-1930), Portuguese explorer Caldas Xavier was the name of Cambulatsitse - Alfredo Augusto Caldas Xavier (1852-1896), Portuguese colonial administrator Cidade Salazar was the name of Matola - António de Oliveira Salazar João Belo was the name of Xai-Xai - João Belo (1878-1928), Portuguese military Lourenço Marques was the name of Maputo - Lourenço Marques (explorer) Malvernia was the name of Chicualacuala (Vila Eduardo Mondlane) - Godfrey Huggins, 1st Viscount Malvern Porto Amélia was the name of Pemba, Mozambique - Queen Amélie of Orléans Vila Coutinho was the name of Ulongué - João António de Azevedo Coutinho Fragoso de Sequeira (1865-1944) Vila Fontes was the name of Caia, Mozambique - Fontes Pereira de Melo Vila Gomes da Costa was the name of Alto Changane - Manuel Gomes da Costa, Portuguese president Vila Gouveia was the name of Catandica - Manuel António de Sousa, Portuguese military captain Vila Junqueiro was the name of Gurúè - Manuel Saraiva Junqueiro (d.1959) Vila Machado was the name of Nhamatanda - Joaquim José Machado Vila Paiva de Andrada was the name of Gorongosa - Joaquim Carlos Paiva de Andrada (1846-1928) Vila Pery was the name of Chimoio - João Pery de Lind (1861-1930), Governor of Mozambique Company Territories of Manica and Sofala Vila Pinto Teixeira was the name of Mabalane - Francisco dos Santos Pinto Teixeira (1887-1983), Portuguese military engineer Vila Trigo de Morais was the name of Chokwe, Mozambique - António Trigo de Morais (1895-1966), Portuguese engineer Vila Vasco da Gama was the name of Chiputo - Vasco da Gama Myanmar Maha Bandula Park – General Maha Bandula Mindon, Myanmar – Mindon Min, King of Burma Thibaw, Shan State – Thibaw Min, King of Burma Namibia Caprivi Strip – Leo von Caprivi, German general and statesman Henties Bay, Namibia – Major Hentie van der Merwe (1871-1954) John Pandeni Constituency – John Pandeni, a member of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) Judea Lyaboloma Constituency – Judea Lyaboloma (died in 1968), a former People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) guerrilla Keetmanshoop – Johann Keetman, German trader Lüderitz – Adolf Lüderitz Mariental, Namibia – Maria, the wife of the first colonial settler of the area, Hermann Brandt Moses ǁGaroëb Constituency – Moses ǁGaroëb, a Namibian Politician Nehale lyaMpingana Constituency – Nehale Mpingana, Namibian National hero Samora Machel Constituency – Samora Machel, President of Mozambique Tobias Hainyeko constituency – Tobias Hainyeko, a guerrilla war hero Former: Caprivi Region was the name of Zambezi Region, named after Leo von Caprivi Schuckmannsburg – Bruno von Schuckmann (since 2013 called Luhonono) Nepal Bhimdatta – Bhimdatta Panta, a revolutionary farmer leader Birendranagar – King Birendra of Nepal Birendranagar, Chitwan – King Birendra of Nepal Birgunj – Bir Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, Nepali statesman Byans – Vyas, legendary author of Hinduism Dasharathchand – Dashrath Chand, a martyr of Nepalese Democratic Movement Janakpur – King Janak, an ancient Indian king of Videha, Jaya Prithvi – Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh, a humanist, peace advocate, writer and social activist K.I. Singh Rural Municipality – Kunwar Inderjit Singh, 20th Prime Minister of Nepal Krishnapur, Nepal – Krishna Mahendrakot, Mahendranagar, Dhanusha, Mahendranagar, Sunsari – Mahendra of Nepal Ramprasad Rai – Ram Prasad Rai, a Nepali revolutionary who was disappeared and killed in 1951 Siddharthanagar – from Buddha's given name Siddhartha Tribhuwannagar – Tribhuvan of Nepal Vyas – Sage Vyasadeva (Vyas) Netherlands Anna Paulowna – Anna Pavlovna of Russia Emmaberg – Queen Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont Geertruidenberg – Gertrude of Nivelles 's-Gravenzande (lit. The Count's Sand) – William, King of the Romans (and Count of Holland) Heerhugowaard – lord ('heer') Hugo of Assendelft 's-Hertogenbosch (lit. The Duke's Forest) – Henry I, Duke of Brabant Julianadorp – Queen Juliana of the Netherlands Koningsbosch (lit. King's Forest) – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Mariaparochie - Mary, mother of Jesus Lelystad – ir. Cornelis Lely Odiliapeel - Odilia of Cologne Oud-Beijerland, Nieuw-Beijerland and Zuid-Beijerland - Sabina, Duchess of Bavaria (Dutch: Sabina van Beieren) Prins Alexander – Alexander, Prince of Orange Sint Annaparochie – Saint Anne Sint Jacobiparochie – James, son of Zebedee Sint Maarten – Martin of Tours Sint Nicolaasga – Saint Nicholas Sint-Oedenrode – Saint Oda Sint Pancras – Saint Pancras Sint Willebrord – Saint Willibrord Van Ewijcksluis – Daniël Jacob van Ewijck van Oostbroek van de Built, a Dutch Politician Wilhelminadorp, Best – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands Wilhelminadorp, Goes – Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands Wilhelminaoord – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands Willemsdorp – King William I of the Netherlands Willemsoord, Steenwijkerland – King William II of the Netherlands Willemstad, North Brabant – William the Silent, Father of the Dutch fatherland New Zealand Aidanfield – Mother Aidan Phelan (1858–1958) Albert Town – Prince Albert Alexandra – Alexandra of Denmark Allanton – James Allan Alfredton – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Andersons Bay – James Anderson and family Arthurs Point – Thomas Arthur Ashburton – Francis Baring, Baron Ashburton Auckland – George Eden, Earl of Auckland Ballance – John Ballance Bell Block – Dillon Bell Benneydale – Matt Benney and Tom Dale Blaketown – Isaac Blake Brockville – Frederick Brock-Hollinshead Bronte – Admiral Lord Nelson, Duke of Bronté Brunner – Thomas Brunner Brydone – Thomas Brydone Carterton – Charles Carter Charleston – Captain Charles Bonner Christchurch – Jesus Christ (indirectly via Christ Church, a college of the University of Oxford in England) Clarkville – Joseph Clark Clive – Robert Clive ("Clive of India") Clinton – Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle Clyde – Lord Clyde Coatesville – Gordon Coates, Prime Minister Cobden – Richard Cobden Collingwood – Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood Colville – Alexander Colville, 7th Lord Colville of Culross Cromwell – possibly Oliver Cromwell Dargaville – Joseph Dargaville Days Bay – George Day Dobson – George Dobson Duders Beach – Thomas Duder Evansdale – William Evans Eyreton – Edward John Eyre Featherston – Isaac Featherston Feilding – William Feilding Fendalton – Walpole Chesshyre Fendall (1830–1913) Fordlands – Harry Ford Foxton – William Fox, Premier Franz Josef / Waiau – Franz Joseph I of Austria Frasertown – Major James Fraser Gabriel's Gully – Gabriel Read Gisborne – William Gisborne Gladstone – William Ewart Gladstone Godley Head – John Robert Godley Gore – Thomas Gore Browne Greerton – Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Harpur Greer Grey River, Greymouth, Greytown – George Grey, Governor Haast – Julius von Haast Halswell – Edmund Storr Halswell QC (1790–1874) Hamilton – John Fane Charles Hamilton Hampden – John Hampden Hanmer Springs – Thomas Hanmer Harrisville – Benjamin Harris Hastings – Warren Hastings Havelock – Henry Havelock Havelock North – Henry Havelock Helensville – Helen McLeod, wife of John McLeod Hinds – Samuel Hinds Hope – Jane Hope Hunterville – George Hunter Hyde – John Hyde Harris Invercargill – William Cargill Jack's Point – "Maori Jack" Tewa Jacksons – Michael Jackson Kennedys Bush – Thomas Kennedy Levin – William Hort Levin Lincoln – Earl of Lincoln Linton – James Linton Lower Hutt – Sir William Hutt Lyell – Charles Lyell Lyttelton – the Lyttelton family Macraes – John MacRae Mackenzie Basin – James Mckenzie Mackenzie District – James Mckenzie Macetown – brothers Charles, Harry, and John Mace Mairtown – Gilbert Mair and family Martinborough – John Martin Massey – William Massey, Prime Minister Masterton – Joseph Masters Mauriceville – Maurice O'Rourke Maxwell (now Pākaraka) – Sergeant George Maxwell McLaren Park, New Zealand – Bruce McLaren Melville – James Dougal Melville (1841–1909) Mercer – Captain Henry Mercer Moncks Bay – John Stanley Monck Millers Flat – Walter Miller Murchison – Roderick Murchison Napier – Charles James Napier Nelson – Admiral Horatio Nelson Ormondville – John Davies Ormond Palmerston – Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston Palmerston North – Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston Picton – Thomas Picton Plimmerton – John Plimmer Port Albert – Prince Albert Port Chalmers – Thomas Chalmers Port Levy – Solomon Levey Port Underwood – Joseph Underwood Prestons – Thomas Herbert Preston Pyes Pa – Charles Pye, VC Queenstown – Queen Victoria Raglan – Lord Raglan Rātana Pā – T. W. Ratana Renwick – Thomas Renwick Ross – George Ross Saint Arnaud – Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud Seddon – Richard Seddon, Prime Minister Seddonville – Richard Seddon, Prime Minister Sumner – John Bird Sumner Tasman – Abel Tasman Upper Hutt – Sir William Hutt Victoria – Queen Victoria Vogeltown – Julius Vogel, Premier Wakefield – Arthur Wakefield Waldronville – Bill Waldron (1909–1976) Ward – Joseph Ward Wellington – Duke of Wellington Wellsford – an acronym derived from the surnames of the first European families who settled in the region West Eyreton – Edward John Eyre Whitford – Richard Whitford Winton – Thomas Winton Wyndham – Charles Ash Windham Nicaragua Ahmed Campos Correa (Chontales) – Ahmed Campos Correa (1956–1982), a Nicaraguan Poet Arlen Siu (Granada) – Arlen Siu, a guerrilla revolutionary heroine Bernardino Diaz Ochoa (Granada) – Bernadino Diaz Ochoa (1941–1971), a Nicaraguan peasant and revolutionary Bluefields – Abraham Blauvelt, a Dutch privateer, pirate and explorer of Central America in the 1630s Carazo Department – Evaristo Carazo, President of Nicaragua Cárdenas – Adán Cárdenas, President of Nicaragua Ciudad Darío – Rubén Dario, Nicaraguan poet Ciudad Sandino – Revolutionary Augusto César Sandino El Viejo – Cacique Agateyte Filiberto Morales (Chinandega) – Filiberto Morales Darce (d.1979) German Pomares (Jinotega), German Pomares (Nueva Segovia) – German Pomares Ordonez (1936–1979), a Nicaraguan national hero Greytown, Nicaragua – Charles Edward Grey, a British judge and colonial governor Gaspar García (Rivas) – Gaspar García Laviana Hilario Sanchez (Managua) – Hilario Sánchez Vásquez (1953–1983), a Nicaraguan military Jesus Rivera (Jinotega) – Manuel de Jesus Rivera "La Mascota" (1965–1978), a Nicaraguan revolutionary kid Jose Benito Escobar (Matagalpa) and Jose Benito Escobar (South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region) – Jose Benito Escobar (1936–1978), revolutionary La Concepción, Masaya – Immaculate Conception of Mary Larreynaga – Miguel Larreynaga, Nicaraguan philosopher Leon Diaz (Jinotega) – General Jose Leon Diaz, Salvadoran military of one of 30 militaries during the Nicaraguan Revolution Leonel Rugama (Esteli) – Jose Leonel Rugama (1949–1970), Nicaraguan poet Macario Brenes (Masaya) – Macario Brenes Alvarez (died in 1979) Madriz Department – Jose Madriz, President of Nicaragua Marlon Zelaya (Rio San Juan) – Marlon Zelaya Cruz (1962–1983), a student martyr Monseñor Madrigal (Nueva Segovia) – Monseñor Nicolás Antonio Madrigal y García (1898–1977) Pablo Ubeda (Boaco) – Rigoberto Cruz (died in 1967), also known as Pablo Ubeda, one of the founders of the FSLN Padre Ramos (Chinandega) – Father Francisco Ramos, Nicaraguan priest Patricio Arguello Ryan (Leon) – Patrick Argüello Puerto Benjamin Zeledon – Benjamin Zeledon, national hero of Nicaragua Puerto Cabezas – Rigoberto Cabezas, journalist, military figure and politician Puerto Diaz, Chontales – Adolfo Díaz, President of Nicaragua Puerto Morazán – Francisco Morazán, a Honduran Politician Puerto Salvador Allende (Managua) – Salvador Allende Ricardo Morales Avilés (Granada) – Ricardo Morales Avilés (1939–1973) Rigoberto Lopez Perez (Managua) – Rigoberto Lopez Perez, Nicaraguan poet Rivas Department – Patricio Rivas, President of Nicaragua Rivas, Nicaragua – Francisco Rodriguez de Rivas (1674–1743), Captain General of Guatemala Roman Esteban Toledo (Carazo) – Roman del Carmen Esteban Toledo (1950–1979), revolutionary Ruben Dario (South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region) – Ruben Dario San Dionisio, Matagalpa – Dionisio de Herrera, president of Nicaragua San Fernando, Nueva Segovia – King Ferdinand III of Spain San Francisco Chontales (Villa Sandino) - Rev. Frank Setzer (1911-2000) San Francisco del Norte – Saint Francis San Jose de Cusmapa – José Dolores Estrada San José de los Remates – José María Guerrero de Arcos y Molina, director of the State of Nicaragua San Lorenzo de los Tellez – Saint Lawrence and Josefa Tellez, owner of a small farm in the vicinity of the area Santa Lucía, Boaco – Saint Lucy Santa María, Nueva Segovia – Saint Mary San Nicolás, Estelí – Saint Nicholas San Pedro del Norte – Saint Peter San Ramón, Matagalpa – Saint Raymond Nonnatus Santa Teresa, Carazo – Saint Teresa of Ávila Santo Tomás del Norte – Tomas Ruiz Romero (1777–1819), Priest and independence hero Socrates Sandino (Masaya) – Socrates Sandino Tiffer (1875–1935), a Sandino's paternal brother Villa Carlos Fonseca – Carlos Fonseca Amador, founder of the Sandinista National Liberation Front Villa Sandino – revolutionary Augusto César Sandino Niger Cité Fayçal (Niamey) – Faisal of Saudi Arabia Nigeria Port Harcourt – Lewis Vernon Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt Victoria Island, Lagos – Queen Victoria North Korea Kimchaek – Korean People's Army (KPA) general, Kim Chaek Kimhyonggwon County – Korean revolutionary Kim Hyong-gwon Kimhyongjik County – Korean independence activist Kim Hyong-jik Kimjongsuk County – Korean anti-Japanese guerrilla and Kim Il-sung's first wife Kim Jong-suk Norway Edgeøya – Thomas Edge Eydehavn – Sam Eyde, an industrial pioneer Filipstad, Norway – pharmacist Philip Moth Fredrikstad – King Frederick II of Denmark and Norway Jan Mayen – Captain Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout Kongsberg – King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway Kongsvinger – King Christian V of Denmark and Norway Kristiansand – King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway Kristiansund – King Christian VI of Denmark and Norway Longyearbyen – world's northernmost town – John Munroe Longyear Former: Christiania (from 1624 through 1877) and then Kristiania (from 1877 through 1925) were the names of Oslo – King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway Fredrikshald was the name of Halden from 1665 through 1928 – King Frederick III of Denmark and Norway Fredriksvern was the name of Stavern from 1799 through 1930 – King Frederick V of Denmark and Norway Victoriahavn was the name of Narvik from 1887 through 1902 – Crown princess of Norway, Victoria of Baden Oman Madinat Al Sultan Qaboos – Sultan Qaboos Pakistan Abbottabad – James Abbott Aziz Bhatti Town – Raja Aziz Bhatti, Pakistani military officer Bahawalnagar – Bahawal Khan V Bahawalpur – Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi (1715–1749) Dera Allah Yar – Political Leader Mir Allahyar Khan Khosa (d.1984) Dera Ismail Khan – Ismail Khan Dera Murad Jamali – Mir Muhammad Murad Jamali, an assassinated Pakistani leader Faisalabad – King Faisal of Saudi Arabia Fatehpur Thakiala – Sardar Fateh Muhammad Khan Karelvi (d.1988) Hayatabad – Hayat Sherpao Iqbal Town, Lahore – Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani national poet Jacobabad – John Jacob Jafarabad District – Jafar Khan Jamali, a Muslim League veteran from Balochistan Jamshed Town – Jamshed Nusserwanjee Mehta, first elected Mayor of Karachi Jauharabad – Mohammad Ali Jauhar, one of several prominent leaders of the Pakistan Movement Jinnahabad (Abbottabad) – Muhammad Ali Jinnah Father of the nation Khairpur Nathan Shah – Sufi Saint Hazrat Nathan Shah (d.1983) Kot Ghulam Muhammad – Ghulam Muhammad Khan Bhurgri, one of the pioneers of the Pakistan Movement Liaquatabad Town and Liaquatpur – Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistani statesman Muzaffarabad – Sultan Raja Muzaffar Khan Muzaffargarh – Nawab Muzaffar Khan (d.1818), Afghan Popalzai governor of Multan Nankana Sahib – Guru Nanak Nazimabad – Khawaja Nazimuddin, Governor-General of Pakistan Nishtar Town – Abdur Rab Nishtar, a Pakistan movement leader Port Qasim – Muhammad bin Qasim, an Arab Commander Qilla Abdullah – Sardar Abdullah Khan Ahmedzai, a Khan of Kalat Rahim Yar Khan – Crown Prince Rahim Yar Khan, who died by burns in a fire at the age of four Rajanpur – Makhdoom Sheikh Rajan Shah Sadiqabad – Amīr Sadiq Mohammad Khan V Shaheed Benazirabad District – Shaheed Benazir Bhutto, a two-time prime minister of Pakistan Sheikhupura – Jahangir's nickname Shekhu Shujabad – Nawab Shuja Khan Tando Muhammad Khan – Mir Muhammad Khan Talpur Shahwani Toba Tek Singh – Tek Singh, Sikh religious figure Former: Edwardesabad was the name of Bannu – Sir Herbert B. Edwardes Fort Sandeman was the name of Zhob – Sir Robert Sandeman Lyallpur was the name of Faisalabad – Alfred Comyn Lyall Montgomery was the name of Sahiwal – Sir Robert Montgomery Panama Papua New Guinea Finschhafen – Otto Finsch Hatzfeldhafen – Paul von Hatzfeldt Heldsbach – German missioner Friedrich Held, who died of malaria in 1901 Lake Murray Rural LLG – Hubert Leonard Murray Marienberg Rural LLG – Marie von Bismarck (1848–1926) Markham District – Albert Hastings Markham Mount Hagen – Curt von Hagen (1859–1897) Mount Wilhelm Rural LLG – Wilhelm von Bismarck Port Moresby – Admiral Sir Fairfax Moresby Queen Carola Harbour – Carola of Vasa West Ferguson Rural LLG – Sir James Fergusson, 6th Baronet Paraguay Former: Doña Heriberta Stroessner de Iglesias was the name of Alto Verá – Heriberta Stroessner de Iglesias, Alfredo Stroessner's sister Domingo Robledo was the name of Natalio – Domingo Robledo (1911–1972), Intendent of Encarnacion Fortin Lopez de Filippis was the name of Mariscal Estigarribia – Captain Cesar Lopez de Filippis, Paraguayan military who died during the Chaco War on 1933 Puerto Presidente Stroessner was the name of Ciudad del Este – Alfredo Stroessner Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Costa Cabral (Porto) – António Bernardo da Costa Cabral, 1st Marquis of Tomar Doutor Augusto de Castro (Lisboa) - Augusto de Castro (1883-1971), lawyer, diplomat and politician Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo – count Rodrigo González Girón Gomes da Costa (Porto) – Manuel Gomes da Costa Guerra Junqueiro (Porto) - Guerra Junqueiro Guimarães – Vímara Peres Lisbon (Latin, Olisipo, Olisipo Felicitas Iulia, Felicitas Julia Olissipo, Ulyssipolis, Ulisseia) – Ulysses Marechal Carmona (Lisboa) – Óscar Carmona, President Marques de Pombal (Lisboa) - Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal Montijo e Afonsoeiro – King Afonso I of Portugal Norton de Matos (Coimbra) – José Norton de Matos, a Portuguese general and politician Porto Moniz – Francisco Moniz Padre Cruz (Lisbon) – Francisco Rodrigues da Cruz (1859–1948), Portuguese priest Rainha D. Leonor (Albufeira) – Eleanor of Viseu Santa Joana (parish) – Joanna, Princess of Portugal São Vicente, Madeira – Vincent of Saragossa Vale de Afonsinho – Afonso I of Portugal Vila Boa do Bispo – D. Sisnando, bishop of Porto Vila do Bispo – Bishop Fernando Coutinho Vila do Conde – Mumadona Dias Vila Real – King Denis of Portugal Vila Real de Santo António – Joseph I of Portugal Puerto Rico Amalia Marin (Ponce) – Amalia Marín Castilla (1876–1957) Baldorioty De Castro (Ponce) – Román Baldorioty de Castro Betances (Cabo Rojo) – Ramón Emeterio Betances, Puerto Rican lawyer Bolívar (Santurce) – Simon Bolivar Caguas, Puerto Rico – chief Caguax Carolina, Puerto Rico – King Charles II of Spain Cataño, Puerto Rico – Hernando de Cataño Eleanor Roosevelt (Hato Rey) – Eleanor Roosevelt, American Politician Fajardo, Puerto Rico – Juan Antonio Fajardo (founder) Fernando L.Garcia (Utuado) – Fernando Luis García Gobernador Piñero, San Juan, Puerto Rico – Jesús T. Piñero, Governor of Puerto Rico Isabela, Puerto Rico – Queen Isabella I of Castile Isabel Segunda, Puerto Rico – Isabella II of Spain Jaime L. Drew (Ponce) – Jaime L. Drew, Puerto Rican educator John F. Kennedy (Mayaguez) – John F. Kennedy Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico – Doña Juana Díaz Lares, Puerto Rico – Don Amador de Lariz, Spanish nobleman Levittown, Puerto Rico – William Levitt López Sicardó (Oriente) – Dr. Rafael Lopez Sicardo (1875–1937) Luis Llorens Torres (Santurce) – Luis Lloréns Torres Manuel A. Pérez (San Juan) – Manuel Pérez (teacher) Marín (Patillas) and Luis Muñoz Marín (San Lorenzo) – Luis Muñoz Marín, 1st Governor of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Morel Campos (Ponce) – Juan Morel Campos Muñoz Rivera (Patillas) – Luis Muñoz Rivera, Puerto Rican poet, journalist and politician Nemesio Canales (San Juan) – Nemesio Canales Ponce, Puerto Rico – Juan Ponce de León or Juan Ponce de León y Loayza, great-grandson of Spanish Rafael Hernández (Aguadilla) – Rafael Hernández Marín Roosevelt Roads (Ceiba) – Franklin D. Roosevelt San Germán, Puerto Rico – Germaine of Foix, the new queen of King Fernando or Saint Germanus of Auxerre Villa Georgetti (Barceloneta) – Eduardo Georgetti Qatar Umm Salal Ali – Ali bin Jassim Al Thani, a son of Qatar's former ruler Umm Salal Mohammed – Sheikh Mohammed bin Jassim Al Thani Romania Russia Saint Kitts and Nevis Charlestown, Nevis – Charles II of England Saint Lucia Castries – Charles Eugene Gabriel de La Croix, Marquis de Castries, French Marshal Rodney Bay – British naval officer George Brydges Rodney Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Charlestown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Charles II of England Georgetown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – George III of the United Kingdom Port Elizabeth, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines – Queen Elizabeth II São Tomé e Príncipe Agostinho Neto (São Tomé) – Agostinho Neto, Angolan President Saudi Arabia King Abdul Aziz Port – Ibn Saud King Abdullah Economic City – Abdullah of Saudi Arabia King Khalid Military City – Khalid of Saudi Arabia Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Edinburgh of the Seven Seas – The Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh Jamestown – James, Duke of York Georgetown – George III Senegal Djily Mbaye (Dakar) – El Hadj Djily Mbaye (1927–1991) Richard Toll – Jean Michel Claude Richard, French botanist Saint-Louis – Louis XIV of France Serbia Sierra Leone Aberdeen, Sierra Leone – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen Bureh Town – Bai Bureh, a Sierra Leonean pro independent leader Charlotte, Sierra Leone – Princess Charlotte of Wales Granville Town, Province of Freedom – Granville Sharp Newton, Sierra Leone – British abolitionist John Newton Ricketts, Sierra Leone – Henry Ricketts Samuel Town, Sierra Leone – Pa Samai, great Mende warrior from the south of Sierra Leone Wellington, Freetown – Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Singapore Alexandra, Singapore – Alexandra of Denmark Balestier – Joseph Balestier Clementi, Singapore – Cecil Clementi MacPherson, Singapore – Lieutenant Colonel Ronald MacPherson (1837–1869) Mount Faber – Captain Charles Edward Faber Mount Vernon, Singapore – British Royal Navy Vice Admiral Edward Vernon Newton, Singapore – Alfred Howard Vincent Newton Queenstown, Singapore – Queen Elizabeth II Thomson, Singapore – John Turnbull Thomson Slovakia Bernolákovo – Anton Bernolák, Slovak linguist and Catholic priest Bratislava – Braslav, Duke of Lower Pannonia Gabčíkovo – Jozef Gabčík, a Slovak soldier involved in Operation Anthropoid Golianovo – Ján Golian, Slovak Brigade General Hamuliakovo – Martin Hamuljak, Slovak Writer Hurbanovo – Jozef Miloslav Hurban, Slovak writer Kalinkovo – Joachim Kalinka (1601–1678), Slovak poet and priest Leopoldov – Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor Malinovo, Slovakia – Soviet Marshal Rodion Malinovsky Martin, Slovakia – Saint Martin of Tours Michalovce – Saint Michael Mojzesovo – Štefan Moyses Nálepkovo – Ján Nálepka, anti-fascist Slovak captain Palárikovo – Ján Palárik (1822–1876), Slovak playwright Sládkovičovo – Andrej Sládkovič, Slovak poet Štefanovičová – Dr. Miloš Štefanovič (1854–1904), Slovak lawyer Štúrovo – Ľudovít Štúr, 19th-century Slovak national leader Svätoplukovo – Svätopluk II, Prince of Moravia Tešedíkovo – Samuel Tešedík, Slovak Lutheran priest Tomášikovo – Samo Tomášik, Slovak poet Slovenia Kidričevo – Boris Kidrič, Prime Minister of Slovenia Primoži – Primož Trubar, Father of the Slovenian nation Semič – Stanko Semič (1915–1985), Slovenian national hero Somalia Former: Bandar Qassim was the name of Bosaso – named after city's founder Qassim South Africa Benoni – the original name of the Biblical Benjamin Durban – Sir Benjamin d'Urban Johannesburg – Johannes Rissik; Johannes Meyer Pietermaritzburg – Two theories exist. In the theory officially accepted today by the city, it bears the name of Voortrekker leaders Piet Retief and Gert Maritz. In another theory, the city was originally named after Retief alone, initially "Pieter Mouriets Burg" (after his given names) and transformed to its current form. Port Elizabeth – Elizabeth Donkin (wife of acting governor Sir Rufane Shaw Donkin) Pretoria – Andries Pretorius South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands King Edward Point – Edward VII Prince Olav Harbour – Crown Prince Olav of Norway South Korea Danwon-gu – Gim Hongdo Myeongseongsan – Empress Myeongseong Sejong City – Sejong the Great Chumgmu-ro – Admiral Yi Sun-sin Euljiro – General Eulji Mundeok Spain Sudan Abu Hamad – Sheikh Abu Hamed Suakin, formerly named Ptolemais Theron – Ptolemy II Philadelphus Suriname Albina, Suriname - Albina Josefine Liezenmaier (1815-1904) Bernharddorp - Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld or Saint Bernard of Clairvaux Brownsweg – John Brown, 19th century gold miner Cabendadorp - Chief Joseph Cabenda (1925-2012) Corneliskondre - Chief Cornelis Tapopi Donderskamp - Peter Donders Julianatop – Queen Juliana of the Netherlands Lelydorp – Cornelis Lely (the Dutch governor of Suriname in 1905) Marshallkreek – Captain Marshall, who explored in Marshall's Creek, Suriname Sweden Borstahusen – Rasmus Andersson Borste and Jöns Andersson Borste, fishermen Charlottenberg – Charlotta Larsson (1797–1856) (wife of the founder of the industry) Dorotea – Frederica Dorothea Wilhelmina of Baden, Swedish queen Eskilstuna – Saint Eskil Filipstad – Karl Filip, the son of King Charles IX of Sweden Flemingsberg – Henrik Klasson Fleming, Lord Marshal, owner, 16th century Fredrika – Frederica Dorothea Wilhelmina of Baden, Swedish queen Gustavsberg – Gustaf Oxenstierna, father of the owner, 17th century Jakobsberg – Jakob Lilliehöök, owner, 17th century Karlsborg (Västra Götaland) – King Charles XIV John of Sweden Karlsborg, Kalix Municipality – King Charles XV of Sweden Karlshamn – King Charles X Gustav of Sweden Karlskoga – King Charles IX of Sweden Karlskrona – King Charles XI of Sweden Karlstad – King Charles IX of Sweden Katrineholm – Catharina von der Linde, daughter of the estate owner, 17th century Kramfors – Christoffer Kramm (1690–1752) Kristianopel – King Christian IV of Denmark Kristianstad – King Christian IV of Denmark Kristinehamn – Queen Christina of Sweden Kungens Kurva – King Gustav V of Sweden Kungsängen – King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden Mariefred – Mary, mother of Jesus Mariestad – Queen Mary, wife of Charles IX of Sweden Örnsköldsvik – Per Abraham Örnsköld, county governor of Västernorrland County, 1762–1769 Oskarshamn – King Oscar I of Sweden Ulricehamn – Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden Vilhelmina – Frederica Dorothea Wilhelmina of Baden, Swedish queen Switzerland Augst (near the ancient city of Augusta Raurica) – Roman Emperor Augustus Kaiseraugst (also near Augusta Raurica) – Augustus St. Gallen – Saint Gall Syria Abu Kamal – the Kamal Family Al-Bitariyah – Salah al-Din al-Bitar Al-Malikiyah – Adnan al-Malki, a Syrian Army officer Al-Qadmus – Cadmus, Phoenician prince Apamea (Syria) – Apama, wife of Seleucus I Nicator Arwad, formerly Antiochia in Pieria – Antiochus I Soter Dahiyat al-Assad – Hafez al-Assad, President of Syria Latakia, formerly Laodicea – Laodice of Macedonia, mother of Seleucus I Nicator Mount Simeon District – Simeon Stylites Muadamiyat al-Sham – Al-Mu'azzam Isa, Kurdish Sultan from Ayyubid dynasty Palmyra (modern) (Tadumr) – named after a daughter of one of Noah's distant descendants, who was buried in a city Qura al-Assad – Hafez al-Assad Salaheddine District – Saladin Sayyidah Zaynab – Zaynab bint Ali Former: Laodicea ad Libanum was the name of a Hellenistic settlement – a woman named Laodice among the Seleucids Seleucia ad Belum was the name of a Hellenistic settlement – a Seleucus of the Seleucid dynasty Tajikistan Avicenna District (Dushanbe) – Avicenna, Persian Polymath Ayni District – Tajik national poet Sadriddin Ayni Dustmurod Aliev (jamoat) – Dustmurod Aliev (1950–1989), Tajik musician and singer Dzhami District – 15th century Tajik-Persian Poet Abdurahman Jami Ferdowsi district (Dushanbe) – Ferdowsi, Persian Poet Ghafurov – Tajik historian and President of Tajikistan during the soviet era, Bobojon Ghafurov Hamadoni District – 14th-century Persian poet Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani Ismoili Somoni – Isma'il ibn Ahmad Jabbor Rasulov District – Prime Minister of Tajikistan during the Soviet era, Jabbor Rasulov Mirsaid Mirshakar (town or jamoat) – Mirsaid Mirshakar, a Tajik administrator, author, playwright and poet Muminsho Abdulvosiev (Rushon) – Muminsho Abdulvosiev (1933–1992), Tajik statesman Nazarsho Dodhudoev (Rushan) – Nazarsho Dodhudoev (1915–2000), Tajik statesman Nosiri Khusrav District – 11th century Persian-Tajik poet Nosiri Khusrav Rahimzoda – Boki Rahimzoda (1910–1980), Tajik Poet Rudaki, Tajikistan – Rudaki, a Persian Poet Rumi District – Tajik-Persian poet and philosopher Jaloliddin Rumi Safar Amirshoev – Safar Amirshoev (1912–1944), World War II hero Shah Mansur district (Dushanbe) – King Mansur I Shamsiddin Shohin District – Tajik Poet Shamsiddin Shohin Shogadoev – Munavvar Shogadoev (1898–1974), President of Tajikistan during the soviet era Spitamen District – Spitamenes, a Sogdian warlord leader of the uprising Temurmalik District – Tajik Medieval hero Timur Malik Tursunzoda – Tajik national poet Mirzo Tursunzoda Tursun Uljaboev – Tursun Uljabayev, Prime Minister of Tajikistan during the soviet era Former: Alexandria Eschate was the name of Khujand in antiquity – Alexander the Great Leninabad was the name of Khujand from 1936 through 1991 – Vladimir Lenin Stalinabad was the name of Dushanbe from 1929 through 1961 – Joseph Stalin Tanzania Nyerere (Ward of Zanzibar City) – Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania Thailand Chaophraya Surasak – Chaophraya Surasakmontri Chulabhorn District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province – Princess Chulabhorn Galyani Vadhana District, Chiang Mai Province – Princess Galyani Vadhana Mae Fa Luang District – Princess Mother Srinagarindra (Mae Fa Luang) Phaya Mengrai District, Chiang Rai Province – King Mangrai (Mengrai) Prachaksinlapakhom District – Prince Prachaksinlapakhom (1856–1924) Sirindhorn District, Ubon Ratchathani Province – HRH Princess Sirindhorn Srinagarindra District, Phatthalung Province – HRH Princess Srinagarindra Ubolratana District, Khon Kaen Province – Princess Ubol Ratana Vibhavadi District, Surat Thani Province – Princess Vibhavadi Rangsit Wachirabarami District, Phichit Province – Prince Vajiralongkorn (, now King Vajiralongkorn) Watthana District, Bangkok – Princess Galyani Vadhana, alternative transliteration Trinidad and Tobago Charlotteville – Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Diego Martin – Don Diego Martin (explorer) Princes Town – Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and King George V Tunisia El-Mansuriya – al-Mansur bi-Nasr Allah Mahdia, formerly Aphrodisium – Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah Menzel Bourguiba – Habib Bourguiba, first President of Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Ashgabat – Arsaces I of Parthia Balyş Öwezow (Görogly) – Balysh Ovezov, Prime Minister of Turkmenistan during the soviet era Gurbansoltan Eje District – Gurbansoltan Eje, former president Saparmurat Niyazov's mother Kerbabayeva – Berdy Kerbabayev, Turkmen writer Magtymguly District – Magtymguly Pyragy, Turkmen poet Magtymguly Garlyýew (Gurbansoltan Eje) – Magtymguly Garly (1889–1957), Turkmen musician Mollanepes – Turkmen National writer Mollanepes (1810–1862) Nurmuhammet Andalyp (Gurbansoltan Eje) – Nurmuhammet Andalyp (1660–1740), Turkmen philosopher Saparmyrat Nyýazow District – Saparmurat Niyazov, President of Turkmenistan Saparmyrat Türkmenbaşy – Saparmurat Niyazov Serdar (city) – Saparmurat Niyazov Seýdi – Seitnazar Seidi (1775–1836), Turkmen patriot and poet Turkmenbashi – Saparmurat "Turkmenbashi" Niyazov Former: Alexandria was giving named of Merv – Alexander the Great Antiochia in Margiana was giving named of Merv – Antiochus I Soter Atamyrat was giving named of Kerki – Atamyrat Niyazov, Father of Saparmurat Niyazov who died during World War II Leninsk was giving named of Turkmenabat – Vladimir Lenin Uganda Fort Portal – Sir Gerald Portal (British commissioner) Port Bell – Sir Hesketh Bell (British commissioner) Ukraine United Arab Emirates Khalifa City – Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates Port Rashid – Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, President of the United Arab Emirates Zayed City – Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan United Kingdom Great Britain Northern Ireland County Tyrone – Eógan mac Néill, son of Niall of the Nine Hostages Craigavon – Lord Craigavon, former Prime Minister Helen's Bay – Lady Helen Dufferin Randalstown – Randal MacDonnell Victoria Bridge, County Tyrone – Queen Victoria United States United States Virgin Islands Charlotte Amalie – Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) Christiansted – Christian VI of Denmark Frederiksted – Frederick V of Denmark Uruguay Andresito – Andrés Guazurary Artigas – José Artigas Baltasar Brum (Artigas Department) – Baltasar Brum, President of Uruguay Bernabé Rivera (Artigas Department) – General Bernabe Rivera Brigadier General Diego Lamas (Artigas Department) Florencio Sánchez (Colonia Department) – Florencio Sánchez Flores Department – Venancio Flores General Liber Seregni – Liber Seregni, Uruguayan military and politician Ismael Cortinas (Flores Department) – Ismael Cortinas Javier de Viana (Artigas Department) – Javier de Viana Joaquín Suárez (Canelones Department) – Joaquín Suárez José Batlle y Ordóñez (Lavalleja Department) – José Batlle y Ordóñez, President of Uruguay Juan Lacaze (Colonia Department) – Juan Luis Lacaze Lavalleja Department – Juan Antonio Lavalleja Ombúes de Lavalle (Colonia Department) – Juan Lavalle Rivera – Fructuoso Rivera San Antonio (Canelones Department) – Saint Anthony of Padua San Bautista (Canelones Department) – Saint John the Baptist San Jacinto (Canelones Department) – Saint Hyacinth of Cracow (in honor of bishop Jacinto Vera) San José Department – Saint Joseph San Luis (Canelones Department) – Saint Louis IX San Ramón (Canelones Department) – Saint Raymond Nonnatus Santa Lucía (Canelones Department) – Saint Lucy Santa Rosa (Canelones Department) – Saint Rose of Lima Santiago Vázquez (Montevideo Department) – Santiago Vázquez Soca (Canelones Department) – Francisco Soca Tomas Gomensoro (Artigas Department) – Tomás Gomensoro Albín, President of Uruguay Uzbekistan Abdurahmonov nomidag (Tashkent) – Abdujabbor Abdurahmonov (1907–1975), President of Uzbekistan from 1938 to 1950 Ahmad Yassaviy (Tashkent) – Ahmad Yasawi Ahmad Yugnakiy (Tashkent) – Edib Ahmed bin Mahmud Yüknekî (poet) Antiochia in Scythia – Antiochus I Soter F. Yuldashev (Bulungur) – Faizulla Yuldashev (1912–1991), veteran of the Great Patriotic War Gagarin, Uzbekistan – Yuri Gagarin Gani Azamov, Qoraqamish – Gani Azamov (1909–2001), Uzbek actor H.Tursunqulov (Tashkent) – Hamrakul Tursunkulov (1892–1965), Chairman of the collective farm Iskandar (town) – Grand Duke Nicholas Konstantinovich of Russia Khamzy (Tashkent) and Khamzy (Uchqorgon) – Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi, poet Mirzo Ulugbek, Ulugbek (town) – Ulugh Beg, astronomer, mathematician and sultan Navoiy – Uzbek poet Alisher Navoi Sharof Rashidov District (Jizzakh) – Sharof Rashidov, President of Uzbekistan from 1950 to 1959 Oxunboboyev (Shurchi) – Yuldash Akhunbabaev Shaykhontohur – Sheikh Khovendi at-Takhu, a famous thinker and educator Sobir Rahimov nomli (Bostanlyk) – Sobir Rakhimov T.Ahmedov nomidag (Sirdaryo) – Turgun Ahmedov (1925–1944), World War II hero U.Musaev (Yangiyul) – Ubaydulla Musaev (1914–1972), Uzbek political figure Zakirov (Tashkent) – Qodir Zokirov, Uzbek scientist, botanist and educator Former: "Akhunbabaev" was the name of Jalaquduq – Soviet Uzbek state figure Yuldash Akhunbabaev (1885–1943) "Akmal-Ikramov" was the name of Uchtepa – Akmal Ikramov "Kuybishevo" was the name of Rishtan – Valerian Kuybyshev "Leninsk" was the name of Asaka, Uzbekistan – Vladimir Lenin "Skobelev" was the name of Fergana – Mikhail Skobelev "Sobir Rakhimov" was the name of Olmazar – Sobir Rakhimov "Hamza" was the name of Yashnobod – Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi Venezuela Alberto Adriani Municipality – Alberto Adriani Mazzei (1898–1936), economist and writer Alberto Arvelo Torrealba Municipality – Alberto Arvelo Torrealba, Venezuelan lawyer, educator and folklorical poet Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality, Barinas – Andres Eloy Blanco, Venezuelan poet Angostura Municipality, Venezuela or Raúl Leoni Municipality – Venezuelan President Raúl Leoni Antonio Pinto Salinas Municipality – Antonio Pinto Salinas (1915–1953), Venezuelan poet Aristides Bastidas Municipality – Aristides Bastidas, Venezuelan writer Arzobispo Chacón Municipality – Acacio Chacon Guerra (1884–1978) Caracciolo Parra Olmedo Municipality – Caracciolo Parra Olmedo (1819–1908), Venezuelan lawyer and politician Cardenal Quintero Municipality – José Humberto Quintero Parra Carlos Arvelo Municipality – Carlos Arvelo, Venezuelan doctor and politician. Ciudad Bolívar – Simón Bolívar Ciudad Ojeda – Alonso de Ojeda Diego Bautista Urbaneja Municipality – Diego Bautista Urbaneja Ezequiel Zamora Municipality, Monagas – General Ezequiel Zamora Fernandez Feo Municipality – Bishop of Tachira, Monseñor Alejandro Fernandez-Feo Tinoco (1908–1987) Francisco Aniceto Lugo Parish (Delta Amacuaro) – Dr. Francisco Aniceto Lugo (1894–1982), Venezuelan writer Francisco Javier Pulgar Municipality (Zuila) – Francisco Javier Pulgar (1877–1959), Venezuelan educator Francisco de Miranda, Anzoátegui – Francisco de Miranda, Venezuelan Independence hero Francisco Linares Alcántara Municipality – Francisco Linares Alcántara, Venezuelan President Jauregui Municipality (Tachira) – Jesus Manuel Jauregui (1848–1905) Jesús Enrique Lossada Municipality – Jesus Enrique Lossada (1892–1948), Venezuelan writer Jiménez Municipality, Lara – José Florencio Jiménez José Tadeo Monagas Municipality – José Tadeo Monagas Manuel Monge Municipality – Manuel Monge (1950–1993), President of the Village Association of Poblado 32 Mario Briceño Iragorry Municipality – Mario Briceño Iragorry Maroa, Amazonas – Cacique Maruwa Monseñor Iturriza Municipality – Monseñor Francisco José Iturriza Guillen (1903–2003) Monseñor Miguel Antonio Salas (Tachira) – Monseñor Miguel Antonio Salas (1915–2003) Padre Noguera Municipality – Father Adonay Noguera (1884–1954) Padre Pedro Chien Municipality – Father Pedro Chien (1925–1995), a Mongol missioner Páez, Apure – José Antonio Páez, an Independence hero Paz Castillo Municipality – Venezuelan poet and diplomat Fernando Paz Castillo Pedro Gual Municipality – 19th century Venezuelan President Pedro Gual Escandón Rafael Rangel Municipality – Rafael Rangel (1877–1909), Venezuelan scientific Raul Leoni Parish (Maracaibo) – Raul Leoni Rómulo Costa Municipality, Tachira – Dr. Antonio Romulo Costa Duque (1872–1957) Rómulo Gallegos Municipality, Apure – Romulo Gallegos, Venezuelan writer and president Sifontes Municipality – General Antonio Domingo Sifontes Sucre, Miranda – Antonio José de Sucre Urdaneta, Miranda – Rafael Urdaneta Valmore Rodríguez Municipality (Zuila) – Valmore Rodríguez (1900–1955), Venezuelan journalist Vietnam Bế Văn Đàn (Quảng Hòa) – Bế Văn Đàn (1931–1953), Hero of the People's Armed Forces Đề Thám (Lạng Sơn) – Hoàng Hoa Thám "Đề Thám" (1858–1913), leader of Yên Thế Insurrection Đình Phong (Cao Bằng) – Đình Phong, a communist soldier Đình Phùng, Bảo Lạc – Phan Đình Phùng (1847–1895), Vietnamese poet Dương Minh Châu District and Duong Minh Chau town – Dương Minh Châu (1912–1947), a communist lawyer Ho Chi Minh City – Ho Chi Minh, President of Vietnam Hồ Thị Kỷ (Cà Mau) – Hồ Thị Kỷ (1949–1970), martyr hero Hoàng Văn Thụ, Văn Lãng – Hoàng Văn Thụ (1909–1944), Vietnamese revolutionary Hồng Dân (Bạc Liêu) – Trần Hồng Dân (1916–1946), nationalist revolutionary Kim Đồng, Thạch An – Kim Đồng (1929–1943), captain of Ho Chi Minh Young Pioneer Organization Ngọc Hiển (Cà Mau) – Phan Ngọc Hiển (1910–1941), a local teacher, writer and artist Nguyễn Huân (Cà Mau) – Nguyễn Văn Huân (d.1946), communist martyr Nông trường Trần Phú – Trần Phú, Vietnamese revolutionary Phạm Văn Cội (Củ Chi) – Phạm Văn Cội (1940–1967), Hero of the People's Armed Forces Quang Trung, An Lão (Hải Phòng) – Quang Trung, second emperor of the Tây Sơn dynasty Trần Hưng Đạo (Lý Nhân) – Trần Hưng Đạo, an imperial prince, statesman and military commander Trần Văn Thời District and Trần Văn Thời town – Trần Văn Thời (1902–1942), a local communist Former: Thành Thái Phien – the name of Da Nang in 1945 – revolutionary Thái Phiên Zambia Dag Hammerskjoeld (Ndola) – Dag Hammarskjöld Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula (Lusaka) – Harry Nkumbula, Zambian nationalist leader Helen Kaunda (Copperbelt) – Ms. Helen Kaunda (d.1973), mother of President Kenneth Kaunda John Laing (Lusaka) – John Laing (businessman) Julia Chikamoneka (Kasama) – Julia Chikamoneka (1910–1986), Zambian freedom fighter Livingstone – doctor David Livingstone Lusaka – Chief Lusaka Victoria falls – Queen Victoria Former: Abercorn was the name of Mbala – Lord Abercorn Bancroft was the name of Chililabombwe - Joseph Austen Bancroft (1882-1957) Fort Jameson was the name of Chipata - Leander Starr Jameson Fort Rosebery was the name of Mansa, Zambia - Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Zimbabwe Beatrice, Zimbabwe – Beatrice Borrow (1868–1946), the sister of Lieutenant Henry J. Borrow, member of the Pioneer Column Beitbridge – Alfred Beit Bradfield, Zimbabwe – Edwin Eugene Bradfield (1869–1950) Felixburg – Felix Posselt, who visited in that area in 1888 Montgomery (Bulawayo) – Bernard Montgomery Mount Darwin, Zimbabwe – Charles Darwin Mount Hampden – John Hampden Norton, Zimbabwe – the Norton family Selous, Zimbabwe – Frederick Selous Victoria falls – Queen Victoria West Nicholson – Andy Nicholson, an early prospector Zhombe Joel – Joel Tessa, one of the pioneer businessmen at the centre during the 1960s. Former: Fort Victoria was the name of Masvingo – Queen Victoria Hartley was the name of Chegutu – Henry Hartley, an early explorer Salisbury was the name of Harare – Lord Salisbury See also Lists of places named after people List of countries named after people List of country subdivisions named after people List of islands named after people Buildings and structures named after people List of eponyms of airports List of convention centers named after people List of railway stations named after people List of colleges and universities named after people List of etymologies of country subdivision names List of country-name etymologies Lists of places by eponym List of eponyms Lists of etymologies References Places People place names

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.%20Howard%20Hunt

E. Howard Hunt

Everette Howard Hunt Jr. (October 9, 1918 – January 23, 2007) was an American intelligence officer and author. From 1949 to 1970, Hunt served as an officer in the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), particularly in the United States involvement in regime change in Latin America including the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion. Along with G. Gordon Liddy, Frank Sturgis, and others, Hunt was one of the Nixon administration "plumbers", a team of operatives charged with identifying government sources of national security information "leaks" to outside parties. Hunt and Liddy plotted the Watergate burglaries and other clandestine operations for the Nixon administration. In the ensuing Watergate scandal, Hunt was convicted of burglary, conspiracy, and wiretapping, eventually serving 33 months in prison. After release, Hunt lived in Mexico and then Florida until his death. Early life Hunt was born in Hamburg, New York, United States, the son of Ethel Jean (Totterdale) and Everette Howard Hunt Sr., an attorney and Republican Party official. He graduated from Hamburg High School in 1936 and Brown University in 1940. During World War II, Hunt served in the U.S. Navy on the destroyer USS Mayo, the United States Army Air Corps, and finally, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor to the CIA, in China. Career Author Hunt was a prolific author, having published 73 books during his lifetime. During and after the war, he wrote several novels under his own name, including East of Farewell (1942), Limit of Darkness (1944), Stranger in Town (1947), Maelstrom (1949) Bimini Run (1949), and The Violent Ones (1950). He also wrote spy and hardboiled novels under an array of pseudonyms, including Robert Dietrich, Gordon Davis, David St. John, and P. S. Donoghue. Hunt won a Guggenheim Fellowship for his writing in 1946. Some have found parallels between his writings and his experiences during Watergate and espionage. He continued his writing career after he was released from prison, publishing nearly twenty spy thrillers between 1980 and 2000. Economic Cooperation Administration Prior to 1949, Hunt served as an Officer in the Information Division of the Economic Cooperation Administration, a predecessor of the Mutual Security Agency. CIA Anti-Castro efforts Shortly following the end of World War II the OSS was disbanded. The subsequent emergence of the Cold War and the lack of a central intelligence organization resulted in the CIA's formation in 1947. Warner Bros. had just bought rights to Hunt's novel Bimini Run when he joined the CIA's Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) in October 1949. He was assigned as a covert action officer specializing in political action and influence in what later came to be called the CIA's Special Activities Division. According to David Talbot, "Howard Hunt prided himself on being part of the CIA’s upper tier. But that’s not how he was viewed at the top of the agency. Hunt liked to brag that he had family connections to Wild Bill Donovan himself, who had admitted him into the OSS, the original roundtable of American intelligence. But it turned out that Hunt’s father was a lobbyist in upstate New York to whom Donovan owed a favor, not a fellow Wall Street lawyer. Everyone knew Hunt was a writer, but they also knew he was no Ian Fleming. To the Georgetown set, there would always be something low-rent about men like Hunt—as well as William Harvey and David Morales. The CIA was a cold hierarchy. Men like this would never be invited for lunch with Allen Dulles at the Alibi Club or to play tennis with Dick Helms at the Chevy Chase Club. These men were indispensable—until they became expendable." Mexico, Guatemala, Japan, Uruguay and Cuba Hunt became the OPC Station Chief in Mexico City in 1950, and recruited and supervised William F. Buckley Jr., who worked under Hunt in his OPC Station in Mexico during the period 1951–1952. Buckley and Hunt remained lifelong friends and Buckley became godfather to Hunt's first three children. In Mexico, Hunt helped lay the framework for Operation PBFortune, later renamed Operation PBSuccess, the successful covert operation to overthrow Jacobo Árbenz, the democratically elected president of Guatemala. Hunt was assigned as Chief of Covert Action in Japan. He afterwards served as Chief of Station in Uruguay, (where he was noted by American diplomatic contemporary Samuel F. Hart for controversial working methods). Hunt would later say "What we wanted to do was to have a terror campaign, to terrify Arbenz particularly, to terrify his troops, much as the German Stuka bombers terrified the population of Holland, Belgium and Poland”. Hunt was subsequently given the assignment of forging Cuban exile leaders in the United States into a suitably representative government-in-exile that would, after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, form a pro-American Puppet state intent on taking over Cuba. The failure of the invasion temporarily damaged his career. Hunt was undeniably bitter about what he perceived as President John F. Kennedy's lack of commitment in attacking and overthrowing the government of Cuba. In his semi-fictional autobiography, Give Us This Day, he wrote: "The Kennedy administration yielded Castro all the excuse he needed to gain a tighter grip on the island of José Martí, then moved shamefacedly into the shadows and hoped the Cuban issue would simply melt away." Executive Assistant to DCI Allen Dulles In 1959 Hunt helped CIA Director Allen W. Dulles write The Craft of Intelligence. The following year Hunt established Brigade 2506, an Agency-sponsored group of Cuban exiles formed to attempt the military overthrow of the Cuban government headed by Fidel Castro. It carried out the abortive Bay of Pigs Invasion landings in Cuba on 17 April 1961. After that fiasco, Hunt was reassigned as Executive Assistant to Dulles. Other work After President John F. Kennedy fired Dulles in 1961 for the Bay of Pigs failure, Hunt served as the first Chief of Covert Action for the Domestic Operations Division (DODS) from 1962 to 1964. Hunt told The New York Times in 1974 that he spent about four years working for DODS, beginning shortly after it was set up by the Kennedy administration in 1962, over the "strenuous opposition" of Richard Helms and Thomas H. Karamessines. He said that the division was assembled shortly after the Bay of Pigs operation, and that "many men connected with that failure were shunted into the new domestic unit." He said that some of his projects from 1962 to 1966, which dealt largely with the subsidizing and manipulation of news and publishing organizations in the US, "did seem to violate the intent of the agency's charter." In 1964, DCI John A. McCone directed Hunt to take a special assignment as a Non-Official Cover (NOC) officer in Madrid, Spain, tasked to create the American answer to Ian Fleming's British MI-6 James Bond novel series. While assigned in Spain, Hunt was covered as a recently retired U.S. State Department Foreign Service Officer (FSO) who had moved his family to Spain in order to write the first installment of the 9-novel Peter Ward series, On Hazardous Duty (1965). After a year and a half in Spain, Hunt returned to his assignment at DODS. Following a brief tenure on the Special Activities Staff of the Western European Division, he became Chief of Covert Action for the region (while remaining based in the Washington metropolitan area) in July 1968. Hunt was lauded for his "sagacity, balance and imagination", and received the second-highest rating of Strong (signifying "performance... characterized by exceptional proficiency") in a performance review from the Division's Chief of Operations in April 1969. However, this was downgraded to the third-highest rating of Adequate in an amendment from the Division's Deputy Chief, who recognized Hunt's "broad experience" but opined that "a series of personal and taxing problems" had "tended to dull his cutting edge." Hunt would later maintain that he "had been stigmatized by the Bay of Pigs", and had come to terms with the fact that he "would not get promoted too much higher." In these final years of Hunt's CIA service, he began to cultivate new contacts in "society and the business world." While serving as vice president of the Brown University Club of Washington, he befriended and commenced a strong association with the organization's president, former congressional aide Charles Colson, who soon began working on Richard Nixon's presidential campaign. Hunt retired from the CIA at the pay grade of GS-15, Step 8 on April 30, 1970. Upon retiring from the CIA, Hunt neglected to elect survivorship benefits for his wife. An April 1971 request to retroactively amend his election was rebuffed by the agency. In a May 5, 1972 letter to CIA General Counsel Lawrence Houston, Hunt raised the possibility of returning to active duty for a short period of time in exchange for activating the benefits upon his proposed second retirement. Houston advised Hunt in his May 16 response that this "would be in violation of the spirit of the CIA Retirement Act". Immediately following his retirement, he went to work for the Robert R. Mullen Company, which cooperated with the CIA; H. R. Haldeman, White House Chief of Staff to President Nixon, wrote in 1978 that the Mullen Company was in fact a CIA front company, a fact that was apparently unknown to Haldeman while he worked in the White House. Through CIA's Project QKENCHANT, Hunt obtained a Covert Security Approval to handle the firm's affairs during Mullen's absence from Washington. White House service In 1971, Hunt was hired as a consultant by Charles Colson, Nixon's public liaison director, and joined the White House Special Investigations Unit, specializing in political sabotage. Hunt's first assignment for the White House was a covert operation to break into the Los Angeles office of Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist, Lewis J. Fielding. In July 1971, Fielding had refused a request from the Federal Bureau of Investigation for psychiatric data on Ellsberg. Hunt and Liddy cased the building in late August. The burglary, on September 3, 1971, was not detected, but no Ellsberg files were found. Also in the summer of 1971, Colson authorized Hunt to travel to New England to seek potentially scandalous information on Senator Edward Kennedy, specifically pertaining to the Chappaquiddick incident and to Kennedy's possible extramarital affairs. Hunt sought and used CIA disguises and other equipment for the project. This mission eventually proved unsuccessful, with little if any useful information uncovered by Hunt. Hunt's White House duties included assassinations-related disinformation. In September 1971, Hunt forged and offered to a Life magazine reporter two top-secret U.S. State Department cables designed to prove that President Kennedy had personally and specifically ordered the assassination of South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem and his brother, Ngô Đình Nhu, during the 1963 South Vietnamese coup. Hunt told the Senate Watergate Committee in 1973 that he had fabricated the cables to show a link between President Kennedy and the assassination of Diem, a Catholic, to estrange Catholic voters from the Democratic Party, after Colson suggested he "might be able to improve upon the record." In 1972, Hunt and Liddy were part of an assassination plot targeting journalist Jack Anderson, on orders from Colson. Nixon had disliked Anderson because during the 1960 presidential election Anderson had published an election-eve story concerning a secret loan from Howard Hughes to Nixon's brother, which Nixon believed was the reason he lost the election. Hunt and Liddy met with a CIA operative and discussed methods of assassinating Anderson, which included covering Anderson's car steering wheel with LSD to drug him and cause a fatal accident, poisoning his aspirin bottle, and staging a fatal robbery. The assassination plot never materialized because Hunt and Liddy were arrested for their involvement in the Watergate scandal later that year. Watergate scandal According to Seymour Hersh, writing in The New Yorker, Nixon White House tapes show that after presidential candidate George Wallace was shot on May 15, 1972, Nixon and Colson agreed to send Hunt to the Milwaukee home of the gunman, Arthur Bremer, to place McGovern presidential campaign material there. The intention was to link Bremer with the Democrats. Hersh writes that, in a taped conversation, "Nixon is energized and excited by what seems to be the ultimate political dirty trick: the FBI and the Milwaukee police will be convinced, and will tell the world, that the attempted assassination of Wallace had its roots in left-wing Democratic politics." Hunt did not make the trip, however, because the FBI had moved too quickly to seal Bremer's apartment and place it under police guard. Hunt organized the bugging of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate office building. Hunt and fellow operative G. Gordon Liddy, along with the five burglars arrested at the Watergate, were indicted on federal charges three months later. Hunt put pressure on the White House and the Committee to Re-Elect the President for cash payments to cover legal fees, family support, and expenses, for himself and his fellow burglars. Key Nixon figures, including Haldeman, Charles Colson, Herbert W. Kalmbach, John Mitchell, Fred LaRue, and John Dean eventually became entangled in the payoff schemes, and large amounts of money were passed to Hunt and his accomplices, to try to ensure their silence at the trial, by pleading guilty to avoid prosecutors' questions, and afterwards. Tenacious media, including The Washington Post and The New York Times, eventually used investigative journalism to break open the payoff scheme, and published many articles that proved to be the beginning of the end for the cover-up. Prosecutors had to follow up once the media reported. Hunt also pressured Colson, Dean, and John Ehrlichman to ask Nixon for clemency in sentencing, and eventual presidential pardons for himself and his cronies; this eventually helped to implicate and snare those higher up. Hunt was sentenced to 30 months to 8 years in prison, and spent 33 months in prison at Federal Correctional Complex, Allenwood and the low-security Federal Prison Camp at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, on a conspiracy charge, arriving at the latter institution on April 25, 1975. While at Allenwood, he suffered a mild stroke. JFK conspiracy allegations Hunt supported the Warren Commission's conclusion that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Early allegations: Hunt as one of the "three tramps" The Dallas Morning News, the Dallas Times Herald, and the Fort Worth Star-Telegram photographed three transients under police escort near the Texas School Book Depository shortly after the assassination of Kennedy. The men later became known as the "three tramps". According to Vincent Bugliosi, allegations that these men were involved in a conspiracy originated from theorist Richard E. Sprague who compiled the photographs in 1966 and 1967, and subsequently turned them over to Jim Garrison during his investigation of Clay Shaw. Appearing before a nationwide audience on the December 31, 1968, episode of The Tonight Show, Garrison held up a photo of the three and suggested they were involved in the assassination. Later, in 1974, assassination researchers Alan J. Weberman and Michael Canfield compared photographs of the men to people they believed to be suspects involved in a conspiracy and said that two of the men were Watergate burglars E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis. Comedian and civil rights activist Dick Gregory helped bring national media attention to the allegations against Hunt and Sturgis in 1975 after obtaining the comparison photographs from Weberman and Canfield. Immediately after obtaining the photographs, Gregory held a press conference that received considerable coverage and his charges were reported in Rolling Stone and Newsweek. The Rockefeller Commission reported in 1975 that they investigated the allegation that Hunt and Sturgis, on behalf of the CIA, participated in the assassination of Kennedy. The final report of that commission stated that witnesses who testified that the "derelicts" bore a resemblance to Hunt or Sturgis "were not shown to have any qualifications in photo identification beyond that possessed by an average layman". Their report also stated that FBI Agent Lyndal L. Shaneyfelt, "a nationally-recognized expert in photoidentification and photoanalysis" with the FBI photographic laboratory, had concluded from photo comparison that none of the men was Hunt or Sturgis. In 1979, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations reported that forensic anthropologists had again analyzed and compared the photographs of the "tramps" with those of Hunt and Sturgis, as well as with photographs of Thomas Vallee, Daniel Carswell, and Fred Lee Chrisman. According to the Committee, only Chrisman resembled any of the tramps, but determined that he was not in Dealey Plaza on the day of the assassination. In 1992, journalist Mary La Fontaine discovered the November 22, 1963, arrest records that the Dallas Police Department had released in 1989, which named the three men as Gus W. Abrams, Harold Doyle, and John F. Gedney. According to the arrest reports, the three men were "taken off a boxcar in the railroad yards right after President Kennedy was shot", detained as "investigative prisoners", described as unemployed and passing through Dallas, then released four days later. Compulsive Spy and Coup d'Etat in America In 1973, Viking Press published Tad Szulc's book about Hunt's career titled Compulsive Spy. Szulc, a former correspondent for The New York Times, claimed unnamed CIA sources told him that Hunt, working with Rolando Cubela Secades, had a role in coordinating the assassination of Castro for an aborted second invasion of Cuba. In one passage, he also stated that Hunt was the acting chief of the CIA station in Mexico City in 1963 while Lee Harvey Oswald was there. The Rockefeller Commission's June 1975 report stated that they investigated allegations that the CIA, including Hunt, may have had contact with Oswald or Jack Ruby. According to the Commission, one "witness testified that E. Howard Hunt was Acting Chief of a CIA Station in Mexico City in 1963, implying that he could have had contact with Oswald when Oswald visited Mexico City in September 1963." Their report stated that there was "no credible evidence" of CIA involvement in the assassination and noted: "At no time was [Hunt] ever the Chief, or Acting Chief, of a CIA Station in Mexico City. Released in the Fall of 1975 after the Rockefeller Commission's report, Weberman and Canfield's book Coup d'Etat in America reiterated Szulc's allegation. In July 1976, Hunt filed a $2.5 million libel suit against the authors, as well as the book's publishers and editor. According to Ellis Rubin, Hunt's attorney who filed the suit in a Miami federal court, the book said that Hunt took part in the assassination of Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. As part of his suit, Hunt filed a legal action in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia in September 1978 requesting that Szulc be cited for contempt if he refused to divulge his sources. Three months earlier, Szulc stated in a deposition that he refused to name his sources due to "the professional confidentiality of sources" and "journalistic privilege". Rubin stated that knowing the source of the allegation that Hunt was in Mexico City in 1963 was important because Szulc's passage "is what everybody uses as an authority ... he's cited in everything written on E. Howard Hunt". He added that rumors that Hunt was involved in the Kennedy assassination might be put to end if Szulc's source was revealed. Stating that Hunt had not provided a sufficient reason to override Szulc's First Amendment rights to protect the confidentiality of his sources, United States District Judge Albert Vickers Bryan Jr. ruled in favor of Szulc. Libel suit: Liberty Lobby and The Spotlight On November 3, 1978, Hunt gave a security-classified deposition for the House Select Committee on Assassinations. He denied knowledge of any conspiracy to kill Kennedy. (The Assassination Records Review Board (ARRB) released the deposition in February 1996.) Two newspaper articles published a few months before the deposition stated that a 1966 CIA memo linking Hunt to the assassination of President Kennedy had recently been provided to the HSCA. The first article, by Victor Marchetti – author of the book The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (1974) – appeared in the Liberty Lobby newspaper The Spotlight on August 14, 1978. According to Marchetti, the memo said in essence, "Some day we will have to explain Hunt's presence in Dallas on November 22, 1963." He also wrote that Hunt, Frank Sturgis, and Gerry Patrick Hemming would soon be implicated in a conspiracy to kill John F. Kennedy. The second article, by Joseph J. Trento and Jacquie Powers, appeared six days later in the Sunday edition of The News Journal, Wilmington, Delaware. It alleged that the purported memo was initialed by Richard Helms and James Angleton and showed that, shortly after Helms and Angleton were elevated to their highest positions in the CIA, they discussed the fact that Hunt had been in Dallas on the day of the assassination and that his presence there had to be kept secret. However, nobody has been able to produce this supposed memo, and the United States President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States determined that Hunt had been in Washington, D.C. on the day of the assassination. Hunt sued Liberty Lobby – but not the Sunday News Journal – for libel. Liberty Lobby stipulated, in this first trial, that the question of Hunt's alleged involvement in the assassination would not be contested. Hunt prevailed and was awarded $650,000 damages. In 1983, however, the case was overturned on appeal because of error in jury instructions. In a second trial, held in 1985, Mark Lane made an issue of Hunt's location on the day of the Kennedy assassination. Lane successfully defended Liberty Lobby by producing evidence suggesting that Hunt had been in Dallas. He used depositions from David Atlee Phillips, Richard Helms, G. Gordon Liddy, Stansfield Turner, and Marita Lorenz, plus a cross-examination of Hunt. On retrial, the jury rendered a verdict for Liberty Lobby. Lane claimed he convinced the jury that Hunt was a JFK assassination conspirator, but some of the jurors who were interviewed by the media said they disregarded the conspiracy theory and judged the case (according to the judge's jury instructions) on whether the article was published with "reckless disregard for the truth." Lane outlined his theory about Hunt's and the CIA's role in Kennedy's murder in a 1991 book, Plausible Denial. Mitrokhin Archive Former KGB archivist Vasili Mitrokhin indicated in 1999 that Hunt was made part of a fabricated conspiracy theory disseminated by a Soviet "active measures" program designed to discredit the CIA and the United States. According to Mitrokhin, the KGB created a forged letter from Oswald to Hunt implying that the two were linked as conspirators, then forwarded copies of it to "three of the most active conspiracy buffs" in 1975. Mitrokhin indicated that the photocopies were accompanied by a fake cover letter from an anonymous source alleging that the original had been given to FBI Director Clarence M. Kelley and was apparently being suppressed. Kerry Thornley's Memoir According to Kerry Thornley, who served with Oswald in the Marine Corps and wrote the biographical book the Idle Warriors about him before the assassination of the president (the manuscript was seized during the investigation and was kept as physical evidence for a long time), Thornley regularly met with a man in New Orleans known to him as Gary Kirstein, with whom they discussed the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Also, according to Thornley, Kirstein in those years wanted to organize the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and planned to "frame a jailbird for it." In "Confession to Conspiracy to Assassinate JFK by Kerry Thornley as told to Sondra London" he said that after Watergate, when photos of Howard Hunt appeared in the media, he found that he was very similar to his acquaintance Kirstein, along with whom they discussed organizing the assassination of the president. "Deathbed confession" of involvement in Kennedy assassination After Hunt's death, Howard St. John Hunt and David Hunt stated that their father had recorded several claims about himself and others being involved in a conspiracy to assassinate President John F. Kennedy. Notes and audio recordings were made. In the April 5, 2007, issue of Rolling Stone, St. John Hunt detailed a number of individuals purported to be implicated by his father, including Lyndon B. Johnson, Cord Meyer, David Atlee Phillips, Frank Sturgis, David Morales, Antonio Veciana, William Harvey, and an assassin he termed "French gunman grassy knoll" who many presume is Lucien Sarti. The two sons alleged that their father cut the information from his memoirs to avoid possible perjury charges. According to Hunt's widow and other children, the two sons took advantage of Hunt's loss of lucidity by coaching and exploiting him for financial gain and furthermore falsified accounts of Hunt's supposed confession. The Los Angeles Times said they examined the materials offered by the sons to support the story and found them to be "inconclusive". Memoir: American Spy: My Secret History in the CIA, Watergate, and Beyond Hunt's memoir, American Spy: My Secret History in the CIA, Watergate, and Beyond, was ghost-written by Greg Aunapu and published by John Wiley & Sons in March 2007. According to the Hunt Literary Estate, Hunt had intended to write an update to his 1974 autobiography Undercover and supplement this edition with post-9/11 reflections, but by the time he had embarked on the project, he was too ill to continue. This prompted John Wiley & Sons to search for and hire a ghost writer to write the book in its entirety. According to St. John Hunt, it was he who suggested to his father the idea of a memoir to reveal what he knew about the Kennedy assassination, but the Hunt Literary Estate refutes this as scurrilous. The foreword to American Spy was written by William F. Buckley Jr. According to Buckley, he was asked through an intermediary to write the introduction but declined after he found that the manuscript contained material "that suggested transgressions of the highest order, including a hint that LBJ might have had a hand in the plot to assassinate President Kennedy." He stated that the work "was clearly ghostwritten", and eventually agreed to write an introduction focusing on his early friendship with Hunt after he received a revised manuscript "with the loony grassy-knoll bits chiseled out". Publishers Weekly called American Spy a "breezy, unrepentant memoir" and described it as a "nostalgic memoir [that] breaks scant new ground in an already crowded field". Tim Rutten of the Los Angeles Times said it was "a bitter and self-pitying memoir" and "offers a rather standard account of how men of his generation became involved in intelligence work". Referencing the book's title, Tim Weiner of The New York Times wrote: "American Spy is presented as a 'secret history,' a double-barreled misrepresentation. There are no real secrets in this book. As history it is bunk." Weiner said that the author's examination of the Kennedy assassination was the low-point of the book, indicating that Hunt pretended to take various conspiracy theories, including the involvement of former President Johnson, seriously. He concluded his review describing it as a work "in a long tradition of arrant nonsense" and "a book to shun". Joseph C. Goulden of The Washington Times described it as a "true mess of a book" and dismissed Hunt's allegations against Johnson as "fantasy". Goulden summarized his review: "I wish now that I had not read this pathetic book. Avoid it." Writing for The Christian Science Monitor, Daniel Schorr said "Hunt tells most of his Watergate venture fairly straight". Contrasting this opinion, Politico's James Rosen described the chapters regarding Watergate as the "[m]ost problematic" and wrote: "There are numerous factual errors – misspelled names, wrong dates, phantom participants in meetings, fictitious orders given – and the authors never substantively address, only pause occasionally to demean, the vast scholarly literature that has arisen in the last two decades to explain the central mystery of Watergate." Rosen's review was not entirely negative and he indicated that the book "succeeds in taking readers beyond the caricatures and conspiracy theories to preserve the valuable memory of Hunt as he really was: passionate patriot; committed Cold Warrior; a lover of fine food, wine and women; incurable intriguer, wicked wit and superb storyteller." Dennis Lythgoe of Deseret News said "[t]he writing style is awkward and often embarrassing", but that "the book as a whole is a fascinating look into the mind of one of the major Watergate figures". In National Review, Mark Riebling praised American Spy as "the only autobiography I know of that convincingly conveys what it was like to be an American spy." The Boston Globe writer Martin Nolan called it "admirable and important" and said that Hunt "presents a livelier, tabloid version of the 1970s". According to Nolan: "It is the best moment-by-moment depiction of the June 17, 1972, burglary of Democratic National Committee headquarters I have ever read." Personal life and death Hunt's first wife, Dorothy, was killed in the December 8, 1972 plane crash of United Airlines Flight 553 in Chicago. Congress, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigated the crash, and concluded that the crash was an accident caused by crew error. Over $10,000 in cash was found in Dorothy Hunt's handbag in the wreckage. Hunt later married schoolteacher Laura Martin, with whom he raised two more children, Austin and Hollis. Following his release from prison, he and Laura moved to Guadalajara, Mexico, where they lived for five years. Afterwards they returned to the United States, where they settled in Miami, Florida. On January 23, 2007, he died of pneumonia in Miami, Florida. He is buried in Prospect Lawn Cemetery in his hometown of Hamburg, New York. In the media A fictionalized account of Hunt's role in the Bay of Pigs operation appears in Norman Mailer's 1991 novel Harlot's Ghost. Hunt was portrayed by Ed Harris in the 1995 biopic Nixon. In the 2019 film The Irishman, Hunt is portrayed by stage actor Daniel Jenkins. Canadian journalist David Giammarco interviewed Hunt for the December 2000 issue of Cigar Aficionado magazine. Hunt later wrote the foreword to Giammarco's book For Your Eyes Only: Behind the Scenes of the James Bond Films (ECW Press, 2002). Books Nonfiction Give Us This Day: The Inside Story of the CIA and the Bay of Pigs Invasion, by One of Its Key Organizers. New Rochelle: Arlington House (1973). Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent (1974). New York: Berkeley Publishing Corporation. American Spy: My Secret History in the CIA, Watergate, and Beyond (2007), with Greg Aunapu. Foreword by William F. Buckley, Jr. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. Book contributions Foreword to For Your Eyes Only: Behind the Scenes of the James Bond Films, by David Giammarco (2002) Novels as Howard Hunt or E. Howard Hunt East of Farewell (1942) Limit of Darkness (1944) Stranger in Town (1947) Calculated Risk: A Play (as Howard Hunt) (1948) Maelstrom (as Howard Hunt). (1948) Bimini Run (1949) The Violent Ones (1950) The Berlin Ending: A Novel of Discovery (1973) Hargrave Deception / E. Howard Hunt (1980) Gaza Intercept / E. Howard Hunt (1981) Cozumel / E. Howard Hunt (1985) Kremlin Conspiracy / E. Howard Hunt (1985) Guadalajara / E. Howard Hunt (1990) Murder in State / E. Howard Hunt (1990) Body Count / E. Howard Hunt (1992) Chinese Red / by E. Howard Hunt (1992) Mazatlán / E. Howard Hunt (1993) (lists former pseudonym P. S. Donoghue on cover) Ixtapa / E. Howard Hunt (1994) Islamorada / E. Howard Hunt (1995) Paris Edge / E. Howard Hunt (1995) Izmir / E. Howard Hunt (1996) Dragon Teeth: A Novel / by E. Howard Hunt (1997) Guilty Knowledge / E. Howard Hunt (1999) Sonora / E. Howard Hunt (2000) As Robert Dietrich Cheat (1954) One for the Road (1954) Be My Victim (1956) Murder on the rocks: an original novel (1957) House on Q Street (1959) Murder on Her Mind (1960) End of a Stripper (1960) Mistress to Murder (1960) Calypso Caper (1961) Angel Eyes (1961) Curtains for a Lover (1962) My Body (1962) As P. S. Donoghue Dublin Affair (1988) Sarkov Confession: a novel (1989) Evil Time (1992) As David St. John Festival for Spies The Towers of Silence Return from Vorkuta (1965) The Venus Probe (1966) On Hazardous Duty (1966) One of Our Agents is Missing (1967) Mongol Mask (1968) Sorcerers (1969) Diabolus (1971) Coven (1972) As Gordon Davis I Came to Kill (1953) House Dick (1961) Counterfeit Kill (1963) Ring Around Rosy (1964) Where Murder Waits (1965) As John Baxter A Foreign Affair. New York: Avon (1954) Unfaithful. New York: Avon (1955) Notes Further reading Staff writer (May 20, 1974). "The Spy Whom Nixon Feared." People Weekly. Hunt, Saint John. Dorothy, "An Amoral and Dangerous Woman": The Murder of E. Howard Hunt's Wife — Watergate's Darkest Secret. Walterville, OR: TrineDay. . Authored by Hunt's son. References Bibliography Szulc, Tad (1973). Compulsive Spy: The Strange Career of E. Howard Hunt. New York: Viking Press. . External links E. Howard Hunt collection in the Harold Weisberg Archive at Internet Archive Everette Hunt records at FBI Records: The Vault Interview with Slate "Howard Hunt's Final Mission." Review of American Spy by James Rosen in The Politico (February 7, 2007) "The Art and Arts of E. Howard Hunt." 1973 review by Gore Vidal in The New York Review of Books "Literary Agent." Review essay by Rachel Donadio in the New York Times Sunday Book Review (February 18, 2007) Obituary and bibliography of Hunt's novels Deposition for the House Select Committee on Assassinations (1978). Released in 1996. 1918 births 2007 deaths American people convicted of burglary United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II World War II spies for the United States American spies American spy fiction writers Brown University alumni Cold War spies Members of the Committee for the Re-Election of the President People associated with the assassination of John F. Kennedy Writers from Buffalo, New York People of the Central Intelligence Agency People of the Office of Strategic Services United States Army Air Forces soldiers Watergate Seven Florida Republicans People from Hamburg, New York Military personnel from New York (state) American male novelists People convicted in the Watergate scandal 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American male writers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Milwaukee

Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee

The Archdiocese of Milwaukee () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the United States. It encompasses the City of Milwaukee, as well as the counties of Dodge, Fond du Lac, Kenosha, Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Sheboygan, Walworth, Washington and Waukesha, all located in Wisconsin. The Archdiocese of Milwaukee is the metropolitan see of the ecclesiastical province of Milwaukee, which includes the suffragan dioceses of Green Bay, La Crosse, Madison, and Superior. , Jerome Edward Listecki is the metropolitan Archbishop of Milwaukee. History The Diocese of Milwaukee was constituted on November 28, 1843 by Pope Gregory XVI, carving out territory from the Diocese of Detroit, and originally encompassing the entire Wisconsin Territory. It was elevated to Archdiocese on February 12, 1875 by Pope Pius IX. The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist is the mother church. The first Mass, was celebrated in Milwaukee as early as 1837 by Rev. J. Bonduel, a missionary from Green Bay, in the home of French Canadian fur trader and co-founder of Milwaukee Solomon Juneau. In the same year Rev. Patrick Kelly came to the city and held services in the courthouse till, in 1839, he erected the first Catholic church, dedicated to St. Peter, for several years the bishop's cathedral. The small, clapboard-sided church was replaced in 1853 by the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist on North Jackson Street. Msgr. Leonard Batz, vicar general of Milwaukee had the old church later moved to the SS. Peter and Paul property. In 1841 Bishop Pierre-Paul Lefevere, coadjutor/administrator of the Diocese of Detroit visited as Milwaukee was a part of his diocese. Two years later, Milwaukee was made a separate diocese. John Henni, vicar general of the Diocese of Cincinnati was appointed as its first bishop. Henni originally only had four priests in the whole diocese, ministering to a few Catholics; mostly immigrants from Germany and Ireland, scattered over the territory, and a small frame church encumbered with debt. In 1846, Old St. Mary's Church, designed by Victor Schulte in Zopfstil style, was built to serve the German Catholic immigrants in Milwaukee. The Annunciation altarpiece, painted by Franz Xavier Glink was donated by King Ludwig I of Bavaria. In 1847 Henni laid the foundation of the new cathedral, dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, also designed by Schulte. Built out of Cream City brick, a cream or light yellow-colored brick made from a clay found around Milwaukee, the cathedral was consecrated by Papal nuncio Archbishop Gaetano Bedini 31 July 1853. In 1866 two new dioceses were established in Wisconsin with episcopal sees in La Crosse and Green Bay. In 1875 Milwaukee was made an archiepiscopal see, with Bishop Henni as first archbishop. Upon the death of Henni in September 1881, he was succeeded by Michael Heiss, Bishop of La Crosse. Heiss had previously served as secretary to Henni, pastor of St. Mary's, and rector of Saint Francis de Sales Seminary. At Saint Francis, Heiss trained German-speaking priests to serve German Catholics of the archdiocese. An esteemed theologian, he served as one of the members of the dogmatic commission at the First Vatican Council. In 1888 the Diocese of St. Paul was separated from Milwaukee. Swiss-born Sebastian Gebhard Messmer was installed as Archbishop of Milwaukee in December 1903. He had previously served as a professor of theology at Seton Hall College, pastor of St. Peter's Church in Newark, professor of canon law at the Catholic University of America, and Bishop of Green Bay. During Messmer's tenure, twenty-nine religious congregations established ministries in the archdiocese. The Bennett Law Archbishop Heiss was followed in 1890 by Bishop of Green Bay, Frederick Katzer, whose appointment, as the third German-speaking archbishop, was not universally well-received by the Irish. Shortly before his arrival, Wisconsin passed the Bennett Law which required that major subjects in all public and private elementary and high schools be taught in English. This was perceived as an attack on immigrants and parochial schools. As German Catholics and Lutherans each operated large numbers of parochial schools in the state where German was used in the classroom, it was bitterly resented by German-American, predominantly Catholic Polish Americans, and some Norwegian communities. The law was endorsed and promoted by among others, the anti-Catholic American Protective Association. Representatives of the group also made public announcements that the Roman Catholic hierarchy had instigated the Civil War. They also circulated forged documents, including an alleged Papal encyclical purportedly over the signature of Pope Leo XIII calling for Catholics to "exterminate all heretics" on or about St. Ignatius Day [September 5], 1893. <blockquote> "Most all of the better class of immigrants are Protestants. It remains that, almost entirely, the lowest class are Roman Catholics.... Among these are mostly found the train wreckers, robbers, plunderers, murderers, and assassins of the country.... In the large cities criminal statistics show that while Roman Catholics furnish about four percent of the population, they produce more than one-half of the crime, if we except those cities in which there is a large percent of negro criminals."<ref>Scott Funk Hershey, Errors of the Roman Catholic Church : and its insidious influence in the United States and other countries by the most profound thinkers of the present day, and the history and progress of the American Protective Association (A.P.A.) "Errors of the Roman Catholic Church: And Its Insidious Influence in the United States and Other Countries by the Most Profound Thinkers of the Present Day, and the History and Progress of the American Protective Association (APA).] St. Louis: J.H. Chambers, 1894; pg. vi.</ref></blockquote> The group sought to exert influence by boosting its supporters in campaigns and at political conventions, particularly those of the Republican Party. Archbishop Katzer lobbied strongly for the repeal of the Bennett Law in 1890. Traditionally Democratic Irish Catholics were initially not as vigorous in opposition to the law, with a substantial section of the community even supporting it, as Governor Hoard had hoped. However, the outpouring of militantly anti-Catholic rhetoric by many of the law's supporters alienated a majority of the Irish in Wisconsin, prompting the top Irish newspaper in the state, the Chippewa Falls-based Catholic Citizen, to write that the law represented a convergence of "all the sectarian, bigoted, fanatical and crazy impurities" within the Republican Party which had taken the reins of power. The law was repealed in 1891. Sexual abuse scandal In a report released by the Wisconsin State Senate in 2003, a total of 58 priests were revealed to have been accused of sexually abusing children while serving in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. Weakland admitted allowing priests guilty of child sex abuse to continue as priests without warning parishioners or alerting the police. Weakland stated in his autobiography that in the early years of the sexual abuse scandal he did not understand that child sexual abuse was a crime. On March 18, 2019, it was announced that former Archbishops William Cousins and Rembert Weakland would have their names removed from buildings in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee due to their poor handling of sex abuse cases. The renaming of Archdiocese of Milwaukee office centers which were named in their honor commenced on March 22, 2019. On September 3, 2020, it was revealed that Wisconsin Franciscan Friar Paul West was extradited to Mississippi on sex abuse charges. Father James Gannon, the leader of a Wisconsin-based group of Franciscan Friars, had previous negotiated settlements for some of West's accusers in Mississippi. In addition to the Mississippi sex abuse charges, West has been charged with sex-degree sexual assault of a child in Wisconsin. Bankruptcy On 17 July 2011 the archdiocese launched "a national advertising campaign to notify sex abuse victims of their deadline to file claims. The archdiocese filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in January after it failed to reach a settlement with two dozen victims of sexual abuse by Catholic clergy." About 550 people are asking for restitution for alleged sexual abuse by clergy in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. The archdiocese paid financial settlements to claimants funded "through various sources, including insurance, loans and the sale of property", and funds were set aside to pay for therapy. Demographics The Archdiocese of Milwaukee has a membership of 591,890 Catholics in 198 parishes, representing the most heavily Catholic region of the state. There are 322 diocesan priests, 370 religious priests, and 147 permanent deacons. Religious orders include 82 brothers and 994 women religious. The archdiocese houses one provincial seminary (St. Francis de Sales Seminary) educating 56 seminarians. It oversees 94 elementary schools, 13 high schools, and five colleges and universities. Also included in the archdiocese are 12 Catholic hospitals and 9 Catholic cemeteries. Bishops Bishops of Milwaukee John Henni (1844–1875), elevated as Metropolitan Archbishop of Milwaukee. Metropolitan Archbishops of Milwaukee John Henni (1875–1881), his death. Michael Heiss (1881–1890), his death. Frederick Katzer (1890–1903), his death. Sebastian Gebhard Messmer (1903–1930), his death. Samuel Stritch (1930–1940), appointed Metropolitan Archbishop of Chicago (1940–1958) and later Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura (1946–1958) and Pro-Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (1958). Moses E. Kiley (1940–1953), his death. Albert Gregory Meyer (1953–1958), appointed Metropolitan Archbishop of Chicago (1958–1965) and later Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (1959–1965). William Edward Cousins (1959–1977), his resignation. Rembert Weakland O.S.B. (1977–2002), his resignation. Timothy Michael Dolan (2002–2009), appointed Metropolitan Archbishop of New York (2009-present) and later Cardinal-Priest of Nostra Signora di Guadalupe a Monte Mario (2012-present). Jerome Edward Listecki (2010–present). Auxiliary Bishops Joseph Maria Koudelka (1911–1913), appointed Bishop of Superior (1913–1921). Edward Kozłowski (1914–1915), his death. Roman Richard Atkielski (1947–1969), his death. Leo Joseph Brust (1969–1991), his resignation. Richard J. Sklba (1979–2010), his resignation. William P. Callahan OFM Conv. (2007–2010), appointed Bishop of La Crosse (2010–present). Donald J. Hying (2011–2015), appointed Bishop of Gary (2015–2019) and later Bishop of Madison (2019–present). Jeffrey Robert Haines (2017–present). James T. Schuerman (2017–present). Priests who became Bishops Augustine Francis Schinner, appointed first Bishop of Superior (1905–1913) and later first Bishop of Spokane (1914–1925). Aloisius Joseph Muench, appointed Bishop of Fargo (1935–1959) and later Apostolic Nuncio to Germany (1951–1959) and Cardinal-Priest of ???? (1959–1962). Raphael Michael Fliss, appointed Coadjudtor Bishop of Superior (1979–1985) and later Bishop of Superior (1985–2007). Francis Joseph Haas, appointed Bishop of Grand Rapids (1943–1953). William Patrick O'Connor, appointed Bishop of Superior (1942–1946) and later first Bishop of Madison (1946–1967). Jerome J. Hastrich, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Madison (1963–1969) and later Bishop of Gallup (1969–1990). Paul Francis Tanner, appointed Bishop of Saint Augustine (1968–1979). Fabian Bruskewitz, appointed Bishop of Lincoln (1992–2012). James Michael Harvey, appointed Prefect of the Papal Household (1998–2012) and later Archpriest of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (2012–present) and Cardinal-Deacon of San Pio V a Villa Carpegna (2012–present). Joseph N. Perry, appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Chicago (1998–present). David John Malloy, appointed Bishop of Rockford (2012–present) Churches Basilicas Basilica of St. Josaphat, Milwaukee Holy Hill National Shrine of Mary, Help of Christians, a minor basilica, Hubertus, Wisconsin Shrines Archdiocesan Marian Shrine, Milwaukee Parishes See List of Parishes in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee Schools See List of Schools in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee See List of former schools in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee Suffragans The Ecclesiastical Province of Milwaukee comprises the entire state of Wisconsin and includes four suffragan dioceses. Diocese of Green Bay Diocese of La Crosse Diocese of Madison Diocese of Superior See also List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States List of Roman Catholic dioceses (alphabetical) List of Roman Catholic dioceses (structured view) Sexual abuse scandal in Catholic archdiocese of Milwaukee References Further reading Avella, Steven M. Confidence and Crisis: A History of the Archdiocese of Milwaukee, 1959–1977'' (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2014. 344 pp. External links Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee Official Site Milwaukee Religious organizations established in 1843 Education in Milwaukee Christianity in Milwaukee Milwaukee 1843 establishments in Wisconsin Territory

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Sutcliffe

Peter Sutcliffe

Peter William Sutcliffe (2 June 1946 – 13 November 2020), also known as Peter William Coonan, was an English serial killer who was dubbed the Yorkshire Ripper (an allusion to Jack the Ripper) by the press. On 22 May 1981, he was found guilty of murdering 13 women and attempting to murder seven others between 1975 and 1980. He was sentenced to 20 concurrent sentences of life imprisonment, which were converted to a whole life order in 2010. Two of Sutcliffe's murders took place in Manchester; all the others were in West Yorkshire. Sutcliffe initially attacked women and girls in residential areas, but appears to have shifted his focus to red-light districts because he was attracted by the vulnerability of prostitutes, and perceived ambivalence of police to prostitutes' safety at the time. He had allegedly regularly used the services of prostitutes in Leeds and Bradford. After his arrest in Sheffield by South Yorkshire Police for driving with false number plates in January 1981, Sutcliffe was transferred to West Yorkshire Police, which questioned him about the killings. He confessed to being the perpetrator, saying that the voice of God had sent him on a mission to kill prostitutes. At his trial, Sutcliffe pleaded not guilty to murder on grounds of diminished responsibility, but he was convicted of murder on a majority verdict. Following his conviction, Sutcliffe began using his mother's maiden name of Coonan. The search for Sutcliffe was one of the largest and most expensive manhunts in British history, and West Yorkshire Police was criticised for its failure to catch him despite having interviewed him nine times in the course of its five-year investigation. Owing to the sensational nature of the case, the police handled an exceptional amount of information, some of it misleading (including the Wearside Jack hoax recorded message and letters purporting to be from the "Ripper"). Following Sutcliffe's conviction, the government ordered a review of the investigation, conducted by the Inspector of Constabulary Lawrence Byford, known as the "Byford Report". The findings were made fully public in 2006, and confirmed the validity of the criticism against the force. The report led to changes to investigative procedures that were adopted across UK police forces. In 2019, The Guardian described the manhunt as "stunningly mishandled". Sutcliffe was transferred from prison to Broadmoor Hospital in March 1984 after being diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. The High Court dismissed an appeal by Sutcliffe in 2010, confirming that he would serve a whole life order and never be released from custody. In August 2016, it was ruled that Sutcliffe was mentally fit to be returned to prison, and he was transferred that month to HM Prison Frankland in Durham. He died from COVID-19-related complications in hospital, while in prison custody on 13 November 2020, at the age of 74. Early life Peter Sutcliffe was born to a working-class family in Bingley, West Riding of Yorkshire. His parents were John William Sutcliffe and his wife Kathleen Frances (née Coonan), a native of Connemara. Kathleen was a Roman Catholic and John was a member of the choir at the local Anglican church of St Wilfred's; their children were raised in their mother's Catholic faith. Reportedly a loner, Sutcliffe left school aged fifteen and had a series of menial jobs, including two stints as a gravedigger in the 1960s. Between November 1971 and April 1973, he worked at the Baird Television factory on a packaging line. He left this position when he was asked to go on the road as a salesman. After leaving Baird Television, Sutcliffe worked nightshifts at the Britannia Works of Anderton International from April 1973. In February 1975, he took redundancy and used half of the £400 pay-off to train as a heavy goods vehicle (HGV) driver. On 5 March 1976, Sutcliffe was dismissed for the theft of used tyres. He was unemployed until October 1976, when he found a job as an HGV driver for T. & W.H. Clark (Holdings) Ltd. on the Canal Road Industrial Estate in Bradford. Sutcliffe, by some reports, hired prostitutes as a young man, and it has been speculated that he had a bad experience during which he was conned out of money by a prostitute and her pimp. Other analyses of his actions have not found evidence that he actually sought the services of prostitutes but note that he nonetheless developed an obsession with them, including "watching them soliciting on the streets of Leeds and Bradford". Sutcliffe met Sonia Szurma on 14 February 1967; they married on 10 August 1974. Sonia suffered several miscarriages, and they were informed that she would not be able to have children. She resumed a teacher training course, during which time she had an affair with an ice-cream van driver. When Sonia completed the course in 1977 and began teaching, she and Sutcliffe used her salary to buy a house at 6 Garden Lane in Heaton in Bradford, into which they moved on 26 September 1977, and where they were living at the time of Sutcliffe's arrest. Through his childhood and his early adolescence, Sutcliffe showed no signs of abnormality. But one of his brothers admitted that their father was an abusive alcoholic, stating that their father once smashed a beer glass over Peter's head for sitting in his chair at the Christmas table, after arguing, when the brother was four or five years old. Their father used to whip them with a belt. Later, in part related to his occupation as a gravedigger, he developed a macabre sense of humour. In his late adolescence, Sutcliffe developed a growing obsession with voyeurism, and spent much time spying on prostitutes and the men seeking their services. Attacks and murders Leeds was the hotspot of Ripper activity, with 6 murders and 4 attacks in the city. Sutcliffe's first and last murders also occurred in Leeds. Sutcliffe's 13 known murder victims were Wilma McCann (Leeds 1975), Emily Jackson (Leeds 1976), Irene Richardson (Leeds 1977), Patricia "Tina" Atkinson (Bradford 1977), Jayne MacDonald (Leeds 1977), Jean Jordan (Manchester 1977), Yvonne Pearson (Bradford 1978), Helen Rytka (Huddersfield 1978), Vera Millward (Manchester 1978), Josephine Whitaker (Halifax 1979), Barbara Leach (Bradford 1979), Marguerite Walls (Leeds 1980) and Jacqueline Hill (Leeds 1980). He is also known to have attacked 10 other women: a woman of unknown name (Bradford 1969), Anna Rogulskyj (Keighley 1975), Olive Smelt (Halifax 1975), Tracy Browne (Silsden 1975), Marcella Claxton (Leeds 1976), Maureen Long (Bradford 1977) Marilyn Moore (Leeds 1977), Ann Rooney (Leeds 1979) Upadhya Bandara (Leeds 1980), and Theresa Sykes (Huddersfield 1980). Claxton was four months pregnant when she was attacked, and lost the baby she was carrying. 1969 Sutcliffe's first documented assault was of a female prostitute, whom he had met while searching for another woman who had tricked him out of money. He left his friend Trevor Birdsall's minivan and walked up St. Paul's Road in Bradford until he was out of sight. When Sutcliffe returned, he was out of breath, as if he had been running. He told Birdsall to drive off quickly. Sutcliffe said he had followed a prostitute into a garage and hit her over the head with a stone in a sock. According to his statement, Sutcliffe said, "I got out of the car, went across the road and hit her. The force of the impact tore the toe off the sock and whatever was in it came out. I went back to the car and got in it". Police visited Sutcliffe's home the next day, as the woman he had attacked had noted Birdsall's vehicle registration plate. He admitted he had hit her, but claimed it was with his hand. The police told him he was "very lucky", as the woman did not want anything more to do with the incident. 1975 Sutcliffe committed his second assault on the night of 5 July 1975 in Keighley. He attacked Anna Rogúlskyj, who was walking alone, striking her unconscious with a ball-peen hammer and slashing her stomach with a knife. Disturbed by a neighbour, he left without killing her. Rogulskyj survived after neurological surgery but she was psychologically traumatised by the attack. She said later: "I've been afraid to go out much because I feel people are staring and pointing at me. The whole thing is making my life a misery. I sometimes wish I had died in the attack." On the night of 15 August, Sutcliffe attacked Olive Smelt in Halifax. Employing the same modus operandi, he briefly engaged Smelt with a commonplace pleasantry about the weather before striking hammer blows to her skull from behind. He then disarranged her clothing and slashed her lower back with a knife. Again he was interrupted and left his victim badly injured but alive. Like Rogulskyj, Smelt subsequently suffered severe emotional and mental trauma. She had told interviewing officer Dept. Supt. Dick Holland (later the Ripper Squad's second in command) that her attacker had a Yorkshire accent, but this information was ignored, as was the fact that neither she nor Rogulskij were in towns with a red light area. On 27 August, Sutcliffe attacked 14-year-old Tracy Browne in Silsden. He struck her from behind and hit her on the head five times while she was walking along a country lane. He ran off when he saw the lights of a passing car, leaving his victim requiring brain surgery. Sutcliffe was not convicted of the attack but confessed to it in 1992. The first victim to be killed by Sutcliffe was Wilma McCann on 30 October. McCann, from Scott Hall in Leeds, was a mother of four children between the ages of 2 and 7. Sutcliffe struck the back of her skull twice with a hammer, then inflicted "a stab wound to the throat; two stab wounds below the right breast; three stab wounds below the left breast and a series of nine stab wounds around the umbilicus". An extensive inquiry, involving 150 officers of the West Yorkshire Police and 11,000 interviews, failed to find the culprit. In December 2007, McCann's eldest daughter Sonia Newlands killed herself, reportedly after suffering years of anguish and depression over the circumstances of her mother's death, and consequences to her and her siblings. 1976 Sutcliffe committed his next murder in Leeds on 20 January 1976, when he stabbed 42-year-old Emily Jackson 52 times. In dire financial straits, Jackson had been persuaded by her husband to engage in prostitution, using the van of their family roofing business. Sutcliffe picked up Jackson, who was soliciting outside the Gaiety pub on Roundhay Road, then drove about half a mile to some derelict buildings on Enfield Terrace in the Manor Industrial Estate. Sutcliffe hit her on the head with a hammer, dragged her body into a rubbish-strewn yard, then used a sharpened screwdriver to stab her in the neck, chest and abdomen. He stamped on her thigh, leaving behind an impression of his boot. Sutcliffe attacked 20-year-old Marcella Claxton in Roundhay Park, Leeds, on 9 May. Walking home from a party, she accepted an offer of a lift from Sutcliffe. When she got out of the car to urinate, he hit her from behind with a hammer. Claxton survived and testified against Sutcliffe at his trial. At the time of this attack, Claxton had been four months pregnant and subsequently miscarried her baby. She required multiple, extensive brain operations and suffered from intermittent blackouts and chronic depression. 1977 On 5 February, Sutcliffe attacked Irene Richardson, a Chapeltown prostitute, in Roundhay Park. Richardson was bludgeoned to death with a hammer. Once she was dead, Sutcliffe mutilated her corpse with a knife. Tyre tracks left near the murder scene resulted in a long list of possible suspect vehicles. Two months later, on 23 April, Sutcliffe killed Patricia "Tina" Atkinson, a prostitute from Bradford, in her flat, where police found a bootprint on the bedclothes. Two months after that, on 26 June, he murdered 16-year-old Jayne MacDonald in Chapeltown. She was not a prostitute and, in the public perception, her murder showed that all women were potential victims. The police described her as the first "innocent" victim. Sutcliffe seriously assaulted Maureen Long in Bradford in July. He was interrupted and fled, leaving her for dead. She was suffering from hypothermia when found and was in hospital for nine weeks. A witness misidentified the make of his car, resulting in more than 300 police officers checking thousands of cars without success. On 1 October 1977 Sutcliffe murdered Jean Jordan, a prostitute from Manchester. In a confession, Sutcliffe said he had realised the new £5 note he had given her was traceable. After hosting a family party at his new home, he returned to the wasteland behind Manchester's Southern Cemetery, where he had left the body, to retrieve the note but was unable to find it. On 9 October, Jordan's body was discovered by local dairy worker and future actor Bruce Jones, who had an allotment on land adjoining the site where the body was found and was searching for house bricks when he made the discovery. The £5 note, hidden in a secret compartment in Jordan's handbag, was traced to branches of the Midland Bank in Shipley and Bingley. Police analysis of bank operations allowed them to narrow their field of inquiry to 8,000 employees who could have received it in their wage packet. Over three months the police interviewed 5,000 men, including Sutcliffe. The police found that the alibi given for Sutcliffe's whereabouts was credible; he had indeed spent much of the evening of the killing at a family party. Weeks of intense investigations pertaining to the origins of the £5 note led to nothing, leaving police officers frustrated that they collected an important clue but had been unable to trace the actual firm (or employee within the firm) to which or whom the note had been issued. On 14 December, Sutcliffe attacked Marilyn Moore, another prostitute from Leeds. She survived and provided police with a description of her attacker. Tyre tracks found at the scene matched those from an earlier attack. Her photofit bore a strong resemblance to Sutcliffe, like other survivors, and she provided a good description of his car, which had been seen in red-light districts. Sutcliffe had been interviewed on this issue. 1978 The police discontinued the search for the person who received the £5 note in January 1978. Although Sutcliffe was interviewed about it, he was not investigated further (he was contacted and disregarded by the Ripper Squad on several further occasions). That month, Sutcliffe killed again. His victim was Yvonne Pearson, a 21-year-old prostitute from Bradford. He repeatedly bludgeoned her about the head with a ball-peen hammer, then jumped on her chest before stuffing horsehair into her mouth from a discarded sofa, under which he hid her body near Lumb Lane. Ten days later, he killed Helen Rytka, an 18-year-old prostitute from Huddersfield. He struck Rytka on the head five times as she exited his vehicle, before stripping most of the clothes from her body (although her bra and polo-neck jumper were positioned above her breasts) and repeatedly stabbing her in the chest. Her body was found three days later beneath railway arches in Garrards timber-yard to which he had driven her. Sutcliffe said of Rytka while in police custody in 1981: "I had the urge to kill any woman. The urge inside me to kill girls was now practically uncontrollable." 1979 On 4 April 1979, Sutcliffe killed Josephine Whitaker, a 19-year-old building society clerk whom he attacked on Savile Park Moor in Halifax as she was walking home. Despite forensic evidence, police efforts were diverted for several months following receipt of the taped message purporting to be from the murderer taunting Assistant Chief Constable George Oldfield of the West Yorkshire Police, who was leading the investigation. The tape contained a man's voice saying, "I'm Jack. I see you're having no luck catching me. I have the greatest respect for you, George, but Lord, you're no nearer catching me now than four years ago when I started." Based on the recorded message, police began searching for a man with a Wearside accent, which linguists narrowed down to the Castletown area of Sunderland, Tyne and Wear. The hoaxer, dubbed "Wearside Jack", sent two letters to police and the Daily Mirror in March 1978 boasting of his crimes. The letters, signed "Jack the Ripper", claimed responsibility for the murder of 26-year-old Joan Harrison in Preston in November 1975. The hoaxer case was re-opened in 2005, and DNA taken from envelopes was entered into the national database, in which it matched that of John Samuel Humble, an unemployed alcoholic and long-time resident of the Ford Estate in Sunderland – a few miles from Castletown – whose DNA had been taken following a drunk and disorderly offence in 2001. On 20 October 2005, Humble was charged with attempting to pervert the course of justice for sending the hoax letters and tape. Humble was remanded in custody and on 21 March 2006 was convicted and sentenced to eight years in prison. Humble died on 30 July 2019, aged 63. On 1 September, Sutcliffe murdered 20-year-old Barbara Leach, a Bradford University student. Her body was dumped at the rear of 13 Ashgrove under a pile of bricks, close to the university and her lodgings. It was his sixteenth attack. The murder of a woman who was not a prostitute again alarmed the public and prompted an expensive publicity campaign emphasising the Wearside connection. Despite the false lead, Sutcliffe was interviewed on at least two other occasions in 1979. Despite matching several forensic clues and being on the list of 300 names in connection with the £5 note, he was not strongly suspected. 1980 In April 1980, Sutcliffe was arrested for drunk driving. While awaiting trial, he killed two more women. Sutcliffe murdered 47-year-old Marguerite Walls on the night of 20 August 1980, and 20-year-old Jacqueline Hill, a student at Leeds University, on the night of 17 November 1980. Hill's body was found on wasteland near the Arndale Centre. He also attacked three other women, who survived: Uphadya Bandara in Leeds on 24 September 1980; Maureen Lea (known as Mo), an art student attacked in the grounds of Leeds University on 25 October 1980; and 16-year-old Theresa Sykes, attacked in Huddersfield on the night of 5 November 1980. On 25 November 1980, Trevor Birdsall, an associate of Sutcliffe and the unwitting getaway driver as Sutcliffe fled his first documented assault in 1969, reported him to the police as a suspect. Arrest and trial On 2 January 1981, Sutcliffe was stopped by the police with 24-year-old prostitute Olivia Reivers in the driveway of Light Trades House in Melbourne Avenue, Broomhill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire. A police check by probationary constable Robert Hydes revealed Sutcliffe's car had false number plates and he was arrested and transferred to Dewsbury Police Station in West Yorkshire. At Dewsbury, he was questioned in relation to the Yorkshire Ripper case as he matched many of the known physical characteristics. The next day police returned to the scene of the arrest and discovered a knife, hammer, and rope he had discarded when he briefly slipped away from the police after telling them he was "bursting for a pee". Sutcliffe hid a second knife in the toilet cistern at the police station when he was permitted to use the toilet. The police obtained a search warrant for his home in Heaton and brought his wife in for questioning. When Sutcliffe was stripped at the police station he was wearing an inverted V-necked jumper under his trousers. The sleeves had been pulled over his legs and the V-neck exposed his genital area. The fronts of the elbows were padded to protect his knees as, presumably, he knelt over his victims' corpses. The sexual implications of this outfit were considered obvious but it was not known to the public until published by Bilton (2003). After two days of intensive questioning, on the afternoon of 4 January 1981, Sutcliffe suddenly declared he was the Ripper. Over the next day, he calmly described his many attacks. Weeks later he claimed God had told him to murder the women. "The women I killed were filth", he told police. "Bastard prostitutes who were littering the streets. I was just cleaning up the place a bit". Sutcliffe displayed regret only when talking of his youngest murder victim, Jayne MacDonald, and when questioned about the killing of Joan Harrison, he vehemently denied responsibility. Harrison's murder had been linked to the Ripper killings by the "Wearside Jack" claim, but in 2011, DNA evidence revealed the crime had actually been committed by convicted sex offender Christopher Smith, who had died in 2008. Sutcliffe was charged on 5 January 1981. At his trial, he pleaded not guilty to thirteen charges of murder, but guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility. The basis of his defence was that he claimed to be the tool of God's will. Sutcliffe said he had heard voices that ordered him to kill prostitutes while working as a gravedigger, which he claimed originated from the headstone of a Polish man, Bronisław Zapolski, and that the voices were that of God. Sutcliffe pleaded guilty to seven charges of attempted murder. The prosecution intended to accept Sutcliffe's plea after four psychiatrists diagnosed him with paranoid schizophrenia, but the trial judge, Justice Sir Leslie Boreham, demanded an unusually-detailed explanation of the prosecution reasoning. After a two-hour representation by the Attorney-General Sir Michael Havers, a ninety-minute lunch break, and another forty minutes of legal discussion, the judge rejected the diminished responsibility plea and the expert testimonies of the psychiatrists, insisting that the case should be dealt with by a jury. The trial proper was set to commence on 5 May 1981. The trial lasted two weeks, and despite the efforts of his counsel James Chadwin QC, Sutcliffe was found guilty of murder on all counts and was sentenced to twenty concurrent sentences of life imprisonment. The jury rejected the evidence of four psychiatrists that Sutcliffe had paranoid schizophrenia, possibly influenced by the evidence of a prison officer who heard him say to his wife that if he convinced people he was mad then he might get ten years in a "loony bin". The trial judge said Sutcliffe was beyond redemption, and hoped he would never leave prison. He recommended a minimum term of thirty years to be served before parole could be considered, meaning Sutcliffe would have been unlikely to be freed until at least 2011. On 16 July 2010, the High Court issued Sutcliffe with a whole life tariff, meaning he was never to be released. After his trial, Sutcliffe admitted two other attacks. It was decided that prosecution for these offences was "not in the public interest". West Yorkshire Police made it clear that the victims wished to remain anonymous. Criticism of authorities West Yorkshire Police West Yorkshire Police was criticised for being inadequately prepared for an investigation on this scale. It was one of the largest investigations by a British police force and predated the use of computers. Information on suspects was stored on handwritten index cards. Aside from difficulties in storing and accessing the paperwork (the floor of the incident room was reinforced to cope with the weight of the paper), it was difficult for officers to overcome the information overload of such a large manual system. Sutcliffe was interviewed nine times, but all information the police had about the case was stored in paper form, making cross-referencing difficult, compounded by television appeals for information which generated thousands more documents. The 1982 Byford Report into the investigation concluded: "The ineffectiveness of the major incident room was a serious handicap to the Ripper investigation. While it should have been the effective nerve centre of the whole police operation, the backlog of unprocessed information resulted in the failure to connect vital pieces of related information. This serious fault in the central index system allowed Peter Sutcliffe to continually slip through the net". The choice of Oldfield to lead the inquiry was criticised by Byford: "The temptation to appoint a 'senior man' on age or service grounds should be resisted. What is needed is an officer of sound professional competence who will inspire confidence and loyalty". He found wanting Oldfield's focus on the hoax confessional tape that seemed to indicate a perpetrator with a Wearside background, and his ignoring advice from survivors of Sutcliffe's attacks and several eminent specialists, including from the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the US, along with dialect analysts such as Stanley Ellis and Jack Windsor Lewis, whom he had also consulted throughout the manhunt, that "Wearside Jack" was a hoaxer. The investigation used it as a point of elimination rather than a line of enquiry and allowed Sutcliffe to avoid scrutiny, as he did not fit the profile of the sender of the tape or letters. The "Wearside Jack" hoaxer was given unusual credibility when analysis of saliva on the envelopes he sent showed he had the same blood group as that which Sutcliffe had left at crime scenes, a type shared by only 6% of the population. The hoaxer appeared to know details of the murders which had not been released to the press, but which in fact he had acquired from pub gossip and his local newspaper. In response to the police reaction to the murders, the Leeds Revolutionary Feminist Group organised a number of 'Reclaim the Night' marches. The group and other feminists had criticised the police for victim-blaming, especially for the suggestion that women should remain indoors at night. Eleven marches in various towns across the United Kingdom took place on the night of 12 November 1977. They made the point that women should be able to walk anywhere without restriction and that they should not be blamed for men's violence. In 1988, the mother of Sutcliffe's last victim, Jacqueline Hill, during an action for damages on behalf of her daughter's estate, argued in the case Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire in the High Court that the police had failed to use reasonable care in apprehending Sutcliffe. The House of Lords held that the Chief Constable of West Yorkshire did not owe a duty of care to the victim due to the lack of proximity, and therefore failing on the second limb of the Caparo test. After Sutcliffe's death in November 2020, West Yorkshire Police issued an apology for the "language, tone, and terminology" used by the force at the time of the criminal investigation, nine months after one of the victims' sons wrote on behalf of several of the victims' families. Attitude towards prostitutes The attitude in the West Yorkshire Police at the time reflected Sutcliffe's own misogyny and sexist attitudes, according to multiple sources. Jim Hobson, a senior West Yorkshire detective, told a press conference in October 1979 the perpetrator: "has made it clear that he hates prostitutes. Many people do. We, as a police force, will continue to arrest prostitutes. But the Ripper is now killing innocent girls. That indicates your mental state and that you are in urgent need of medical attention. You have made your point. Give yourself up before another innocent woman dies".Joan Smith wrote in Misogynies (1989, 1993), that "even Sutcliffe, at his trial, did not go quite this far; he did at least claim he was demented at the time". The Attorney General, Sir Michael Havers QC, at the trial in 1981 said of Sutcliffe's victims in his opening statement: "Some were prostitutes, but perhaps the saddest part of the case is that some were not. The last six attacks were on totally respectable women". This drew condemnation from the English Collective of Prostitutes (ECP), who protested outside the Old Bailey. Nina Lopez, who was one of the ECP protestors in 1981, told The Independent forty years later, Sir Michael's comments were "an indictment of the whole way in which the police and the establishment were dealing with the Yorkshire Ripper case". Byford report The Inspector of Constabulary Lawrence Byford's 1981 report of an official inquiry into the Ripper case was not released by the Home Office until 1 June 2006. The sections "Description of suspects, photofits and other assaults" and parts of the section on Sutcliffe's "immediate associates" were not disclosed by the Home Office. Referring to the period between 1969, when Sutcliffe first came to the attention of police, and 1975, the year of the murder of Wilma McCann, the report states: "There is a curious and unexplained lull in Sutcliffe's criminal activities" and "it is my firm conclusion that between 1969 and 1980 Sutcliffe was probably responsible for many attacks on unaccompanied women, which he has not yet admitted, not only in the West Yorkshire and Manchester areas, but also in other parts of the country". In 1969, Sutcliffe, described in the Byford Report as an "otherwise unremarkable young man", came to the notice of police on two occasions over incidents with prostitutes. Later that year, in September 1969, he was also arrested in Bradford's red light district for being in possession of a hammer, an offensive weapon, but he was charged with "going equipped for stealing" as it was assumed he was a potential burglar. The report said that it was clear Sutcliffe had on at least one occasion attacked a Bradford prostitute with a cosh. Byford's report states: Police identified a number of attacks which matched Sutcliffe's modus operandi and tried to question the killer, but he was never charged with other crimes. The Byford Report's major findings were contained in a summary published by the Home Secretary, William Whitelaw, the first time precise details of the bungled police investigation had been disclosed. Byford described delays in following up vital tip-offs from Trevor Birdsall, an associate of Sutcliffe since 1966. On 25 November 1980, Birdsall sent an anonymous letter to police, the text of which ran as follows: This letter was marked "Priority No. 1". An index card was created on the basis of the letter and a policewoman found Sutcliffe already had three existing index cards in the records. But "for some inexplicable reason", said the Byford Report, the papers remained in a filing tray in the incident room until the murderer's arrest on 2 January [1981], the following year. Birdsall visited Bradford police station the day after sending the letter to repeat his misgivings about Sutcliffe. He added that he was with Sutcliffe when he got out of a car to pursue a woman with whom he had had a bar room dispute in Halifax on 16 August 1975. This was the date and place of the Olive Smelt attack. A report compiled on the visit was lost, despite a "comprehensive search" which took place after Sutcliffe's arrest, according to the report. Byford said: Custody Prison and Broadmoor Hospital Following his conviction and incarceration, Sutcliffe chose to use the name Coonan, his mother's maiden name. He began his sentence at HM Prison Parkhurst on 22 May 1981. Despite being found sane at his trial, Sutcliffe was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. Attempts to send him to a secure psychiatric unit were blocked. While at Parkhurst he was seriously assaulted by James Costello, a 35-year-old career criminal with several convictions for violence. On 10 January 1983, he followed Sutcliffe into the recess of F2, the hospital wing at Parkhurst, and plunged a broken coffee jar twice into the left side of Sutcliffe's face, creating four wounds requiring thirty stitches. In March 1984, Sutcliffe was sent to Broadmoor Hospital, under Section 47 of the Mental Health Act 1983. Sutcliffe's wife obtained a separation from him around 1989 and a divorce in July 1994. On 23 February 1996, he was attacked in his room in Broadmoor's Henley Ward. Paul Wilson, a convicted robber, asked to borrow a videotape before attempting to strangle Sutcliffe with the cable from a pair of stereo headphones. After an attack with a pen by fellow inmate Ian Kay on 10 March 1997, Sutcliffe lost the vision in his left eye, and his right eye was severely damaged. Kay admitted trying to kill Sutcliffe and was ordered to be detained in a secure mental hospital without limit of time. In 2003, it was reported that Sutcliffe had developed diabetes. Sutcliffe's father died in 2004 and was cremated. On 17 January 2005, Sutcliffe was allowed to visit Grange-over-Sands where the ashes had been scattered. The decision to allow the temporary release was initiated by David Blunkett and ratified by Charles Clarke when he became Home Secretary. Sutcliffe was accompanied by four members of the hospital staff. The visit led to front-page tabloid headlines. On 22 December 2007, Sutcliffe was attacked by fellow inmate Patrick Sureda, who lunged at him with a metal cutlery knife while shouting, "You fucking raping, murdering bastard, I'll blind your fucking other one!" Sutcliffe flung himself backwards and the blade missed his right eye, stabbing him in the cheek. On 17 February 2009, it was reported that Sutcliffe was "fit to leave Broadmoor". On 23 March 2010, the Secretary of State for Justice, Jack Straw, was questioned by Julie Kirkbride, Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Bromsgrove, in the House of Commons seeking reassurance for a constituent, a victim of Sutcliffe, that he would remain in prison. Straw responded that whilst the matter of Sutcliffe's release was a parole board matter, "that all the evidence that I have seen on this case, and it's a great deal, suggests to me that there are no circumstances in which this man will be released". Appeal An application by Sutcliffe for a minimum term to be set, offering the possibility of parole after that date if it were thought safe to release him, was heard by the High Court on 16 July 2010. The court decided that Sutcliffe would never be released. Mr Justice Mitting stated: Psychological reports describing Sutcliffe's mental state were taken into consideration, as was the severity of his crimes. Sutcliffe spent the rest of his life in custody. On 4 August 2010, a spokeswoman for the Judicial Communications Office confirmed that Sutcliffe had initiated an appeal against the decision. The hearing for Sutcliffe's appeal against the ruling began on 30 November 2010 at the Court of Appeal. The appeal was rejected on 14 January 2011. On 9 March 2011, the Court of Appeal rejected Sutcliffe's application for leave to appeal to the Supreme Court. Later events In December 2015, Sutcliffe was assessed as being "no longer mentally ill". In August 2016, a medical tribunal ruled that he no longer required clinical treatment for his mental condition, and could be returned to prison. Sutcliffe was reported to have been transferred from Broadmoor to HM Prison Frankland in Durham, County Durham, in August 2016. In 2017, West Yorkshire Police launched Operation Painthall to determine if Sutcliffe was guilty of unsolved crimes dating back to 1964. This inquiry also looked at the killings of two prostitutes in southern Sweden in 1980. Given that Sutcliffe was a lorry driver, it was theorised that he had been in Denmark and Sweden, making use of the ferry across the Oresund Strait. In December 2017 West Yorkshire Police, in response to a Freedom of Information request, neither confirmed nor denied that Operation Painthall existed. West Yorkshire Police later stated that it was "absolutely certain" that Sutcliffe had never been in Sweden. Death Sutcliffe died at University Hospital of North Durham aged 74 on 13 November 2020, having been sent there with COVID-19, after having previously returned to HMP Frankland following treatment for a suspected heart attack at the same hospital two weeks prior. He had a number of underlying health problems, including obesity and diabetes. He reportedly refused treatment. A private funeral ceremony was held, and Sutcliffe's body was cremated. Media The song "Night Shift" by English post-punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees on their 1981 album Juju is about Sutcliffe. On 6 April 1991, Sutcliffe's father, John Sutcliffe, talked about his son on the television discussion programme After Dark. This Is Personal: The Hunt for the Yorkshire Ripper, a British television crime drama miniseries, first shown on ITV from 26 January to 2 February 2000, is a dramatisation of the real-life investigation into the murders, showing the effect that it had on the health and career of Assistant Chief Constable George Oldfield (Alun Armstrong). The series also starred Richard Ridings and James Laurenson as DSI Dick Holland and Chief Constable Ronald Gregory, respectively. Although broadcast over two weeks, two episodes were shown consecutively each week. The series was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Serial at the 2001 awards. On 26 August 2016, the police investigation was the subject of BBC Radio 4's The Reunion. Sue MacGregor discussed the investigation with John Domaille, who later became assistant chief constable of West Yorkshire Police; Andy Laptew, who was a junior detective who interviewed Sutcliffe; Elaine Benson, who worked in the incident room and interviewed suspects; David Zackrisson, who investigated the "Wearside Jack" tape and letters in Sunderland; and Christa Ackroyd, a local journalist in Halifax. A three part series of one hour episodes, The Yorkshire Ripper Files: A very British crime story aired on BBC Four in March 2019. This included interviews with some of the victims, their family, police and journalists who covered the case by filmmaker Liza Williams. In the series she questions whether the attitude of both the police and society towards women prevented Sutcliffe from being caught sooner. On 31 July 2020, the series won the BAFTA prize for Specialist Factual TV programming. A play written by Olivia Hirst and David Byrne, The Incident Room, premiered at Pleasance as part of the 2019 Edinburgh Festival Fringe. The play focuses on the police force hunting Sutcliffe. The play was produced by New Diorama. The third book (and second episodic television adaptation) in David Peace's Red Riding series is set against the backdrop of the Ripper investigation. In that episode, Sutcliffe is played by Joseph Mawle. In October 2020, it was announced that ITV will produce a new six-part drama series about the Ripper. In December 2020, Netflix released a four-part documentary entitled The Ripper, which recounts the police investigation into the murders with interviews from living victims, family members of victims and police officers involved in the investigation. The 2021 podcast "Crime Analysis" covers Peter Sutcliffe's crimes, focusing on the victims, the investigation and forensics, trial, and aftermath including an interview with the son of victim Wilma McCann. In November 2021, American heavy metal band Slipknot released a song titled "The Chapeltown Rag", which is inspired by the media reporting on the murders. In February 2022, Channel 5 released a 60-minute documentary entitled The Ripper Speaks: the Lost Tapes, which recounts interviews and Sutcliffe speaking about life in prison and in Broadmoor Hospital, as well the crimes he had committed but which had not been seen or treated as "a Ripper killing". See also Gordon Cummins (Blackout Ripper) Anthony Hardy (Camden Ripper) Steve Wright (serial killer) (perpetrator of the Ipswich serial murders) Alun Kyte (Midlands Ripper) List of prisoners with whole-life orders List of serial killers by country List of serial killers by number of victims Murders of Jacqueline Ansell-Lamb and Barbara Mayo, unsolved murders that for many years were linked to Sutcliffe Notes References Bibliography External links (multiple files) 1946 births 1980s trials 2020 deaths 20th-century English criminals British people convicted of attempted murder Chapeltown, Leeds Crime in Manchester Crime in West Yorkshire Criminals from Yorkshire Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in England English male criminals English murderers of children English people convicted of murder English people of Irish descent English prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment English serial killers Fugitives wanted by the United Kingdom Male serial killers Murder in Manchester Murder in West Yorkshire People convicted of murder by England and Wales People detained at Broadmoor Hospital People from Bingley People with schizophrenia Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by England and Wales Prisoners who died in England and Wales detention Violence against women in England

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Anarchist%20Cookbook

The Anarchist Cookbook

The Anarchist Cookbook, first published in 1971, is a book containing instructions for the manufacture of explosives, rudimentary telecommunications phreaking devices, and related weapons, as well as instructions for the home manufacture of illicit drugs, including LSD. It was written by William Powell at the apex of the counterculture era to protest against United States's involvement in the Vietnam War. Powell converted to Anglicanism in 1976 and later attempted to have the book removed from circulation. However, the copyright belonged to the publisher, who continued circulation until the company was acquired in 1991. Its legality has been questioned in several jurisdictions. History Creation The Anarchist Cookbook was written by William Powell as a teenager and first published in 1971 at the apex of the counterculture era to protest against United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Powell gained inspiration for his text from his experiences with Vietnam veterans throughout his time living in New York City, during which, the pacifist movements of the 1960s began to take a more violent turn, having been responsible for over 100 politically inspired bombings. Powell began plans to become a writer but decided upon a political course when he was drafted to the Vietnam war, which inspired him to write "recipes" and later compile them into a "cookbook". The initial vision of The Anarchist Cookbook was to post instructional flyers in New York City, including how to properly throw a Molotov cocktail and how to make LSD. These "recipes" were eventually adapted to make up an entire book. From 1968 to 1970, Powell began researching in the "U.S. Combat Bookshelf" at the New York Public Library, including external texts such as The Boy Scout Handbook, Fuck the System by Abbie Hoffman, and other anarchist texts. The initial manuscript was sent to Lyle Stuart in 1970. Powell stated The Anarchist Cookbook was initially designed as a book meant to provide education towards "the silent majority" of the American population. He described that the book was not intended for extant political fringe organizations; rather it was designed to galvanize a great societal change by inciting the general population. The ultimate goal of the text was to provide the general population with the skills and capabilities to organize against fascist, capitalist, and communist threats that he perceived. Powell stated: "The central idea to the book was that violence is an acceptable means to bring about political change," a sentiment that he would renounce later in life. Author's remorse After writing the book as a teenager, Powell converted to Anglicanism in 1976, and later attempted to have the book removed from circulation. In 1979, Powell left the United States, traveling to the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. There he worked as a faculty member for international schools backed by the United States. During this time, he began writing about pedagogy and conflict resolution. This led him to renounce his book and instead campaign for its withdrawal from publication. He was unable to legally stop publication of The Anarchist's Cookbook because the copyright had been issued to the original publisher (Lyle Stuart), and subsequent publishers that purchased the rights have kept the title in print. Powell publicly renounced his book in a 2013 piece calling for the book to "quickly and quietly go out of print". Having written the book, Powell had difficulty finding employment throughout his life, having described the book as "a youthful indiscretion or mistake that can haunt someone during their early years or even longer." In 2011, Powell and his wife, Ochan Kusuma-Powell, founded Next Frontier: Inclusion, a nonprofit serving children with developmental and learning disabilities, describing it as a means to atone for writing the text. William Powell died of cardiac arrest on 11 July 2016. Publication status Powell originally sent the manuscript to over 30 publishers until Lyle Stuart bought the book and its copyright. Powell received royalties for the book, approximately $35,000, until he split with the company in 1976. Despite Powell's protest against the continued publication of the text, the copyright of the book never belonged to its author, but to its publisher Lyle Stuart. The publisher Lyle Stuart Inc agreed to publish the text as an attempt to defy efforts by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to obtain lists of people who checked out books that were deemed subversive. Stuart kept publishing the book until the company was bought in 1991 by Steven Schragis, who decided to drop it. Out of the 2,000 books published by the company, it was the only one that Schragis decided to stop publishing. Schragis said publishers have a responsibility to the public, and the book had no positive social purpose that could justify keeping it in print. The copyright was bought in 2002 by Delta Press (aka Ozark Press) an Arkansas-based publisher that specializes in controversial books, where the title is their "most-asked-for volume". As of 2016, over two million copies of the book have been sold. Content summary Foreword The Anarchist Cookbook begins with a Foreword section, detailing the author's intentions for the text. At the time of writing, Powell believed that the United States was slowly declining towards communism, thus he found it necessary to write a book that guided people on revolution against this transition. He championed the idea of "bringing America back to where she was two hundred years ago", believing his revolutionary ideals to be reactionary, rather than proactive. Powell begins with his vision for the book in how it is intended to educate and galvanize the public to make tangible change in their home countries. Powell states that fringe political organizations, such The Minutemen and The Weathermen, are not the intended audience, rather it is written for "the silent majority". Powell envisioned the United States people rebelling against what he deemed to be oppressive capitalistic ideals, and to a lesser extent, against fascist and communist movements. Content Powell begins the content of his book discussing anarchy and anarchist theory. Anarchy, by his definition, is a wide scale mass uprising by the people, similar to that of civil disobedience through violence. He believed that anarchy was the innate state of all individuals, and therefore human nature would drive people to participate in such practices. Powell believed that current expressions of politics, arts, music, and education all contained innate principles of anarchist ideals, thereby equating anarchism to individualism. This principle drives Powell's argumentation as he believed that the current political climate and Vietnam war had undermined human values, therefore revolution based upon his perception of human dignity and freedom was what drove him to write the piece. He ends his introduction by warning of the seriousness that these recipes may have deadly consequences if used improperly. The chapters of The Anarchist Cookbook include descriptions and detailed instructions in hand-to-hand combat, explosives, booby traps, drugs, tear gas, sabotage and demolition, surveillance, improvised weapons and other topics related to anarchism. Reception Legal reviews At the time of its publication, one FBI memo described The Anarchist Cookbook as "one of the crudest, low-brow, paranoiac writing efforts ever attempted". The book was reviewed by the Department of Justice, the White House, the FBI, and by both John Dean and Mark Felt, Richard Nixon's lawyer and FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's associate director respectively. While having concerns about the text, the FBI concluded that it could not be regulated as it was published through mass media. Furthermore, the FBI ruled that The Anarchist Cookbook does not incite "forcible resistance to any law of the United States" and is therefore protected under the First Amendment. While much of the text was deemed to be inaccurate, the FBI concluded that the chapter on explosives "appears to be accurate in most respects". Since its conception, the FBI has kept records of the book, releasing the bulk of its investigation file in 2010. Anarchism The anarchist collective CrimethInc., which published the book Recipes for Disaster: An Anarchist Cookbook in response, denounces the earlier book, saying it was "not composed or released by anarchists, not derived from anarchist practice, not intended to promote freedom and autonomy or challenge repressive power – and was barely a cookbook, as most of the recipes in it are notoriously unreliable". Media presence Internet/media Much of the publication was copied and made available as text documents online through Usenet and FTP sites hosted in academic institutions in the early 1990s, and has been made available via web browsers from their inception in the mid-1990s to the present day. The name varies slightly from Anarchist Cookbook to Anarchy Cookbook and the topics have expanded vastly in the intervening decades. Many of the articles were attributed to an anonymous author called "The Jolly Roger". Knowledge of the book, or copied online publications of it, increased along with the increase in public access to the Internet throughout the mid-1990s. Newspapers ran stories about how easy the text was to get hold of, and the influence it may have had with terrorists, criminals, and experimenting teenagers. Film The book served as a central element of the 2002 romantic comedy The Anarchist Cookbook. Repercussions from the book's publication, and the author's subsequent disavowal of its content, were the subject of the 2016 documentary film American Anarchist by Charlie Siskel. In the film, William Powell explains in depth his thoughts on the book and the consequences it had in his life. It further explores the themes of responsibility and repercussions that decision can have on one's life. Powell's death in 2016 received little media coverage until the release of American Anarchist, which was released a few months after his death. Notable incidents of alleged use and attempts to suppress 1976: Police linked the bombing of Grand Central Terminal and hijacking of a TWA flight to Croatian radicals who used instructions from The Anarchist Cookbook. 1981: The Anarchist Cookbook was linked to Puerto Rican rebels who bombed an FBI headquarters using the book's directions. Thomas Spinks also referred to the text during the bombings of 10 abortion clinics in the United States. 1995: The perpetrators of the Oklahoma City bombing were alleged to have used directions from the book. 1999: Police found The Anarchist Cookbook in possession of the Columbine High School shooters Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, in Littleton, Colorado; it may have inspired them. 2002: The Canadian government permitted the book to be imported from the United States. Canada Customs and Revenue Agency concluded the book does not violate either hate or obscenity laws, therefore the previous ban on the text was resolved. 2007: A 17-year-old was arrested in the United Kingdom and faced charges under anti-terrorism law in the UK for possession of The Anarchists' Cookbook. He was cleared of all charges in October 2008, after arguing that he was a prankster who just wanted to research fireworks and smoke bombs. 2010: In County Durham, UK, Ian Davison and his son were imprisoned under anti-terrorism laws for the manufacturing of ricin. Their possession of The Anarchist Cookbook, along with its availability, was noted by the authorities. This led to a London judge and police campaigning to have the book banned in the UK. 2012: The Anarchist Cookbook was found to have been in the possession of James Holmes, the perpetrator of the Aurora theater shooting in Colorado, USA. 2013: Renewed calls were made in the United States to ban the book, citing links to a school shooting in Arapahoe, Colorado, and the Santa Monica, California, shootings by Karl Pierson. 2015: The London public-transport bombers were linked to the book. 2015: U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein pushed to have the book removed from online databases. 2016: The book was refused classification by the Office of Film and Literature Classification upon release, thus making the book banned in Australia. It was classified RC again on 31 October 2016. 2017: A 27-year-old was prosecuted in the UK solely for the possession of the book. He was found not guilty. 2020: A 23-year-old mathematics graduate of the University of Cambridge was convicted of 'collecting information useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism' based on his possession of the book. 2021: Ben John, a 21-year-old student, was found guilty of possessing a copy of the book on a computer hard drive, where he was given a suspended sentence and told by a judge to 'read classical literature,' such as Pride and Prejudice; only for the Court of Appeal to rule that order unlawful, sentencing the man to three years: two years in custody, one year on licence. See also The Big Book of Mischief The Poor Man's James Bond Rules for Radicals Johann Most, author of Science of Revolutionary Warfare, an inspiration of this Cookbook according to the forewords Keith McHenry, who wrote a parody of this book focusing on food mutual aid in 2015 References Further reading External links 1971 non-fiction books American non-fiction books Censored books English-language books

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary%20immunity

Parliamentary immunity

Parliamentary immunity, also known as legislative immunity, is a system in which politicians such as president, vice president, governor, lieutenant governor, member of parliament, member of legislative assembly, member of legislative council, senator, member of congress, corporator and councilor are granted full immunity from legal prosecution, both civil prosecution and criminal prosecution. Before prosecuting, it is necessary that the immunity be removed, usually by the senate, house of representatives, parliament, state legislative assembly, state legislative council, municipal body, district council, block council and village council itself. This eliminates the possibility of pressing a politician to change their vote by fear of prosecution. Westminster system countries Legislators in countries using the Westminster system, such as the United Kingdom, are protected from civil action and criminal law for slander and libel by parliamentary immunity whilst they are in the House. This protection is part of the privileges afforded the Houses of Parliament under the Common Law (parliamentary privilege). Parliamentary immunity from criminal prosecution is not enjoyed by Members of Parliament under the Westminster system. This lack of criminal immunity is derived from the key tenet of the British Constitution that all are equal before the law. Brazil The 1988 Brazilian constitution grants parliamentary immunity to members of both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Unlike other countries, Brazilian parliamentary immunity is also extended to crimes committed outside a parliamentarian's official duties (murder, theft, etc.). This does not apply for crimes committed before the member of parliament takes office. Members of parliament can be arrested only for crimes if caught at the time of the criminal act in flagrante for a crime with no possibility of bail. These arrests can be overruled by a floor vote of the particular parliament chamber that parliamentarian belongs to. Criminal proceedings may be suspended for crimes committed only after a parliamentarian begins his term of office, and requests for suspensions need to be approved by majority of members of Parliament. Members of the National Congress as well as other high level politicians are prosecuted and judged exclusively by the Supreme Court, as opposed to the lower courts. As of 2007, no Brazilian politician has ever been convicted by the Supreme Federal Tribunal of any crime since parliamentary immunity was instituted in 1988. After the Mensalão scandal in 2005, the Supreme Federal Tribunal surprised many when, on August 24, 2007, it accepted the indictments of 40 individuals, most of which are former or current federal deputies, all of which were allies of Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. France Members of the Parliament of France enjoy irresponsibility for what they did as parliamentarians, and partial inviolability – that is, severe restrictions for the police or justice to arrest or detain them. Both irresponsibility and inviolability are mandated by article 26 of the Constitution of France. These dispositions are somewhat controversial, following abuse of such privileges. Germany Article 46 of Germany's Constitution states: "At no time may a Member be subjected to court proceedings or disciplinary action or otherwise called to account outside the Bundestag for a vote cast or for any speech or debate in the Bundestag or in any of its committees," with exceptions made for "defamatory insults." The Bundestag can vote to lift immunity for specific members, and to allow prosecution in cases relating to alleged criminal activity. The Bundestag may also order that a detainment or prosecution of a member be suspended. The states of Germany also have similar procedures for their legislative bodies. Greece Members of the Hellenic Parliament are immune from criminal prosecution, arrest or detention while in office, with the exception of crimes committed in flagrante delicto. They are also immune from having to provide any information to any authority regarding their legislative functions and deliberations. However, both the Constitution and the Standing Orders allow for the Public Prosecutor's Office to request from Parliament to lift an MP's immunity for a particular crime, with MPs deciding though open balloting. Alleged crimes committed by members of the Cabinet (including non-MPs) or the President of the Republic are first investigated by an ad hoc parliamentary committee, with MPs then voting on the committee's recommendations. Should parliament determine that there is sufficient evidence for prosecution, an ad hoc Special Court is set up. Italy Parliamentary immunity in Italy was re-instated in 1948 by the Constituent Assembly, to prevent cases such as "Francesco Saverio Nitti, whose house was searched and ransacked by the fascist police in the fall of 1923; Giacomo Matteotti, murdered by fascists June 10, 1924 for his work as a deputy of opposition; Giovanni Amendola, beaten in Montecatini in 1925 and died in Cannes in April 1926; Antonio Gramsci, whose parliamentary mandate was revoked on Nov. 9, 1926 and who was tried in 1928 by a special court for his activities as a Member of Parliament and as a political opponent. The same court had him imprisoned and his correspondence was seized". Immunity was limited in 1993, but abuse continues by means of denying authorizations to certain judiciary acts, like wiretapping; therefore, in the final judgment, the Constitutional Court often overturns the decisions of Parliament to protect its members, authorising the activities of the judiciary. Spain In Spain, parliamentarians in the national Congress of Deputies and Senators as well as legislators serving in regional administrations and certain members of the Spanish Royal Family are afforded '', thus becoming '' (lit. 'afforded ones') and enjoy privileges granted in the Constitution of Spain. These self-regulatory organizations' membership privileges are reflected in the following parliamentary prerogatives: Inviolability: Legislators can not be judicially prosecuted for opinions expressed or votes cast in the exercise of their official duties (Article 71.1 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978). Immunity: Legislators may only be detained in flagrante delicto, and so plaintiffs and prosecutors must seek authorisation from the assembly in which the accused is elected before any legal process is initiated (Article 71.2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978). although the final authority rests with the Supreme Court of Spain Specific jurisdiction: Parliamentarians can only be judged in the first instance by the Supreme Court, a practice that has been criticised as potentially undermining any right of appeal to a higher court. Currently, there are 10,000 persons in Spain with parliamentary immunity, and only a fifth of them are politicians. Turkey Between 26 October 1961 and 12 March 1998 Turkish prosecutors made 2,713 requests to suspend the immunity of 1,151 deputies. Only 29 requests were granted. Six of these were the deputies of the Democracy Party arrested in 1994 because of their openly support for the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and separatist activities like the one as Leyla Zana wore a napkin in the Kurdish colors red, green, yellow. In connection with the Ergenekon trials (from 2008), some accused have been selected as parliamentary candidates specifically to give them legal protection via parliamentary immunity. On 20 May 2016, an amendment to the Constitution has been passed by the Parliament, removing parliamentary immunity. Due to surpassing the two-thirds majority threshold, the amendment was able to pass without a constitutional referendum. In November of the same year, nine members of parliament of the Peoples Democratic Party (HDP) were arrested. On the 4 June 2020 another three Turkish MPs were dismissed from parliament and arrested, two from the HDP and one from the Republican Peoples' Party (CHP). Ukraine Article 80 of the Ukrainian Constitution states that parliamentary immunity is guaranteed to the peoples' deputies of Ukraine. The peoples' deputies of Ukraine do not have legal responsibility for their votes and opinions in parliament and its appendent bodies, except for responsibility for insult or defamation. United States Mason's Manual notes, "The courts, by a series of decisions, have explained away almost every essential feature of the privilege from arrest as it once existed...A member of the legislature has no right to physically resist an officer attempting to make an arrest to the extent of assaulting such officer." Members of the United States Congress enjoy a similar parliamentary privilege as members of the British Parliament; that is, they cannot be prosecuted for anything they say on the floor of the House or Senate. They also enjoy the right to be present in Congress: that is, they may be in prison or jail the rest of the time, but they have the right to attend Congressional sessions, speak on the floor, vote, etc. These rights are specified in the Constitution and have been fairly uncontroversial in U.S. history. Courts have consistently interpreted them very narrowly. Several state constitutions provided equivalent protections for members of state legislatures. Vietnam National Assembly deputies and delegates of the People's Council are protected from being arrested and prosecuted. National Assembly deputies cannot be dismissed or sacked by the agency, organization or unit where the deputy works. These protections can be revoked by the National Assembly or the People's Council, respectively. LAW ON ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY LAW ON ORGANIZATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT References External links J.P.Joseph Maingot with David Dehler, Politicians Above the Law: A case for the abolition of parliamentary inviolability (Baico Publishing 2011) () Josh Chafetz, Democracy's Privileged Few: Legislative Privilege and Democratic Norms in the British and American Constitutions (Yale Univ. Press 2006) () Simon Wigley, 'Parliamentary Immunity: Protecting Democracy or Protecting Corruption?, 'Journal of Political Philosophy, Vol. 11, No.2, pp. 23–40. Erskine May, Parliamentary Practice: The Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament, W.R. Mackay et al. (eds) (London: Butterworths, 2004) () Simon McGee, Rules on Parliamentary Immunity in the European Parliament and the Member States of the European Union, (Brussels: European Parliament, ECPRD, 2001). UK Parliament, Reports of the Joint Committee on Parliamentary Privilege in Session HL 43-I/ HC 214-I. (London: The Stationery Office Limited, 1999). Marc Van der Hulst, The Parliamentary Mandate. (Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2001) () L'immunité parlementaire, French National Assembly Criminal procedure Legal immunity Legislatures

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape%20of%20males

Rape of males

A proportion of victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past. Rape of males is still taboo, and has a negative connotation among heterosexual and homosexual men. Community and service providers often react differently to male victims based on their sexual orientation and the gender of their perpetrators. It may be difficult for male victims to report a sexual assault they experienced, especially in a society with a strong masculine custom. They might be afraid that people will doubt their sexual orientation and label them homosexual, especially if raped by a male, or that they may be seen as un-masculine because they were a victim and therefore many statistics underestimate how many males are raped due to their unwillingness to report sexual assault and rape. Most of the time, male victims try to hide and deny their victimization, similar to female victims, unless they have serious physical injuries. Eventually, the male victims may be very vague in explaining their injuries when they are seeking medical or mental health services. Research and statistics General Research about male-victim rape had only just begun to appear by 1980, focusing mostly on male children. The studies of sexual assault in correctional facilities focusing specifically on the consequences of this kind of rape were available in the early 1980s, but nothing was available during the previous years. Most of the literature regarding rape and sexual assault focuses on female victims. Only recently have some other forms of sexual violence against men been considered. In the 2010–2012 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (and a prior edition of this study completed in 2010), the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) measured a category of sexual violence called "being made to penetrate" which captures instances in which victims were forced to or attempt to sexually penetrate someone (of either sex), either by physical force or coercion, or when the victim was intoxicated or otherwise unable to consent. The CDC found in the 2012 data that 1.715 million (up from 1.267 million in 2010) reported being "made to penetrate" another person in the preceding 12 months, similar to the 1.473 million (2010: 1.270 million) women who reported being raped in the same time period. The definitions of rape and "made to penetrate" in the CDC study were worded with extremely similar language. Male-on-male rape Male-on-male rape has been heavily stigmatized. According to psychologist Sarah Crome, fewer than 1 in 10 male-on-male rapes are reported. As a group, male rape victims reported a lack of services and support, and legal systems are often ill-equipped to deal with this type of crime. In the United Kingdom, epidemiological studies have suggested that the rate of male rape is higher in gay and college communities. Several studies argue that male-on-male prisoner rape, as well as female-on-female prisoner rape, are common types of rape which go unreported even more frequently than rape in the general population. The rape of men by men has been documented as a weapon of terror in warfare (see also War rape). In the case of the Syrian Civil War (2011–present), the male detainees experienced sexual abuse such as being forced to sit on a broken glass bottle, getting their genitals tied to a heavy bag of water, or being forced to watch the rape of another detainee by the officials. Female-on-male rape Female-on-male rape is under-researched compared to other forms of sexual violence. Statistics on the prevalence of female-on-male sexual violence vary. One study (Hannon et al.) found 23.4% of women and 10.5% of men reported they were raped, while 6.6% of women and 10.5% of men reported they were victims of attempted rape. A 2010–2012 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that one in 17 men (5.9%) reported being made to penetrate at some point in their lives (up from 4.8% in 2010). The surveys also found that male victims often reported only female perpetrators in instances of being made to penetrate (2012: 78.5%, 2010: 79.2%), sexual coercion (2012: 81.6%, 2010: 83.6%), and unwanted sexual contact (2012: 53.0%, 2010: 53.1%). Among male victims who were raped by being penetrated, 86.5% reported only male perpetrators, (down from 93.3% in the previous study published in 2010). A 2008 study of 98 men interviewed on the United States National Crime Victimization Survey found that nearly half of the men (46%) who reported some form of sexual victimization were victimized by women. Regarding female-on-male sexual misconduct, the US Dept. of Justice reports in its opening statement (page 5): "An estimated 4.4% of prison inmates and 3.1% of jail inmates reported experiencing one or more incidents of sexual victimization by another inmate or facility staff in the past 12 months or since admission to the facility, if less than 12 months." Regarding female-on-male sexual misconduct (page 25) it states: "Among the 39,121 male prison inmates who had been victims of staff sexual misconduct, 69% reported sexual activity with female staff; an additional 16% reported sexual activity with both female and male staff (table 18)." and "Nearly two-thirds of the male jail inmates who had been victimized said the staff perpetrator was female (64%)." Male victims of sexual abuse by females often face social, political, and legal double standards. The case of Cierra Ross' sexual assault of a man in Chicago gained national headlines, and Ross was convicted of aggravated criminal sexual abuse and armed robbery with a bail set at $75,000. A similar case includes James Landrith, who was made to penetrate a female acquaintance in a hotel room while incapacitated from drinking, while his rapist cited the fact that she was pregnant to advise him not to struggle, as it might hurt the baby. Several widely publicized cases of female-on-male statutory rape in the United States involved school teachers having illegal sex with their underage students (see Mary Kay Letourneau and Debra Lafave). There have also been cases where an underage male victim of statutory rape was ordered by a judge to pay child support after the woman became pregnant (see Hermesmann v. Seyer). Myths regarding male victims of rape Males are not vulnerable By masculine gender socialization, it is thought that males, even younger males, cannot be victims of rape, nor even that they are vulnerable. In some societies, it is considered shameful and unmanly if a male child cries, because the male stereotype depicts males as being able to protect themselves, which may not always be the case. Young boys may be weaker and vulnerable to perpetrators, who are usually stronger. The perpetrators can use whatever they have to abuse the child, including money or other bribes. An adult male may also be helpless to fight back, or fearful of doing so. Males always want sex A common societal belief is that a male must be aroused if he gets an erection or has an orgasm, therefore that means that he is willing and enjoying any sexual activity. Roy J. Levin and Willy Van Berlo wrote in an article in the Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine that slight genital stimulation or stress can create erections "even though no specific sexual stimulation is present". An erection does not mean that the men consent to sex. Males can get erections even in traumatic or painful sexual situations, and this does not indicate consent. Much like female erectile response, male erectile response is involuntary, meaning that a man does not need to be aroused for his penis to become erect; mechanical stimulation is all that is necessary. Arousal and stimulation are distinct things. Stimulation is a physical response to a stimulus. Men can be physically stimulated without feeling aroused and thus causing an erection. Men can be scared and intimidated into an erection, especially if the person is older or an authority. Traumatization One notion is that males are less traumatized by the abuse experience than females are; this includes the belief that males are less negatively affected. Studies show that the long-term effects are damaging for either sex and males may especially be more damaged by social stigma and disbelief of their victimization. It is noted by Eogan and Richardson that male victims tend to feel more intense anger than female victims, while both go through similar feelings of distress after the rape. Frazier (1993) studied 74 male and 1,380 female rape victims. She found that the depression and hostility are more profound on male victims immediately post-rape than on female victims. Trauma recovery counselor Stephanie Baird says men who experience sexual attention as children often explain it to themselves as "I'm a stud, I got laid by ...". Baird explains that they do this in order to feel as if they had some power and say. Carpenter (2009, citing Mezey, 1987) finds that the "male coping strategy characterized by denial and control renders them more prone to later psychiatric problems and reduces the likelihood of seeking help". Sexual orientation Henry Leak, the chairman of the Survivors organization, stated that rape of males, as with females, has more to do with power than sexuality, and does not only happen inside the homosexual community. Sexual orientation is a complex issue, and the majority of male perpetrators who seek out boys are not homosexual. Male sexual assault victims often fear being seen as gay or weak, or believe that their assault may be due to their appearance being effeminate or homosexual so as to attract other males. Experts do not believe that premature sexual experiences play a significant role in later sexual orientation. Research by Jane Gilgun, Judith Becker and John Hunter states that while many perpetrators may have experienced sexual abuse of their own, most sexual assault victims will not go on to become adolescent perpetrators. However, it must be noted that gay and bisexual men can be victims of rape with "13.2% of bisexual men and 11.6% of gay men reporting a history of rape in adulthood" During armed conflict Rape of males during wartime has been reported as prevalent in some parts of the world, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, which recently suffered civil war. Across Africa, men who are raped often face social stigmatization and being ridiculed for being "weak" and failing to prevent the rape. They may also be accused of homosexuality (which is illegal in many countries of the region). For example, when some male refugees from the Congo sought treatment in Uganda, they were prosecuted for homosexuality, The Economist reported in 2012. In northern Uganda, in recent years there have been ongoing attacks by rebel groups against the government forces. During these conflicts, civilian men have often been attacked, kidnapped, raped and forced to fight for the rebel groups. Victims of rape often face serious physical, emotional, and psychological trauma as a result of their experience. Effects Physical effects Sexual abuse results in severe emotional and often physical trauma. Among sexual assault victims over 18, 31.5% of females and 16.1% of males said that they incurred non-genital injuries from the assault. Male victims received more ancillary injuries and were more likely to be threatened with a weapon by the perpetrator. The symptoms and injuries most frequently noted are tension headaches, ulcers, nausea, colitis, abrasions to the throat, black eyes and broken bones. The study by Stermac and colleagues (2004) noted that 45% of male victims who went to a hospital sexual assault centre had some type of physical injury (25% soft tissue injury, 20% lacerations). The data from hospital emergency rooms show that male rape victims are more likely to have non-genital injuries than females, and that they are more likely to neglect seeking medical attention if the injuries are not significant. Hodge and Canter (1998) report that homosexual male victims are more likely to sustain serious injuries than heterosexual male victims. Sometimes victims become infected by a sexually transmitted disease as the result of rape, but it is infrequent and includes only a small portion of male victims. Psychological effects Rape victims, males and females, may find it difficult to report the sexual assault against them. There is a myth that a male sexual assault victim will become a perpetrator themselves. This myth is very damaging to victims, both to their mental states and to how people treat them. Elizabeth Donovan, a psychotherapist, stated that males have the added burden of facing a society that does not believe that rape can happen to them at all. The social stigmatization of male victims is also damaging and has been described as 'secondary victimization'. It has been linked to the under-reporting of rape and post-rape trauma; male victims are also susceptible to post-traumatic stress disorder. Some studies have found that some victims chose not to report their assaults as they fear being labelled as a ‘closet homosexual’, bisexual, or as promiscuous. Regarding the blaming of victims of rape, researchers, in 1993, conducted an experiment and found that a statistically significant proportion of males tend to blame the victim, even when the rape victim was a male. Long-term effects Compared to men who have not been sexually assaulted, men who were sexually assaulted before age 18 have a greater risk of having mental health problems, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression; alcoholism and drug abuse; suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts; problems in intimate relationships; and underachievement at school and at work. Because of gender expectations, being a male child victim of sexual abuse can lead to: Pressure to prove his manhood physically and sexually (becoming stronger and engaging in dangerous or violent behavior; having multiple female sexual partners). Confusion over gender and sexual identity. Sense of being an inadequate man. Sense of lost power, control, and confidence to his manhood. Problems with closeness and intimacy. Sexual problems. Fear of becoming 'homosexual' or 'gay'. Homophobia. Suicide possibility The suicide rate for sexually abused males is 14 to 15 times higher than for other males. McDonald and Tijerino found in their research that some participants state that there were occasions on which they felt so bad that they engaged in self-harming behaviors, including suicide attempts, and/or had suicidal thoughts. There is also a study that shows that rape victims are 4.1 times more likely to contemplate suicide and 13 times more likely to attempt suicide than non-crime victims. Males have a much higher rate of suicide than females. One common explanation relies on the social constructions of hegemonic masculinity and femininity. In a review of the literature on gender and suicide, male suicide rates were explained in terms of traditional gender roles. Male gender roles tend to emphasize greater levels of strength, independence, and risk-taking behavior. Reinforcement of this gender role often prevents males from seeking help for suicidal feelings and depression. Healing therapy Sexual assault victims need extensive emotional and psychological healing after the raping, but male survivors are not likely to speak out their cases. Elizabeth Donovan, a psychotherapist, said; "Males have the added burden of facing a society that doesn't believe rape can happen to them ... at all." Prevalence United States In 1995, the American Medical Association described male rape as a ‘silent-violent epidemic’. The CDC reports in 2010 stated that nearly 1 in 5 women, 1 in 71 men in the U.S. have been raped or have had an experience of attempted rape, while 4.8% of men (1 in 21) reported they were made to penetrate someone else at some time in their lives. Furthermore, the CDC found that 1.270 million women and 1.267 million men were raped or forced to penetrate someone else in the 12 months leading up to the report. Incidents of sexual violence in US are severely underreported, especially among male victims, that lead to an assumption that the actual number is likely higher. Stephanie Baird, a trauma recovery counselor, cited the "hot-for-teacher or babysitter complex" that is a popular motif in modern American culture. The culture makes it more difficult for a male adolescent to even recognize that he is being abused. She explained that consent means "being of age, mind, sound body to make an informed decision about whether one would like to become sexually intimate with the other person", while children cannot consent. United Kingdom The most recent UK government statistics estimated about 78,000 people in the UK have become rape or attempted rape victims, and about 9,000 are men. Research suggests that the notoriously low report rate is particularly true among male victims. About 1,250 incidents of male-victim rape were reported to the police in 2011–2012. In February 2014, the ministry of justice set aside £500,000 to provide counseling and support for sexually abused males. China No official statistics are collected . However, the United Nations' 2013 Multi-Country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific found that 3% of Chinese men surveyed acknowledged having been raped by another man during their lifetime (suggesting that the proportion of male rapes as a percentage of all rapes was 14.4%). Taiwan Taiwan counted 12,066 victims of reported sexual assault in 2012 of which 1,335 victims were men. The Ministry of Interior showed that 7,608 minors were rape or sexual assault victims, with 1,063 of them being boys. To prevent the increasing number of these crimes, Taiwan's Ministry of Education had released a short film on sexual education. The netizens (Internet users) and students of Taiwan are treating it as a subject of jokes. However, National Academy of Educational Research Secretary-General Kuo Kung-pin stated that the video has achieved its purpose to get attention from the youth to remind them that men can be raped as well. India The rape of males in India is commonly underreported. For this reason, some activists and research organizations, including Jai Vipra at the New Delhi think-tank Centre for Civil Society, argue that the phrasing of rape laws should be gender-neutral. This view is opposed by some human rights advocates and women's rights activists. Mumbai-based human rights lawyer Flavia Agnes told the India Times, "I oppose proposal [sic] to make rape laws gender-neutral. We had opposed it when the government made child rape laws gender-neutral ... If made gender-neutral, rape laws will not have the deterrence value and it will make it more complicated for judges in court." International human rights lawyer and activist Vrinda Grover was quoted in the same article: "There are no instances of women raping men. I don't think men are facing serious sexual violence as [sic] women. Consider the brutality and intensity of sexual violence against women." Indonesia The news about rape of males in Indonesia arouses astonishment or jokes. The Indonesian Child Protection Commission (Komisi Perlindungan Anak Indonesia -KPAI) records about 400 Indonesian children become victims of sexual assault per year, both by their families and other adults. According to the Secretary General of KPAI, Erlinda, "the majority of children who are victims of sexual violence are males, because boys are vulnerable to become the victims of sexual offenders because they are easily persuaded by the perpetrators who are pedophiles. Emayartini (2013) became the first Indonesian woman to be sentenced to prison because she had raped six teenage boys. She almost escaped the law after she was considered to have a mental disorder. Unlike male rapists, she was subjected to the Law Number 23 Year 2002 about Child Protection, rather than the laws against rape. National laws United States The FBI's Uniform Crime Report in 2012 redefined rape as: "The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." The prior definition had not changed since 1927 and gained the attention of sexual assault awareness groups because it had alienated the victims who did not fit the definition – "the carnal knowledge of a female, forcibly and against her will". The former definition of "forcible rape" focused on vaginal penetration, but the newer definition includes forcible anal or oral penetration. The old definition, "the carnal knowledge of a female, forcibly and against her will", did not include forcible oral or anal penetration, the rape of women with other objects, or the rape of a man. This new definition encourages male rape victims to seek the help they need and also includes sexual assaults that previously were not covered by the definition of rape. The basis for changing this definition lies in the statistics provided by governmental institutions such as the U.S. Department of Justice and the CDC. A study done by the CDC found that 1 in 71 men had been raped or had been the target of attempted rape. This study included oral and anal penetration in its definition but did not include men in prison or men made to penetrate. Gender-neutral laws have combated the perception that rape rarely occurs to men, and other laws have eliminated the term rape altogether. United Kingdom Previously, English law did not include rape of males as a criminal offense and it was recorded as non-consensual buggery. A convicted rapist (of a female) could be imprisoned for life, stated Henry Leak, the chairman of Survivors organization, while buggery only carried 10 years maximum as a sentence. This is however no longer the case; the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 s. 142 was the first to lead this development and recognize male-victim rape; and the Sexual Offences Act 2003 states that penetration of the "mouth, anus or vagina with [the defendant's] penis" is sufficient for rape at s. 1(1)(a). R v Ismail [2005] All ER 216 further prevented distinction between "mouth, anus or vagina" when sentencing. Under the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 and the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 men can be both perpetrators and victims. However, in all parts of the United Kingdom a female cannot be legally charged with 'rape' (she must be instead charged with other offenses such as sexual assault, assault by penetration, or causing sexual activity without consent, of which the latter two carry the same maximum sentence). China Before 2015, article 236 of the revised Criminal Law of China specifies that the crime of rape may be committed only against women. It protects women's right to sexual autonomy but not men's. In 2011, the first-ever conviction for sexual assault on a man occurred with a Beijing security guard as the perpetrator, but he was convicted of intentional injury rather than rape, sentenced to one year in prison and to pay 20,000 yuan ($3,026) as compensation. A convicted rapist will get at least three years in prison. The guidelines of China on child protection strengthen the punishments for sexual offenses against underage girls, but don't offer equal protection to underage boys. Molestation of both sexes is treated equally at present, but the rapists of boys can only be charged with child molestation with 5 years in prison as a maximum sentence. In September 2013, 27 NGOs called for the law to give equal protection to boys below 18 years old in cases of sexual offences. Until November 1, 2015, sexual offences against males above the age of 14 could not be prosecuted unless they also included a physical assault, in which case only the physical component was punishable. However, a revision of Article 237, which criminalises "forcible indecency," made that section of the law gender-neutral. Offences that constitute rape of males may be tried under this article, with offenders facing a maximum of five years in prison. India The Indian Penal Code, Section 377, is the only section that criminalizes all acts of nonconsensual carnal intercourse, including male-on-male rape. This section penalizes both consensual and forced sodomy with 10 years minimum to life imprisonment. The Delhi HC stated that Section 377 of Indian Penal Code will continue to govern non-consensual penile, non-vaginal sex and penile non-vaginal sex involving minors. The section can be evoked to punish sodomites, pedophiles and zoophiles. The rape definition in Section 375 of Indian Penal Code does not include rape in which males are the victims. The Indian government (2012) decided to change the definition of "rape" as forcible penetration to include male victims, but was criticized on the grounds that this would further harm the interests of female rape victims. In the 2013 Criminal Law (Amendment) Ordinance, rape and sexual harassment crimes were gender neutral. The term "rape" was removed and substituted with "sexual assault". But strong objections were raised by feminist groups that made the Indian government decided to restore the term "rape" and state that only men can be the rapists of women. Indonesia Based on Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Pidana (Indonesian's Penal Code), males cannot be the victims of rape. In paragraph 285, rape is defined as a sexual violence against a female having a sentence of imprisonment for a maximum of 12 years, while in paragraph 289, the victim of "vulgar actions" is not defined as male or female and the punishment is a maximum of 9 years imprisonment. The commentary on paragraph 285 by R. Soesilo stated that the law makers didn't need to determine the punishment for a female perpetrator that forced males to have intercourse with her. This is not because such action is not possible, but the act is deemed to not do harm or result in something bad to male victims, such as pregnancy in females. Philippines Prior to the 1997 amendment of Revised Penal Code of 1930, male victims of rape were not acknowledged under Philippine law. Article 266-A of the law defines rape by "an act of sexual assault" by any person either by "inserting his penis into another person's mouth or anal orifice" or inserting "any instrument or object, into the genital or anal orifice of another person". The 1997 amendment allowed the legal recognition of rape of males, both by other males and by females. However there are different penalties for the offense of raping of boys compared to doing the same act to girls. Rape against boys is considered by law as rape by sexual assault, which carries a lesser penalty of six to 12 years of imprisonment while rape against girls are penalized by life imprisonment. Singapore Male victims of rape are not acknowledged in Singapore law. A male rape victim is not considered a rape victim under S375(1) of Penal Code, which defines rape as the act of a man penetrating a woman's vagina with his penis without her consent. Penetration of other body orifices is not rape but an unlawful sexual penetration (S376(1), Penal Code). Both crimes carry the same penalty: imprisonment for a term of up to 20 years plus fine or caning. (S375(2) and S376(4), Penal Code). See also Corrective rape Rape culture Domestic violence against men Rape by gender Masculism Men's rights movement Notes References External links Men Rape Misandry Social inequality Violence against men

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Passy

Frédéric Passy

Frédéric Passy (20 May 182212 June 1912) was a French economist and pacifist who was a founding member of several peace societies and the Inter-Parliamentary Union. He was also an author and politician, sitting in the Chamber of Deputies from 1881 until 1889. He was a joint winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 for his work in the European peace movement. Born in Paris to a prominent Catholic and Orléanist family, Passy was surrounded by military veterans and politicians. After training in law, he worked as an accountant and served in the National Guard. He soon left this position and began travelling around France giving lectures on economics. Following years of violent conflicts across Europe, Passy joined the peace movement in the 1850s, working with several notable activists and writers to develop journals, articles, and educational curricula. While sitting in the Chamber of Deputies, Passy developed the Inter-parliamentary Conference (later the Inter-Parliamentary Union) with British MP William Randal Cremer. Alongside this, he founded several peace societies: the , the , and the . Passy's work in the peace movement continued into his later years, and in 1901, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize alongside Red Cross founder, Henry Dunant. Passy died in 1912 after a long period of illness and incapacitation. Despite his economic works gaining little traction, his efforts in the peace movement resulted in him being recognised as the "dean of European peace activists". His son, Paul Passy, published a memoir of his life in 1927, and his works are still being republished and translated into English in the 21st Century. Family and early life Frédéric Passy was born in Paris in 1822 to an aristocratic Catholic family, which had strong ties to Orléanist politics. His father, Justin Félix Passy, was a veteran of Waterloo. His paternal grandfather, Louis François Passy, had been (Receiver General of Finance), an important office in the Ancien Régime. His paternal grandmother was Jacquette Pauline Hélène d’Aure, whose brother, the Count d'Aure, was a riding master who fought for France in Egypt and Saint-Domingue. Passy's mother, Marie Louise Pauline Salleron, was from an aristocratic Parisian family. His maternal great-grandfather, Joseph Salleron, was deputy mayor of the 6th arrondissement of Paris, and his maternal grandfather, Claude Louis Salleron, created a highly-profitable tanning business and was proposed as an officer in the National Guard in 1814. After getting married in 1821, Félix Passy moved into the family home with Claude Louis Salleron. They went into business with each other and Félix eventually became an equal partner. Frédéric Passy's mother died in 1827, and in 1847, Félix married Irma Moricet, his son's widowed mother-in-law. Early career From 1846, Passy worked as an accountant in the Conseil de Droit. In 1848, he served in the National Guard. He resigned from his Conseil position in 1849 to start a career as an economist. He was unable to secure a full-time position in education; he refused to swear the mandatory oath of loyalty to French monarch Napoleon III, believing his rule to be illegitimate. However, Passy published several books on economics during this time, the majority of them compiled from his lectures at universities in Pau, Montpellier, Bordeaux, and Nice. Development of ideas Passy was trained in law, but soon became interested in moral and political economy. As he contemplated the effects of war, he was inspired by the works of several liberal economists and reformers: Frédéric Bastiat, Richard Cobden, and Daniel O'Connell. Passy was most impressed by Bastiat, who developed his ideas from Cobden's Anti-Corn Law League. Bastiat held the belief that the conscription and high tax which often accompanied militarism had a largely negative effect on the poor, and Passy further developed these ideas on class conflict throughout his work. Being raised in a family of military veterans, Passy described in his autobiography how he "might easily have been drawn towards militarism". Instead, the stories about the horrors of the French conquest of Algeria pushed him to consider the effect that war had upon humanity. Years of violent discontent in Italy, Poland, and Austria and Prussia led to calls for a Europe federation from prominent liberals and socialists: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Émile de Girardin, Passy, and Michel Chevalier were all advocates of this idea. In 1859, Passy condemned the idea that military action could be a solution to political issues, suggesting instead that Europe should have a "permanent congress to oversee the general interests of humanity" and an international police force. Recognising the importance of journalism in the fight for peace, he conceived a plan to create a journal devoted to "pacific propaganda". This led to him working with Edmond Potonié-Pierre on (The International Mail), an English/French periodical devoted to the European peace movement. Passy's association with Potonié's (League of Public Good), a liberal and socialist group aimed at attacking monopolies and high taxation, ended when Potonié began to call for a sweeping change in social policy. He advocated for the separation of church and state, a free press, equality of the sexes, the abolition of the death sentence. League of Peace Founding the League In April 1867, the Paris newspaper Le Temps published three letters attacking the actions of the French concerning Luxembourg, the third of which was written by Passy. The letter invited readers to join a "peace league", and was given enthusiastic support by: Henry Richard, secretary of the Peace Society, visited Paris in that year and urged the Minister of the Interior to allow an international peace congress during the 1867 Paris Exposition. The idea was rejected, but the government eventually allowed lectures on the general principles of peace go ahead, with the condition that no questions were asked afterwards. In May 1867, Passy and Chevalier received permission to organize the (International and Permanent League of Peace). It was in the that Passy declared "war on war", believing that liberal economics would bring social change once military spending was eradicated. This differed greatly with the ideas of previous conservatives like Friedrich von Gentz, whose anti-war stance was concerned with maintaining the status quo. On 21 May, Passy delivered a lecture at the (School of Medicine) in Paris, discussing his views on pacifism. He explained that his views were not from a religious or political perspective, but from an economic, moral, and philosophical one. While he did suggest that defensive or independence wars could be "the most noble and magnificent task in life", he strongly condemned wars of conquest and expansion as disadvantageous to a country's wealth and moral character. In the same year, the French Saint-Simonian Charles Lemonnier founded a similarly-named League in Geneva. This group was far more political than Passy's, founded on republican views and strongly advocating for the separation of church and state. Passy made efforts to differentiate his from this one, repeating their "anti-revolutionary aims" and avoiding political questions over human rights. Despite struggling to find adequate space for its 600 members, the held a meeting in June 1868 in which Passy gave a speech on the group's "anti-revolutionary" aims: Franco-Prussian War The first large conflict to happen during the 's existence was the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After the Battle of Sedan and capture of Napoleon III, Passy pleaded with the Prussian royalty to remember "that you only made war to defend yourself, not to attack" and stop attacking the French people after the collapse of their government. He returned to Paris and attempted to convince the British and American embassies to provide neutral intervention in the conflict, even considering travelling by hot air balloon to the Prussian king himself. On the death of his brother-in-law in the Vosges, Passy left Paris once again, disheartened that the could not stop the war. Opposition With Passy having adamantly renounced the earlier group, it is understandable that Edmond Potonié was one of the main opponents of the . He believed it not to be a serious peace society due to their vastly-differing opinions on the speed of change: he believed that only rapid societal change would bring about peace, whereas Passy's group advocated a calmer legalistic approach. Other protest against the came from religious groups, with Hyacinthe Loyson being denounced by the right-wing journalist Louis Veuillot as part of a "Protestant front": efforts to recruit more Catholics to the cause largely failed. Funding The received monetary support from notable liberals, such as John Stuart Mill (who joined on 4 August 1867) and Jean Dollfus. Subscription rates for its 600 members allowed the 's treasury to have six thousand francs in 1868: founding members paid roughly one hundred francs, while associates paid five francs. The Society of Friends of Peace After the 's collapse following the Franco-Prussian War, peace activism in Europe gained a rejuvenation after the successful arbitrations between Britain and the United States in Geneva. Daniël van Eyk, Philip Johannes Bachiene, and Samuel Baart de la Faille founded a Dutch group on the ideas behind Passy's in 1871, and Masonic lodges began to undertake peace projects. Passy noticed this renewed belief in peace, and in 1872 he began working on reviving the . He explained the two paths which society could take: A path of war and revenge against Prussia and the German Empire to restore Alsace-Lorraine, involving permanent armaments, a standing army, and a world where young men were doomed to a life in the barracks. A path of peace and law, where arbitration was a fundamental part of European governing and an organized international system would allow the return of "lost provinces" through diplomatic means like referenda. He was aware that his favoured path, the latter, would not happen immediately or even in the near future, but set about creating a new French peace society to promote arbitration, the (French Society of Friends of Peace). Several other groups considering arbitration and the development of international law appeared during this time, including the (Association for the Reform and the Codification of the Law of the People; later the International Law Association) in 1873, which Passy and Henry Richard were involved in. The meetings, involving discussions on ways to reduce friction among different communities, were a way to enhance the conversations that Passy thought important for developing international co-operation. 1878 Paris Exposition Noticing the growth and popularity of the peace movement, members of the arranged a congress at the 1878 Paris Exposition, however they warned attendees not to raise "unpleasant" and provocative issues. 13 different nations were present among the 150 delegates, although 95 were from France. The congress was held across multiple days, involving a range of talks and speakers: Adolphe Franck, the French philosopher, opened the congress with an assertion that peace activism was beneficial for society. He argued that while war may previously have benefitted society, through creating communities and spreading culture, it was now nothing more than a cause of destruction and suffering. Charles Lemonnier reviewed the contributions of previous peace societies and opposed a motion that sought to create a transnational organisation or federation, stating the young age of the movement. The delegates ignored his advice, but he was seemingly correct as it took 13 more years to create such a group. As leader of the , Passy opposed a resolution which stated that war "enthrones despotism and ... aggravates the condition of the most numerous and poorest classes". He rejected it on the grounds that war was damaging for all members of society, not just the poorest, and that within republics there is no class system. Lemonnier was among those who supported the resolution in the ensuing debate on class and the Paris Commune, but the conference sided with Passy's view, refusing to recognise class as a social reality. Several of the congress's speakers sought to convince it to create a permanent and legal body, including the French publicist Edmond Thiaudière, who argued that transnational representatives sitting in a parliament could work together to undermine the militarists in their countries. Arturo de Marcoartu, the Spanish peace activist, spoke in favour of a worldwide initiative to establish a European parliamentary system that would abolish war between its signatories. The decade following the 1878 congress was a slow one for the , with Charles Richet noting that the meetings often consisted "only of Passy, Thiaudière and [himself]". Merging In 1889, Passy's merged with Hodgson Pratt's International Arbitration and Peace Association to form the (French Society for Arbitration between Nations). This new lost its support in the 1890s to other groups, like the (Peace Through Law Association), which had been founded by a group of young Protestants. Political career On 28 April 1873, Passy ran for the Marseilles seat in the Chamber of Deputies as an independent conservative republican against the radical Édouard Lockroy. Passy lost with 17,000 votes compared to Lockroy's 54,000. However, he was elected to the local council of Seine-et-Oise in 1874 and held the seat for twenty-four years. In 1881, Passy was elected as the Deputy for the 8th arrondissement of Paris, beating a Bonapartist candidate. While in the Chamber, Passy continued to promote his views on peace. In October 1883, he led a discussion on the Tonkin campaign, attacking the government's imperialist policy and suggesting that the conflict be subject to arbitration. His position was met with ridicule and he left the chamber for an extended period of illness. He returned to the issue in December 1885, denouncing the colonialist actions of France amid the "remote prospect of any commercial results" coming from the conflict. He criticised the government for affording rights to Alsace and Lorraine, but not to Tonkin and other colonies. He often spoke against France's corn duties, and in support of free trade, working alongside Finance Minister Léon Say to promote these free trade beliefs as part of the Association for the Defence of Commercial and Industrial Freedom. None of Passy's initiatives within the chamber received legislative support, but his proposal that the state “take advantage of all favourable occasions to enter into negotiations with other governments to promote the practice of arbitration" was supported by 112 members from across vastly different parties. Passy was re-elected to the Chamber in 1885. He ran again in 1889, and despite increasing his vote share in the weeks building up to the election, lost by 1,717 votes to Marius Martin. Inter-parliamentary Conference In 1887, Passy and British MP William Randal Cremer petitioned their respective parliaments to support arbitration treaties between their country and the United States. Passy amassed 112 signatures from French parliamentarians, supported in his efforts by Jules Simon and Georges Clemenceau. A year later in November 1888, Cremer led a delegation of nine MPs to meet with twenty-five French Deputies to discuss working together. This meeting formed the first Inter-parliamentary Conference (later the Inter-parliamentary Union) in 1889, attended by prominent politicians like Léon Bourgeois and Jean Jaures, with Passy serving as president Writing career Passy contributed to several different political magazines, including the feminist (Review of Social Morale) and the literary-political (Political and Literary Review). He published an autobiography in 1909, entitled (For the Peace: Notes and Documents). In 1877, Passy was accepted into the (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences) for his works on political economy, and he was elected president of the (French Association for the Advancement of Sciences) in 1881. In his application to the , Passy avoided using the word "peace" and instead wrote: Peace through education Passy was aware of the importance of education in achieving peace, encouraging a textbook for nine-to-twelve-year-olds to be written. His group sponsored a prize essay in 1896 for this purpose. Passy and d'Estournelles de Constant worked together on a 1906 educational work, (Peace and Peace Education), and in 1909 released an entire curriculum entitled (Pacifist Teaching Course). Nobel Peace Prize Passy's health had declined in old age, but he was still prominent and popular enough within the peace movement that it was assumed he would win the first Nobel Peace Prize. Public attention around the prize had increased to such a point that Passy was challenged to a duel by a man declaring that "the Nobel Prize does not belong to you", but nothing further came from the incident. In December 1901, Passy was awarded half of the first Nobel Peace Prize, which was split with Henry Dunant, the founder of the Red Cross, and each received over 100,000 francs. Being too elderly and ill to attend the ceremony in Christiania (now Oslo), neither Passy or Dunant delivered an acceptance speech. Instead, Passy wrote an article to be released posthumously, criticising Alfred Nobel's executors for using his money to create foundations he did not intend, and suggesting that the award could weaken the peace movement by attracting disingenuous money-seekers instead of peace-seekers. The article was published by the peace journal (Peace Through Law) in 1926. Despite Passy's objections, Professor of History Sandi E. Cooper notes, the prize money was most likely used to fund his peace activism. Final years Passy continued to advocate for peace in his later years. In 1905, he attended the 14th Universal Peace Congress in Lucerne, during rising tensions between France and Germany. He defused tensions in the congress by crossing the floor and shaking hands with German pacifist Ludwig Quidde. This was his last recorded event, moments before his death. A year later, he attended the 15th Universal Peace Congress in Milan, alongside delegates from across Europe and the United States like Felix Moscheles and Bertha von Suttner. Recognising the popularity of peace activism, Passy remarked in 1909 that "the influence of these international [peace congresses] increases ... from year to year; it becomes more and more evident that they are taken seriously in the highest quarters". Despite Passy's fame, his economic doctrines failed to gather momentum among his countrymen. Illness and death In May 1912, celebrations had been prepared for Passy's 90th birthday, but he was unable to attend due to his worsening health. He had intended to give an address at the celebrations, but it was later published in . Addressing his desire to "lessen the evil in the world and increase the good", it ended with the words: Passy spent his last months incapacitated in bed. On 12 June 1912, he died in Paris. His funeral was a simple one without "flowers or pomp", the service being led by his friend, the Protestant pastor Charles Wagner. Religious and political views Religion Passy was born into a Catholic family, regularly attending Mass and making friends with Ézy-sur-Eure's priest while living there in the 1850s. In 1870, Pope Pius IX's First Vatican Council issued the , which legitimised Papal infallibility and solidified his word as divine. Passy could not accept this assertion of authority, and his family switched to a non-denominational, liberal Protestantism instead. Despite his Catholic background, he was supported by members of different denominations like the Protestant pastor Joseph Martin-Paschoud and Grand Rabbi Lazare Isidor. Passy's son Paul suggested that he may have remained a "liberal Catholic" even after 1870, commenting on his close friendship with the radical Catholic priest Hyacinthe Loyson. Socialism While acknowledging their attendance at peace congresses, Passy disagreed with the violence that often accompanied the labour movement, considering it to be a hindrance to peace-seeking efforts. However, he did agree that socialists had "some points, some very legitimate aspirations, that we would be wrong not to take into account". In 1894, the Universal Peace Congress in Antwerp considered the ways in which members of the labour movement might be further involved with the peace movement, but Passy argued against such a co-operation. He denied any difference between social classes in a free and democratic society, and suggested that members of the labour movement join already-existing peace societies, instead of creating new society-aligned entities. Military service Despite serving in the National Guard, Passy disapproved of the idea of garrison life, believing that it led to laziness, gambling, and promiscuity. Instead, he suggested that the citizen-soldier would be a better idea: Instead of being removed from society, they would be allowed to develop the "military virtues" within it. While sitting in the Chamber, Passy advocated for a three-year obligatory term of service for all French citizens, but suggested that those adding to "the intellectual grandeur of France" may be allowed a shorter term. Disarmament When asked by young peace activists to support disarmament, Passy responded that: He argued that it was impossible to disarm countries without first putting in place institutions that promoted international co-operation and arbitration. Apoliticism Like his non-denominational religious views, Passy was seemingly apolitical. He sat as an independent conservative republican, yet spoke often in support of libertarian policies like free trade economics. In August 1898, Nicholas II of Russia published a rescript which called for an international conference to discuss a peace agenda. Passy saw this as proof that his neutral and apolitical brand of peacekeeping had worked, believing that leaders would see the negatives of an "infinite arms race" and work together across country lines. Marriage and issue In 1847, Passy married the wealthy Marie Blanche Sageret (1827–1900), the daughter of Jules Sageret and Marie Florence Irma Moricet. Their first son, Paul, was born in 1859. He became a famous linguist, known for founding the International Phonetic Association. Passy's progressive views on European culture were influential towards his parenting: his son Paul learnt four languages as a child, yet never attended school. Another son, Jean, was born in 1866: he also became a linguist and preceded his brother as Secretary of the IPA. Passy and Sageret also had a daughter called Marie Louise, whose husband Louis André Paulian was in charge of the Chamber of Deputies's stenographic bureau. On 17 February 1912, Mathilde Paulian, the 20-year-old daughter of Marie and Louis, climbed over the railings of the Eiffel Tower observation deck and fell to her death, apparently upset over the ill health of her grandfather (Passy) and sister. Alix, another daughter of Passy and Sageret, married Charles Mortet, an officer in the Legion of Honour. In 1856, Passy acquired the estate in Chambourcy from Jean-François Bayard. A relative called Pierre Passy lived there in 1923, and the family owned the house until 1949. Family tree Legacy Passy's brand of peace through arbitration and international co-operation continued long after his death, with activists lobbying for formalised treaties over "the rights of foreign visitors, joint access to waterways, settlement of territorial disputes". In his will, Passy expressed his independent and peaceful nature, writing: In 1927, his son Paul published a memoir of his father's life entitled . Several roads have been named after Passy, such as those in Nice, Neuilly-sur-Seine, and Saint-Germain-en-Laye. In March 2004, the Inter-parliamentary Union acknowledged Passy's effort in its creation and inaugurated the Frédéric Passy Archive Centre in Paris. Selected works Books Articles Awards and honours Legion of Honour (1895) Nobel Peace Prize (1901) Legion of Honour – Commander (1903) See also List of peace activists References External links 1822 births 1912 deaths Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur French Christian pacifists French economists French Nobel laureates Inter-Parliamentary Union Members of the 3rd Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 4th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques Nobel Peace Prize laureates Non-interventionism Opportunist Republicans Passy family Politicians from Paris

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockton%20and%20Darlington%20Railway

Stockton and Darlington Railway

The Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR) was a railway company that operated in north-east England from 1825 to 1863. The world's first public railway to use steam locomotives, its first line connected collieries near Shildon with Darlington and Stockton-on-Tees in County Durham, and was officially opened on 27 September 1825. The movement of coal to ships rapidly became a lucrative business, and the line was soon extended to a new port at Middlesbrough. While coal waggons were hauled by steam locomotives from the start, passengers were carried in coaches drawn by horses until carriages hauled by steam locomotives were introduced in 1833. The S&DR was involved in the building of the East Coast Main Line between York and Darlington, but its main expansion was at Middlesbrough Docks and west into Weardale and east to Redcar. It suffered severe financial difficulties at the end of the 1840s and was nearly taken over by the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway, before the discovery of iron ore in Cleveland and the subsequent increase in revenue meant it could pay its debts. At the beginning of the 1860s it took over railways that had crossed the Pennines to join the West Coast Main Line at and Clifton, near . The company was taken over by the North Eastern Railway in 1863, transferring of line and about 160 locomotives, but continued to operate independently as the Darlington Section until 1876. The opening of the S&DR was seen as proof of the effectiveness of steam railways and its anniversary was celebrated in 1875, 1925 and 1975. Much of the original route is now served by the Tees Valley Line, operated by Northern. Genesis Origins Coal from the inland mines in southern County Durham used to be taken away on packhorses, and then horse and carts as the roads were improved. A canal was proposed by George Dixon in 1767 and again by John Rennie in 1815, but both schemes failed. Meanwhile, the port of Stockton-on-Tees, from which the Durham coal was transported onwards by sea, had invested considerably during the early 19th century in straightening the Tees in order to improve navigation on the river downstream of the town and was subsequently looking for ways to increase trade to recoup those costs. A few years later a canal was proposed on a route that bypassed Darlington and Yarm, and a meeting was held in Yarm to oppose the route. The Welsh engineer George Overton was consulted, and he advised building a tramroad. Overton carried out a survey and planned a route from the Etherley and Witton Collieries to Shildon, and then passing to the north of Darlington to reach Stockton. The Scottish engineer Robert Stevenson was said to favour the railway, and the Quaker Edward Pease supported it at a public meeting in Darlington on 13 November 1818, promising a five per cent return on investment. Approximately two-thirds of the shares were sold locally, and the rest were bought by Quakers nationally. A private bill was presented to Parliament in March 1819, but as the route passed through Earl of Eldon's estate and one of the Earl of Darlington's fox coverts, it was opposed and defeated by 13 votes. Overton surveyed a new line that avoided Darlington's estate and agreement was reached with Eldon, but another application was deferred early in 1820, as the death of King George III had made it unlikely a bill would pass that parliamentary year. The promoters lodged a bill on 30 September 1820, the route having changed again as agreement had not been reached with Viscount Barrington about the line passing over his land. The railway was unopposed this time, but the bill nearly failed to enter the committee stage as the required four-fifths of shares had not been sold. Pease subscribed £7,000; from that time he had considerable influence over the railway and it became known as "the Quaker line". The Act that received royal assent on 19 April 1821 allowed for a railway that could be used by anyone with suitably built vehicles on payment of a toll, that was closed at night, and with which land owners within could build branches and make junctions; no mention was made of steam locomotives. This new railway initiated the construction of more railway lines, causing significant developments in railway mapping and cartography, iron and steel manufacturing, as well as in any industries requiring more efficient transportation. George Stephenson Concerned about Overton's competence, Pease asked George Stephenson, an experienced enginewright of the collieries of Killingworth, to meet him in Darlington. On 12 May 1821 the shareholders appointed Thomas Meynell as chairman and Jonathan Backhouse as treasurer; a majority of the managing committee, which included Thomas Richardson, Edward Pease and his son Joseph Pease, were Quakers. The committee designed a seal, showing waggons being pulled by a horse, and adopted the Latin motto ("At private risk for public service"). By 23 July 1821 it had decided that the line would be a railway with edge rails, rather than a plateway, and appointed Stephenson to make a fresh survey of the line. Stephenson recommended using malleable iron rails, even though he owned a share of the patent for the alternative cast iron rails, and both types were used. Stephenson was assisted by his 18-year-old son Robert during the survey, and by the end of 1821 had reported that a usable line could be built within the bounds of the Act, but another route would be shorter by and avoid deep cuttings and tunnels. Overton had kept himself available, but had no further involvement and the shareholders elected Stephenson Engineer on 22 January 1822, with a salary of £660 per year. On 23 May 1822 a ceremony in Stockton celebrated the laying of the first track at St John's Well, the rails apart, the same gauge used by Stephenson on his Killingworth Railway. Stephenson advocated the use of steam locomotives on the line. Pease visited Killingworth in mid-1822 and the directors visited Hetton colliery railway, on which Stephenson had introduced steam locomotives. A new bill was presented, requesting Stephenson's deviations from the original route and the use of "loco-motives or moveable engines", and this received assent on 23 May 1823. The line included embankments up to high, and Stephenson designed an iron truss bridge to cross the River Gaunless. The Skerne Bridge over the River Skerne was designed by the Durham architect Ignatius Bonomi. In 1823 Stephenson and Pease opened Robert Stephenson and Company, a locomotive works at Forth Street, Newcastle, from which the following year the S&DR ordered two steam locomotives and two stationary engines. On 16 September 1825, with the stationary engines in place, the first locomotive, Locomotion No. 1, left the works, and the following day it was advertised that the railway would open on 27 September 1825. Opening The cost of building the railway had greatly exceeded the estimates. By September 1825 the company had borrowed £60,000 in short-term loans and needed to start earning an income to ward off its creditors. A railway coach, named Experiment, arrived on the evening of 26 September 1825 and was attached to Locomotion No. 1, which had been placed on the rails for the first time at Aycliffe Lane station following the completion of its journey by road from Newcastle earlier that same day. Pease, Stephenson and other members of the committee then made an experimental journey to Darlington before taking the locomotive and coach to Shildon in preparation for the opening day, with James Stephenson, George's elder brother, at the controls. On 27 September, between 7 am and 8 am, 12 waggons of coal were drawn up Etherley North Bank by a rope attached to the stationary engine at the top, and then let down the South Bank to St Helen's Auckland. A waggon of flour bags was attached and horses hauled the train across the Gaunless Bridge to the bottom of Brusselton West Bank, where thousands watched the second stationary engine draw the train up the incline. The train was let down the East Bank to Mason's Arms Crossing at Shildon Lane End, where Locomotion No. 1, Experiment and 21 new coal waggons fitted with seats were waiting. The directors had allowed room for 300 passengers, but the train left carrying between 450 and 600 people, most travelling in empty waggons but some on top of waggons full of coal. Brakesmen were placed between the waggons, and the train set off, led by a man on horseback with a flag. It picked up speed on the gentle downward slope and reached , leaving behind men on field hunters (horses) who had tried to keep up with the procession. The train stopped when the waggon carrying the company surveyors and engineers lost a wheel; the waggon was left behind and the train continued. The train stopped again, this time for 35 minutes to repair the locomotive and the train set off again, reaching before it was welcomed by an estimated 10,000 people as it came to a stop at the Darlington branch junction. Eight and a half miles () had been covered in two hours, and subtracting the 55 minutes accounted by the two stops, it had travelled at an average speed of . Six waggons of coal were distributed to the poor, workers stopped for refreshments and many of the passengers from Brusselton alighted at Darlington, to be replaced by others. Two waggons for the Yarm Band were attached, and at 12:30 pm the locomotive started for Stockton, now hauling 31 vehicles with 550 passengers. On the of nearly level track east of Darlington the train struggled to reach more than . At Eaglescliffe near Yarm crowds waited for the train to cross the Stockton to Yarm turnpike. Approaching Stockton, running alongside the turnpike as it skirted the western edge of Preston Park, it gained speed and reached again, before a man clinging to the outside of a waggon fell off and his foot was crushed by the following vehicle. As work on the final section of track to Stockton's quayside was still ongoing, the train halted at the temporary passenger terminus at St John's Well 3 hours, 7 minutes after leaving Darlington. The opening ceremony was considered a success and that evening 102 people sat down to a celebratory dinner at the Town Hall. Early operations The railway that opened in September 1825 was long and ran from Phoenix Pit, Old Etherley Colliery, to Cottage Row, Stockton; there was also a branch to the depot at Darlington, of the Hagger Leases branch, and a branch to Yarm. Most of the track used malleable iron rails, and of cast iron rails were used for junctions. The line was single track with four passing loops each mile; square sleepers supported each rail separately so that horses could walk between them. Stone was used for the sleepers to the west of Darlington and oak to the east; Stephenson would have preferred all of them to have been stone, but the transport cost was too high as they were quarried in the Auckland area. The railway opened with the company owing money and unable to raise further loans; Pease advanced money twice early in 1826 so the workers could be paid. By August 1827 the company had paid its debts and was able to raise more money; that month the Black Boy branch opened and construction began on the Croft and Hagger Leases branches. During 1827 shares rose from £120 at the start to £160 at the end. Initially the line was used to carry coal to Darlington and Stockton, carrying 10,000 tons in the first three months and earning nearly £2,000. In Stockton the price of coal dropped from 18 to 12 shillings, and by the beginning of 1827 was 8 shillings 6 pence (8s 6d). Initially the drivers had been paid a daily wage, but after February 1826 they were paid d per ton per mile; from this they had to pay assistants and fireman and to buy coal for the locomotive. The 1821 Act had received opposition from the owners of collieries on the River Wear who supplied London and feared competition, and it had been necessary to restrict the rate for transporting coal destined for ships to d per ton per mile, which had been assumed would make the business uneconomic. There was interest from London for 100,000 tons a year, so the company began investigations in September 1825. In January 1826 the first staith opened at Stockton, designed so waggons over a ship's hold could discharge coal from the bottom. A little over 18,500 tons of coal was transported to ships in the year ending June 1827 and this increased to over 52,000 tons the following year, per cent of the total carried. The locomotives were unreliable at first. Soon after opening, Locomotion No. 1 broke a wheel, and it was not ready for traffic until 12 or 13 October; Hope, the second locomotive, arrived in November 1825 but needed a week to ready it for the line – the cast-iron wheels were a source of trouble. Two more locomotives of a similar design arrived in 1826; that August 16s 9d was spent on ale to motivate the men maintaining the engines. By the end of 1827 the company had also bought Chittaprat from Robert Wilson and Experiment from Stephenson. Timothy Hackworth, locomotive superintendent, used the boiler from the unsuccessful Chittaprat to build the Royal George in the works at Shildon; it started work at the end of November. John Wesley Hackworth later published an account stating that locomotives would have been abandoned were it not for the fact that Pease and Thomas Richardson were partners with Stephenson in the Newcastle works, and that when Timothy Hackworth was commissioned to rebuild Chittaprat it was "as a last experiment" to "make an engine in his own way". Both Tomlinson and Rolt state this claim was unfounded and the company had shown earlier that locomotives were superior to horses, Tomlinson showing that coal was being moved using locomotives at half the cost of horses. Robert Young states that the company was unsure as to the real costs as they reported to shareholders in 1828 that the saving using locomotives was 30 per cent. Young also showed that Pease and Richardson were both concerned about their investment in the Newcastle works and Pease unsuccessfully tried to sell his share to George Stephenson. New locomotives were ordered from Stephenson's, but the first was too heavy when it arrived in February 1828. It was rebuilt with six wheels and hailed as a great improvement, Hackworth being told to convert the remaining locomotives as soon as possible. In 1828 two locomotive boilers exploded within four months, both killing the driver and both due to the safety valves being left fixed down while the engine was stationary. Horses were also used on the line, and they could haul up to four waggons. The dandy cart was introduced in mid-1828: a small cart at the end of the train, this carried the horse downhill, allowing it to rest and the train to run at higher speed. The S&DR made their use compulsory from November 1828. Passenger traffic started on 10 October 1825, after the required licence was purchased, using the Experiment coach hauled by a horse. The coach was initially timetabled to travel from Stockton to Darlington in two hours, with a fare of 1s, and made a return journey four days a week and a one-way journey on Tuesdays and Saturdays. In April 1826 the operation of the coach was contracted for £200 a year; by then the timetabled journey time had been reduced to  hours and passengers were allowed to travel on the outside for 9d. A more comfortable coach, Express, started the same month and charged 1s 6d for travel inside. Innkeepers began running coaches, two to Shildon from July, and the Union, which served the Yarm branch from 16 October. There were no stations: in Darlington the coaches picked up passengers near the north road crossing, whereas in Stockton they picked up at different places on the quay. Between 30,000 and 40,000 passengers were carried between July 1826 and June 1827. Founding of Middlesbrough The export of coal had become the railway's main business, but the staiths at Stockton had inadequate storage and the size of ships was limited by the depth of the Tees. A branch from Stockton to Haverton, on the north bank of the Tees, was proposed in 1826, and the engineer Thomas Storey proposed a shorter and cheaper line to Middlesbrough, south of the Tees in July 1827. Later approved by George Stephenson, this plan was ratified by the shareholders on 26 October. The Tees Navigation Company was about to improve the river and proposed that the railway delay application to Parliament, but, despite opposition, at a meeting in January 1828 it was decided to proceed. A more direct northerly route from Auckland to the Tees had been considered since 1819, and the Tees & Weardale Railway had applied unsuccessfully to Parliament for permission for such a line in 1823, 1824 and 1825. This now became a line linking Simpasture on the S&DR's line near today's Newton Aycliffe station with Haverton and Stockton, via a route that was shorter than via the route of the S&DR, and named the Clarence Railway in honour of the Duke of Clarence, later King William IV. Meetings held in Stockton in early 1828 supported the Tees Navigation and the Clarence Railway, but the S&DR received permission for its branch on 23 May 1828 after promising to complete the Hagger Leases Branch and to build a bridge across the Tees at least wide and above low water, so as not to affect shipping. Two members of the management committee resigned, as they felt that Stockton would be adversely affected by the line, and Meynell, the S&DR chairman, stepped down from leadership. The Clarence Railway was approved a few days later, with the same gauge as the S&DR. The route of the Clarence Railway was afterwards amended to reach Samphire Batts, later known as Port Clarence, and traffic started in August 1833; by the middle of 1834 Port Clarence had opened and of line was in use. The S&DR charged the d per ton per mile landsale rate for coal it carried the from the collieries to Simpasture for forwarding to Port Clarence, rather than the lower shipping rate. By July 1834, the Exchequer Loan Commissioners had taken control of the Clarence Railway. The Croft branch opened in October 1829. Construction of the suspension bridge across the Tees started in July 1829, but was suspended in October after the Tees Navigation Company pointed out the S&DR had no permission to cross the Old Channel of the Tees. The S&DR prepared to return to Parliament but withdrew after a design for a drawbridge was agreed with the Navigation Company. The line to Middlesbrough was laid with malleable iron rails weighing , resting on oak blocks. The suspension bridge had been designed to carry 150 tons, but the cast iron retaining plates split when it was tested with just 66 tons and loaded trains had to cross with the waggons split into groups of four linked by a long chain. For the opening ceremony on 27 December 1830, "Globe", a new locomotive designed by Hackworth for passenger trains, hauled people in carriages and waggons fitted with seats across the bridge to the staiths at Port Darlington, which had berths for six ships. Stockton continued to be served by a station on the line to the quay until 1848, when it was replaced by a station on the Middlesbrough line on the other side of the Tees. Before May 1829 Thomas Richardson had bought about near Port Darlington, and with Joseph and Edward Pease and others he formed the Owners of the Middlesbrough Estate to develop it. Middlesbrough had only a few houses before the coming of the railway, but a year later had a population of over 2,000 and at the 2011 census had over 138,000 people. Railway improvements In 1830 the company opened new offices at the corner of Northgate and Union Street in Darlington. Between 1831 and 1832 a second track was laid between Stockton and the foot of Brusselton Bank. Workshops were built at Shildon for the maintenance and construction of locomotives. In 1830 approximately 50 horses shared the traffic with 19 locomotives, but travelled at different speeds, so to help regulate traffic horse-drawn trains were required to operate in groups of four or five. This had led to horses, startled by a passing locomotive and coming off their dandy cart, being run down by the following train. On one occasion a driver fell asleep in the dandy cart of the preceding train and his horse, no longer being led, came to a stop and was run down by a locomotive. The rule book stated that locomotive-hauled trains had precedence over horse-drawn trains, but some horse drivers refused to give way and on one occasion a locomotive had to follow a horse-drawn train for over . The committee decided in 1828 to replace horses with locomotives on the main line, starting with the coal trains, but there was resistance from some colliery owners. After the S&DR bought out the coach companies in August 1832, a mixed passenger and small goods service began between Stockton and Darlington on 7 September 1833, travelling at ; locomotive-hauled services began to Shildon in December 1833 and to Middlesbrough on 7 April 1834. The company had returned the five per cent dividend that had been promised by Edward Pease, and this had increased to eight per cent by the time he retired in 1832. When the treasurer Jonathan Backhouse retired in 1833 to become a Quaker minister he was replaced by Joseph Pease. The way north Great North of England Railway On 13 October 1835 the York & North Midland Railway (Y&NMR) was formed to connect York to London by a line to a junction with the planned North Midland Railway. Representatives of the Y&NMR and S&DR met two weeks later and formed the Great North of England Railway (GNER), a line from York to Newcastle that used the route of the Croft branch at Darlington. The railway was to be built in sections, and to allow both to open at the same time permission for the more difficult line through the hills from Darlington to Newcastle was to be sought in 1836 and a bill for the easier line south of Darlington to York presented the following year. Pease specified a formation wide enough for four tracks, so freight could be carried at and passengers at , and George Stephenson had drawn up detailed plans by November. The Act for the from Newcastle to Darlington was given royal assent on 4 July 1836, but little work had been done by the time the from Croft to York received permission on 12 July the following year. In August a general meeting decided to start work on the southern section, but construction was delayed, and after several bridges collapsed the engineer Thomas Storey was replaced by Robert Stephenson. The S&DR sold its Croft branch to the GNER, and the railway opened for coal traffic on 4 January 1841 using S&DR locomotives. The railway opened to passengers with its own locomotives on 30 March. Between November 1841 and February 1842 the S&DR introduced a service between Darlington and Coxhoe, on the Clarence Railway, where an omnibus took passengers the to the Durham & Sunderland Railway at Shincliffe. Early in 1842 the nominally independent Shildon Tunnel Company opened its tunnel through the hills at Shildon to the Wear basin and after laying of track to South Church station, south of Bishop Auckland, opened in May 1842. In 1846 the S&DR installed Alexander Bain's "I and V" electric telegraph to regulate the passage of trains through the tunnel. The SD&R provided a hour service between Darlington and Newcastle, with a four-horse omnibus from South Church to Rainton Meadows on the Durham Junction Railway, from where trains ran to Gateshead, on the south side of the River Tyne near Newcastle. Railway operations in the 1830s By 1839 the track had been upgraded with rails weighing . The railway had about 30 steam locomotives, most of them six coupled, that ran with four-wheeled tenders with two water butts, each capable of holding of water. The line descended from Shildon to Stockton, assisting the trains that carried coal to the docks at a maximum speed of ; the drivers were fined if caught travelling faster than , and one was dismissed for completing the forty-mile return journey in  hours. On average there were about 40 coal trains a day, hauling 28 waggons with a weight of 116 tons. There were about 5000 privately owned waggons, and at any one time about 1000 stood at Shildon depot. The railway had modern passenger locomotives, some with four wheels There were passenger stations at Stockton, Middlesbrough, Darlington, Shildon and West Auckland, and trains also stopped at Middlesbrough Junction, Yarm Junction, Fighting Cocks and Heighington. Some of the modified road coaches were still in use, but there were also modern railway carriages, some first class with three compartments each seating eight passengers, and second class carriages that seated up to 40. Luggage and sometimes the guard travelled on the carriage roof; a passenger travelling third class suffered serious injuries after falling from the roof in 1840. Passenger trains averaged , and a speed of was recorded. Over 200,000 passengers were carried in the year to 1 October 1838, and in 1839 there were twelve trains each day between Middlesbrough and Stockton, six trains between Stockton and Darlington, and three between Darlington and Shildon, where a carriage was fitted with Rankine's self-acting brake, taken over the Brussleton Inclines, and then drawn by a horse to St Helens Auckland. The Bradshaw's railway guide for March 1843, after South Church opened, shows five services a day between Darlington and South Church via Shildon, with three between Shildon and St Helens. Also listed were six trains between Stockton and Hartlepool via Seaton over the Clarence Railway and the Stockton and Hartlepool Railway that had opened in 1841. By this time Port Darlington had become overwhelmed by the volume of imports and exports and work started in 1839 on Middlesbrough Dock, which had been laid out by William Cubitt, capable of holding 150 ships, and built by resident civil engineer George Turnbull. The suspension bridge across the Tees was replaced by a cast iron bridge on masonry piers in 1841. After three years and an expenditure of £122,000 (equivalent to £9.65m at 2011 prices), the formal opening of the new dock took place on 12 May 1842. The S&DR provided most of the finance, and the dock was absorbed by the company in 1849. Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway The GNER had authority for a railway from York to Newcastle; it opened to Darlington in 1841 having spent all of its authorised capital and could not start work on the extension to Newcastle. At the time Parliament was considering the route of a railway between England and Scotland and favoured a railway via the west coast. Railway financier George Hudson chaired a meeting of representatives of north-eastern railways that wished a railway to be built via the east coast. In the 1830s a number of railways had opened in the area between Darlington and Newcastle, and Robert Stephenson was engaged to select a route using these railways as much as possible. The Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway (N&DJR) differed slightly from the GNER route in the southern section before joining the Durham Junction Railway at Rainton and using the Pontop & South Shields Railway from Washington to Brockley Whins, where a new curve onto the Brandling Junction Railway allowed direct access to Gateshead. This required the construction of of new line, less than the GNER route, but trains would need to travel further. This route ran parallel to S&DR lines for and Pease argued that it should run over these as it would add only . The bill was presented unchanged to Parliament in 1842, and was opposed by the S&DR. Despite this, the Newcastle and Darlington Junction Railway Act received royal assent on 18 June 1842, and a second Act the following year secured the deviations from the GNER route in the south recommended by Stephenson. After the opening celebration on 18 June 1844, through services ran from London to Gateshead the following day. The N&DJR made an offer to lease the GNER and buy it within five years, and GNER shares increased in value by 44 per cent as the N&DJR took over on 1 July 1845; the N&DJR became part of the larger York, Newcastle & Berwick Railway (YN&BR) in 1847. Wear Valley Railway The Bishop Auckland & Weardale Railway (BA&WR) received permission in July 1837 to build an line from South Church to . The line opened on 8 November 1843 with a station at . The Stanhope and Tyne Railway, a line between South Shields and Stanhope had opened in 1834. Steam locomotives worked the section east of Annfield, and in the western section inclines were worked by stationary engines or gravity, with horses hauling waggons over level track. The lime kilns and the line between Stanhope and Carrhouse closed in 1840, and with the Stanhope to Annfield section losing money, the insolvent railway company was dissolved on 5 February 1841. The northern section became the Pontop and South Shields Railway and the southern section from Stanhope to Carrhouse was bought by the newly formed Derwent Iron Company at Consett, renamed the Wear & Derwent Railway, and used to transport limestone from quarries in the Stanhope area to its works at Consett. The Weardale Extension Railway ran from Waskerley on the Wear & Derwent to Crook on the BA&WR and included the Sunniside Incline worked by a stationary engine. Sponsored by the Derwent Iron Company, the line was built by the S&DR and opened on 16 May 1845. A passenger service started to Hownes Gill and Stanhope (Crawley) on 1 September 1845; the Stanhope service was withdrawn at the end of 1846. Travelling north from Crook the carriages and waggons were drawn up the Sunniside Incline, a locomotive hauled the mixed train to Waskerley Park Junction, then they were let down Nanny Mayor's Incline and a locomotive took them forward. When returning, regulations required that the carriages run loose down the Sunniside Incline and they were let to run into Crook station, controlled by the guard using the carriage brakes. Later, a viaduct replaced the two inclines at Hownes Gill ravine on 1 July 1858. A deviation replacing Nanny's Mayor's Incline and a curve that allowed trains from Crook direct access to Rowley opened for freight on 23 May 1859 and for passenger traffic on 4 July 1859. The Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway, a short extension to Redcar, received permission on 21 July 1845. The line branched off before the Middlesbrough terminus, which was closed and a new through station opened with the line on 4 June 1846. Also authorised in July 1845 was the Wear Valley Railway, a line from the Bishop Auckland & Weardale line to . The line opened on 3 August 1847, and the Act also gave the S&DR permission for the Bishopley branch, over which 500,000 tons of limestone travelled in 1868. The line was extended in 1862 from Frosterley to . Just before the line opened on 22 July 1847, the Wear Valley Railway absorbed the Shildon Tunnel, Bishop Auckland & Weardale Railway, Weardale Extension Railway and Wear & Derwent Railway and then the S&DR leased the Wear Valley Railway and Middlesbrough & Redcar Railways for 999 years. This required a payment of £47,000 each year, exceeding the SD&R's net revenue; traffic from the Derwent Iron Company was reduced during a period of financial difficulty and the Black Boy colliery switched to sending its coal to Hartlepool. No dividend was paid in 1848 and the next few years; lease payments were made out of reserves. The S&DR announced a bill in November 1848 to permit a lease by and amalgamation with the YN&BR, but this was withdrawn after the YN&BR share price crashed and its chairman Hudson resigned after questions were raised about his share dealings. In 1850 the S&DR had share capital of £250,000 but owed £650,000, most of this without the authority of Parliament until 1849; the debt was converted into shares in 1851. Cleveland iron ore In mid-1850 Henry Bolckow and John Vaughan discovered a seam of iron ore at Eston. They opened a mine, laid a branch line to the Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway and started hauling ironstone over the S&DR to their blast furnaces west of Bishop Auckland. By 1851 Derwent Iron had opened a mine in the area and began moving ironstone to Consett, and the S&DR had paid the arrears on its debt and was able to pay a dividend the following year, albeit only 4 per cent; between 1849 and 1853 the traffic more than doubled. In 1852 the Leeds Northern Railway (LNR) built a line from Northallerton to a junction with the Stockton to Hartlepool line and a section of the route ran parallel to the S&DR alongside the Yarm to Stockton Road. The S&DR was originally on the east side of the road, but the LNR built its line with four tracks on the other side of the road, leasing two to the S&DR for a rental of 1s a year. On 25 January 1853 the LNR and SD&R opened a joint station at with an island platform between the tracks, and one side was used by S&DR trains and the other by the LNR. Rather than allow trains to approach the platform line from either direction, the Board of Trade inspecting officer ruled that trains approaching on a line without a platform must first pass through and then reverse into the platform line. The Middlesbrough & Guisborough Railway, with two branches into the iron-rich hills, was approved by Parliament on 17 June 1852; Pease had to guarantee dividends to raise the finance needed. The single-track railway was worked by the S&DR, and opened to minerals on 11 November 1853 and passengers on 25 February 1854. With electric telegraph installed between stations, passenger trains were not permitted to leave a station until confirmation had been received that the line was clear. By 1857 a blast furnace had opened close to the Durham coalfield on the north side of the Tees. Backed by the rival West Hartlepool Harbour & Railway, the Durham & Cleveland Union Railway proposed a line from the mines in Skinningrove and Staithes, via Guisborough and a bridge over the Middlesbrough & Redcar Railway to a jetty at Cargo Fleet, from where a ferry would carry the ore across the Tees to the blast furnaces. When the proposal was before Parliament the S&DR suggested that their Middlesbrough & Redcar could be extended to Saltburn, and the Tees crossed by a swing bridge. The Cleveland Railway received permission for a line from Skinningrove as far as Guisborough, and the S&DR permission for an extension to Saltburn and a branch to a mine at Skelton. This 1858 S&DR Act also authorised the merger of the S&DR with the railways it held on lease. An application to Parliament for a jetty in the following year was unsuccessful, but in 1860 the Upsall, Normanby & Ormesby Railway received permission for a line with access to the river, the S&DR claim of exclusive rights to the foreshore having been rejected. The jetty was also opposed by the Tees Conservancy Commissioners and they moored barges along the foreshore to obstruct construction. In what became known as the Battle of the Tees, a fight broke out when a steam tug sent by the Commissioners interrupted men moving the barges. The barges were successfully moved, but a more serious fight developed the following night when three of the Commissioners' steam tugs arrived. The police then kept watch on the works until they were finished. Henry Pease, a S&DR director and Quaker, visited his brother Joseph in mid-1859 at his house by the sea at Marske-by-the-Sea. Returning late for dinner, he explained he had walked to Saltburn, then a group of fisherman's cottages, where he had had a "sort of prophetic vision" of a town with gardens. With other S&DR directors he planned the town, with gardens and Zetland Hotel by the station, and bought a house at 5 Britannia Terrace, where he stayed for a few weeks every summer. The extension opened in 1861, a station on the through line replacing the terminus at Redcar. Over Stainmore A railway to serve Barnard Castle, from the S&DR at a junction near North Road station and along the River Tees, was proposed in 1852; this route bypassed as far as possible the Duke of Cleveland's estate, as he had opposed an earlier railway. An application that year failed, but the Darlington & Barnard Castle Railway Act was given royal assent on 3 July 1854 and the railway opened on 8 July 1856. Cleveland iron ore is high in phosphorus and needs to be mixed with purer ores, such as those on the west coast in Cumberland and Lancashire. In the early 1850s this ore was travelling the long way round over the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway to the Barrow-in-Furness area, and Durham coke was returning. Both the South Durham & Lancashire Union Railway (SD&LUR) and the Eden Valley Railway (EVR) companies were formed on 20 September 1856. Taking advantage of the new railway at Barnard Castle, the SD&LUR crossed the Pennines via Kirkby Stephen to meet the West Coast Main Line (WCML) at Tebay, on the section then controlled by the Lancaster & Carlisle Railway, and also linked Barnard Castle with West Auckland. The EVR was a branch from Kirkby Stephen to the WCML near Penrith via Appleby. The routes were surveyed by Thomas Bouch and SD&LUR received permission on 13 July 1857. The EVR route followed the east bank of the River Eden, a mile longer than a more expensive route on the west bank, and its Act received royal assent on 21 May 1858. Bouch had laid out an economical route that followed the contours and avoided tunnels, but there were formidable gradients up to the Stainmore Summit. Land for two tracks was purchased, and a single track line was laid; valleys were crossed by viaducts, three made from wrought iron, including the Belah Viaduct, long and high. A new station was built to replace the terminus at Barnard Castle. A mineral train ran between Barnard Castle and Barras on 26 March 1861, and mineral traffic worked through to Tebay from 4 July 1861. There was an opening ceremony on 7 August 1861 and the SD&LUR west of Barnard Castle opened to passengers the following day. Two 4-4-0 locomotives with enclosed cabs had been built for the line in 1860 by Stephenson and Co, and the S&DR worked traffic from the start: two return services a day were provided for passengers. The EVR opened to mineral traffic on 8 April 1862 and passengers on 9 June 1862, to the south-facing junction at Clifton (later ). The S&DR had presented a bill in 1861 to provide better connections for passengers on the WCML by extending the line up to , and to link up with the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith Railway to provide access for mineral traffic to Cumberland. The L&CR agreed to allow the S&DR running rights over its line and services were extended to Penrith from 1 August 1863. Progress and amalgamation In 1854 there were five or six trains a day between Darlington and Redcar and three a day between Darlington and Frosterly. Travelling at average speeds of , passengers were charged from 1d per mile for third class to 2.2d per mile for first. Horses were still used on trains in the mid-1850s: a horse-drawn coach was still independently operated between Middlesbrough and Stockton in 1854 on Sundays, as the only S&DR services that run on that day were the mail trains, and locomotives replaced horses on passenger trains to West Auckland in 1856. The S&DR opened a carriage works south of Darlington North Road station in 1853 and later it built a locomotive works nearby to replace its works at Shildon. Designed by William Bouch, who had taken over from Hackworth as Locomotive Supervisor in 1840, it completed its first locomotive in 1864. In 1858 the Brusselton Inclines were bypassed by a line from the north end of Shildon Tunnel; the same year a passenger service started on the Hagger Leases branch and a mineral line opened from Crook via two inclines to Waterhouse. The section of the SD&LUR between West Auckland and Barnard Castle opened for minerals in July 1863 and passengers on 1 August 1863, together with a direct line from Bishop Auckland to West Auckland. Stations at Evenwood and Cockfield replaced stations on the Hagger Leases branch. In 1859 a company had been formed to link the Newcastle & Carlisle Railway with the SD&R via the Derwent Valley; by 1860 this had grown into the Newcastle, Derwent & Weardale Railway, which now bypassed the SD&R and linked with the SD&LUR, and the North British and London & North Western (LNWR) railways were providing two-thirds of the capital. The LNWR proposed to build warehouses in Hartlepool and buy shares in the West Hartlepool Harbour & Railway. The North Eastern Railway (NER), formed in 1854 by amalgamation, at the time was the largest railway company in the country and controlled the East Coast Main Line from Knottingley, south of York, through Darlington to Berwick-upon-Tweed. When they approached the S&DR with a proposal to merge, the directors deciding they preferred a merger with the NER than eventually becoming part of the LNWR, entered negotiations. Opposed by the NER, the Newcastle, Derwent & Weardale Railway bill was approved by the House of Commons in 1861, but the line was eventually rejected by the House of Lords. The SD&LUR and EVR were absorbed by the S&DR on 30 June 1862. With of line and about 160 locomotives, the Stockton & Darlington Railway became part of the North Eastern Railway on 13 July 1863. Due to a clause in the Act the railway was managed as the independent Darlington Section until 1876, when the lines became the NER's Central Division. After the restoration of the dividend in 1851, by the end of 1854 payments had recovered to 8 per cent and then had not dropped below per cent. Later history The NER had built a branch in the late 1850s from Durham to Bishop Auckland, but used a separate station in the town until December 1867, when all services began to use the S&DR station. The Sunniside Incline was replaced by a deviation, albeit with gradients of 1 in 51 and 1 in 52, which opened for mineral traffic on 10 April 1867 and for passengers on 2 March 1868; after 1868 trains on this line were extended to serve Benfieldside station (later known as Blackhill and then Consett). In Cleveland, a branch from Nunthorpe to Battersby opened on 1 June 1864; passengers were carried from 1 April 1868. A branch from Barnard Castle to Middleton-in-Teesdale opened on 12 May 1868. The locomotive works at Darlington operated independently under Bouch until 1875, the locomotives having been renumbered by the NER a couple of years earlier. There was a varied range of locomotives, but the most common type was used on the mineral trains and had a wheel arrangement of 0-6-0; the later engines were of the Stephenson long boilered type. Most passenger locomotives had four driven wheels in the form 2-4-0; some were 2-2-2. Bouch had designed two bogie 4-4-0 locomotives for the line over Stainmore in 1860, and another fourteen with this wheel arrangement had been built by 1874. S&DR services and those on the ECML called at different stations in Darlington until 1887, when S&DR trains were diverted through a rebuilt Darlington Bank Top station, rejoining the route to Stockton from a junction south of Darlington and a new line to Oak Tree Junction. An extension from Stanhope to opened in 1895, and the line over Stainmore to Tebay was doubled by the end of the century. From 1913 former S&DR lines were electrified with 1,500 Vdc overhead lines and electric locomotives hauled coal trains between Shildon and Erimus Marshalling Yard, which had opened in 1908 between Middlesbrough and Thornaby. The trains took the former S&DR line from Shildon to Simpasture Junction, joining the former Clarence Railway line to Carlton, where a later line allowed access to the Stockton to Middlesbrough extension. The locomotives operated for 20 years, but then coal traffic had reduced, which made it uneconomical to maintain the electrification system. As a result of the Railways Act 1921, on 1 January 1923 the North Eastern Railway became the North Eastern area of the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). The passenger service was withdrawn north of Tow Law on 1 May 1939. Britain's railways were nationalised on 1 January 1948 and the lines were placed under the control of British Railways. In the early 1950s control was split between the North Eastern and London Midland regions with Kirkby Stephen as the boundary. Local passenger trains were withdrawn between Kirkby Stephen and Tebay on 1 December 1952. The service along Weardale was withdrawn on 29 June 1953 and services north of Crook on 11 June 1956. The 1955 Modernisation Plan, known formally as the "Modernisation and Re-Equipment of the British Railways", was published in December 1954. With the aim of increasing speed and reliability steam trains were replaced with electric and diesel traction. From 1954 diesel multiple units took over passenger services in the north east except those on the ECML, and were introduced to the line over Stainmore in February 1958. The passenger service was withdrawn between Barnard Castle and Penrith on 20 January 1962, and between Bishop Auckland and Barnard Castle on 12 June 1962. In 1963 Richard Beeching published his report The Reshaping of British Railways, which recommended closing the network's least used stations and lines. This included the remaining former S&DR lines except for the line between Darlington and Saltburn via Stockton and Middlesbrough. Passenger service between Nunthorpe and Guisborough was withdrawn in 1964; the service between Middlesbrough and Nunthorpe was retained. The line between Darlington and Barnard Castle and the branch to Middleton-in-Teesdale were closed to passengers on 30 November 1964. Trains were withdrawn north of Bishop Auckland on 8 March 1965, but the passenger service to Bishop Auckland was saved because of regional development concerns. Locomotives Accidents and incidents On 19 March 1828, the boiler of locomotive No. 5 exploded at Simpasture Junction. One of the two firemen was killed, the other severely scalded. The driver (George Stephenson's older brother) was unharmed. On 1 July 1828, the boiler of Locomotion No. 1 exploded at station, killing the driver. On 4 April 1865 at Hartburn (Stockton) the 3:55 pm passenger train from Darlington to Saltburn collided with some chaldron wagons which had become detached from a Shildon to Middlesbrough coal train. Though this was not a serious accident it was to result in the S&DR adopting the block system, well before their colleagues at the NER headquarters in York felt this to be necessary. At a conference the next day attended by several company officials including Thomas MacNay and William Bouch it was noted that one of the options to achieve greater security was ‘to adopt the ‘block’ system of telegraph at intervals of 2 or 3 miles; that is not to allow an engine to pass any of such stations until it has been signalled that the previous train was passed the station to which it was approaching.’ Anniversary celebrations The Stockton and Darlington was not the first railway and a train had previously carried passengers, but its opening in 1825 was seen as proof of the effectiveness of steam railways as a means of public transport. A jubilee was held on 27 and 28 September 1875 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the world's first steam operated public railway: the Darlington North Road workshops housed a locomotive exhibition, a statue of Joseph Pease was unveiled in Darlington, his portrait presented to the Darlington Corporation and a banquet held. Fifty years later centenary celebrations were held in July to allow foreign men visiting the International Railway Congress to take part. An exhibition of rolling stock at the new Faverdale Wagon Works in Darlington was opened by the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and the Queen Mother). The following day the royal couple watched as procession of locomotives passed between Stockton and Oak Tree Junction, starting with a Hetton Colliery locomotive that had been built in 1822 and finishing with a replica train of ten chaldron waggons and "the company's coach" hauled by Locomotive No.1 propelled by a petrol engine in a specially built tender. A festival was held in Belle Vue, Manchester on 27 September 1925, a Sunday to allow railwaymen to attend, where a pageant showed how transport had changed through time, beginning with a group of ancient Britons dragging a log with their belongings on top and ending with Stephenson's Rocket; another procession included Locomotion No.1, propelled by its tender, and more modern locomotives. On 31 August 1975, to celebrate the 150th anniversary, a cavalcade was held between Shildon and Heighington, where a replica of Locomotion headed a procession of locomotives, which was completed by the prototype high-speed train. In the same year the National Railway Museum opened in York that combined exhibits from a Museum in York, which had opened after the 1875 festivities, and the National Transport Museum at Clapham. Legacy The current Tees Valley Line uses the most of the former Stockton & Darlington Railway between Bishop Auckland and Saltburn. From Bishop Auckland the non-electrified line is single track to Shildon, double track to Heighington, and single track to the junction with the East Coast Main Line north of Darlington. This section is a Community Rail service called the Bishop line, and is sometimes known as the Heritage Line because of its links with the S&DR. South of Darlington, trains take the 1887 line before joining the original 1825 route to Stockton at the site of Oak Tree Junction. The line is to Eaglescliffe South Junction, where the 1853 Leeds Northern route is taken through Eaglescliffe station to Stockton Cut Junction. The non-electrified line then follows the S&DR route for to Saltburn, except for later deviations at Thornaby (1908) and Redcar (1978). The former Middlesbrough & Guisborough Railway line is open between Guisborough Junction and Nunthorpe as part of the Community Rail Esk Valley Line to Whitby. On 14 June 2007, during excavations for road building, some of the original stone sleepers used by the railway in 1825 were discovered intact near Lingfield Point. The stones each weigh about and have bolt holes for the chairs that secured the rail. Officials involved in the road project hope to preserve the stones along a new bicycle path. a two train per hour off-peak service is provided by Northern between Saltburn and Darlington, and ten trains a day continue to Bishop Auckland. One train per hour leaves Middlesbrough going south to Manchester Airport via Yarm and another travels north to Newcastle via Sunderland. There are eighteen trains a day between Middlesbrough and Nunthorpe, and four of these continue to Whitby. Tees Valley Unlimited, the local enterprise partnership, published its ambition to improve passenger services, with the priority of an all day two trains an hour service over the Darlington to Saltburn and Nunthorpe to Hartlepool routes using new trains; additional platforms are needed at Darlington station to allow this service frequency. A station serving James Cook University Hospital opened in May 2014. A Hitachi train plant opened in September 2015 at Newton Aycliffe to build trains for the Intercity Express Programme. At North Road railway station the station buildings and goods shed are Grade II* listed. The station building is now the Head of Steam – Darlington Railway Museum, which has particular reference to the Stockton & Darlington Railway and housed Locomotion No. 1, until it was moved in March 2021. Nearby, the former carriage works are now used as workshops for steam locomotives. A little further east is Skerne Bridge, the oldest railway bridge in continuous use in the world. At Shildon is "Locomotion" or National Railway Museum Shildon, part of the National Railway Museum, which contains heritage railway vehicles, now including Locomotion No. 1. The site includes Timothy Hackworth's house, the Soho Workshop and a former coal drops, which are listed buildings. The heritage Weardale Railway runs special services over its line from Bishop Auckland to Eastgate-in-Weardale. Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading External links The History of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (North East History) The Stockton and Darlington Railway The Bishop Line to Bishop Auckland Historic Environment Audit October 2016 (2019 revision) Railway companies established in 1821 Railway lines opened in 1825 Railway companies disestablished in 1863 Early British railway companies History of County Durham Rail transport in County Durham Transport in the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees North Eastern Railway (UK) Rail transport in Darlington Horse-drawn railways Standard gauge railways in England British companies established in 1821 Stockton-on-Tees 4 ft 8 in gauge railways George Stephenson British companies disestablished in 1863

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Savile

Jimmy Savile

Sir James Wilson Vincent Savile (; 31 October 1926 – 29 October 2011) was an English DJ, television and radio personality who hosted BBC shows including Top of the Pops and Jim'll Fix It. He raised an estimated £40 million for charities; during his lifetime, Savile was widely praised for his personal qualities and as a fund-raiser. After his death, hundreds of allegations of sexual abuse were made against him, leading the police to conclude that he had been a predatory sex offender and possibly one of Britain's most prolific. There had been allegations during his lifetime, but they were dismissed and accusers ignored or disbelieved. Savile took legal action against some accusers. As a teenager during the Second World War, Savile worked in coal mines as a Bevin Boy, and reportedly sustained spinal injuries. He began a career playing records in, and later managing, dance halls, and was said to have been the first disc jockey to use twin turntables to keep music in constant play. In his twenties, he was a professional wrestler, and he continued running marathons until his late seventies. His media career started as a disc jockey at Radio Luxembourg in 1958 and on Tyne Tees Television in 1960, and he developed a reputation for eccentricity and flamboyance. At the BBC, he presented the first edition of Top of the Pops in 1964 and broadcast on Radio 1 from 1968. From 1975 until 1994, he presented Jim'll Fix It, an early Saturday evening television programme in which he arranged for the wishes of viewers, mainly children, to come true. During his lifetime, he was known for fund-raising and supporting charities and hospitals, in particular Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury, Leeds General Infirmary and Broadmoor Hospital in Berkshire. In 2009, he was described by The Guardian as a "prodigious philanthropist" and was honoured for his charity work. He was awarded the OBE in 1971 and was knighted in 1990. In 2006, he introduced the last edition of Top of the Pops. In October 2012, almost a year after his death, an ITV documentary examined claims of sexual abuse by Savile. This led to extensive media coverage and a substantial and rapidly growing body of witness statements and sexual abuse claims, including accusations against public bodies for covering up or failure of duty. Scotland Yard launched a criminal investigation into allegations of child sex abuse by Savile spanning six decades, describing him as a "predatory sex offender", and later stated that they were pursuing more than 400 lines of inquiry based on the testimony of 300 potential victims via 14 police forces across the UK. By late October 2012, the scandal had resulted in inquiries or reviews at the BBC, within the National Health Service, the Crown Prosecution Service, and the Department of Health. In June 2014, investigations into Savile's activities in 28 NHS hospitals, including Leeds General Infirmary and Broadmoor psychiatric hospital, concluded that he had sexually assaulted staff and patients aged between 5 and 75 over several decades. Early life Savile, born at Consort Terrace, in the Burley area of Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire, was the youngest of seven children (his elder siblings were Mary, Marjory, Vincent, John, Joan, and Christina) in a Roman Catholic family. His parents were Vincent Joseph Marie Savile (1886–1953), a bookmaker's clerk and insurance agent, and his wife, Agnes Monica Kelly (1886–1972). His paternal grandmother was Scottish. Savile grew up during the Great Depression, and later claimed, "I was forged in the crucible of want." He described his father as "scrupulously honest but scrupulously broke." Savile's mother believed he owed his life to the intercession of Margaret Sinclair, a Scottish nun, after he recovered quickly from illness, possibly pneumonia, at the age of two when his mother prayed at Leeds Cathedral after picking up a pamphlet about Sinclair. Savile went to St Anne's Roman Catholic School in Leeds. After leaving school at the age of 14 he worked in an office. At the age of 18 during the Second World War he was conscripted to work as a Bevin Boy and worked in coal mines, where he reportedly suffered spinal injuries from a shot-firer's explosion, and he spent a long period recuperating, wearing a steel corset and for three years walking with the aid of sticks. Following his colliery work, Savile became a scrap metal dealer. Savile started playing records in dance halls in the early 1940s, and claimed to be the first DJ. According to his autobiography, he was the first to use two turntables and a microphone at the Grand Records Ball at the Guardbridge Hotel in 1947, although his claim to have been the first is disputed; twin turntables were illustrated in the BBC Handbook in 1929 and advertised for sale in Gramophone magazine in 1931. He became a semi-professional sportsman, competing in the 1951 Tour of Britain cycle race and working as a professional wrestler. He said: Savile lived in Salford from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, the later period with Ray Teret, who became his support DJ, assistant and chauffeur. Savile managed the Plaza Ballroom on Oxford Street, in Manchester city centre, in the mid-1950s. When he lived in Great Clowes Street in Higher Broughton, Salford, he was often seen sitting on his front door steps. He managed the Mecca Locarno ballroom in Leeds in the late 1950s and early 1960s as well as the Mecca-owned Palais dance hall in Ilford, Essex, between 1955 and 1956. His Monday evening records-only dance sessions (admission one shilling) were popular with local teens. It was while at Ilford that Savile was discovered by a music executive from Decca Records. Career Radio Savile's radio career began as a DJ at Radio Luxembourg from 1958 to 1968. By 1968 he presented six programmes a week, and his Saturday show reached six million listeners. In terms of recognition, he was one of the leading DJs in Britain by the early 1960s. In 1968, he joined Radio 1, where he presented Savile's Travels, a weekly programme broadcast on Sundays in which he travelled around the UK talking to members of the public. From 1969 to 1973 he fronted Speakeasy, a discussion programme for teenagers. On Radio 1 he presented the Sunday lunchtime show Jimmy Savile's Old Record Club, playing chart Top 10s from years gone by. It was the first show to feature old charts and Savile used a "points system" in an imaginary quiz with the audience to guess the names of the song and artist. It began in 1973 as The Double Top Ten Show, and ended in 1987 as The Triple Top Ten Show when he left Radio 1 after 19 years. He presented The Vintage Chart Show, playing top tens from 1957 to 1987, on the BBC World Service from March 1987 until October 1989. From March 1989 to August 1997, he broadcast on various stations around the UK (mostly taking the Gold format, such as the West Midlands' Xtra AM and the Classic Gold network in Yorkshire) where he revived his Radio 1 shows. In 1994, satirist Chris Morris gave a fake obituary on BBC Radio 1, saying that Savile had collapsed and died, which allegedly drew threats of legal action from Savile and forced an apology from Morris. On 25 December 2005, and 1 January 2007, he presented shows on the Real Radio network. The Christmas 2005 show counted down the festive Top 10s of 10, 20 and 30 years previously, while the New Year 2007 show (also taken by Century Radio following its acquisition by GMG) featured Savile recounting anecdotes from his past and playing associated records, mostly from the 1960s and some from the 1970s. Television Savile's first television role was as a presenter of Tyne Tees Television's music programme Young at Heart, which aired from May 1960. Although the show was broadcast in black and white, Savile dyed his hair a different colour every week. On New Year's Day 1964, he presented the first edition of the BBC music chart television programme Top of the Pops from a television studio in a converted church in Dickenson Road, Rusholme, Manchester. On 30 July 2006, he co-hosted the final weekly edition, ending it with the words "It's number one, it's still Top of the Pops", before turning off the studio lights after the closing credits. When interviewed by the BBC on 20 November 2008 and asked about the revival of Top of the Pops for a Christmas comeback, he said he would welcome a "cameo role" in the programme. In the early 1960s, Savile co-hosted (with Pete Murray) the televised New Musical Express Poll Winners' Concert, held annually at the Empire Pool in Wembley, with acts such as the Beatles, Cliff Richard and the Shadows, Joe Brown and the Bruvvers, the Who, and many others. On 31 December 1969, he hosted the BBC/ZDF co-production Pop Go the Sixties, shown across Western Europe, celebrating the hits of the decade. Savile presented a series of public information films promoting road safety, notably "Clunk Click Every Trip", which promoted the use of seatbelts, the clunk representing the sound of the door and the click the sound of the seatbelt fastening. It led to Savile's Saturday-night chat/variety show from 1973 on BBC1 entitled Clunk, Click, which in 1974 featured the UK heats of the Eurovision Song Contest featuring Olivia Newton-John. After two series, Clunk, Click was replaced by Jim'll Fix It, which he presented from 1975 to 1994. Savile won an award from Mary Whitehouse's National Viewers' and Listeners' Association in 1977 for his "wholesome family entertainment". He fronted a long-running series of advertisements in the early 1980s for British Rail's InterCity 125, in which he declared "This is the age of the train". Savile was twice the subject of the Thames Television series This Is Your Life in January 1970 with Eamonn Andrews and again in December 1990 with Michael Aspel. In an interview by Anthony Clare for the radio series In the Psychiatrist's Chair in 1991, Savile appeared to be "a man without feelings". "There is something chilling about this 20th-century 'saint'", Clare concluded in 1992 in his introduction to the published transcript of this interview. Andrew Neil interviewed him for the TV series Is This Your Life? in 1995 where Savile "used a banana to avoid discussing his personal life". In 1999, he appeared as a panellist on Have I Got News for You. In April 2000, he was the subject of a documentary by Louis Theroux, in the When Louis Met... series, in which Theroux accompanied British celebrities going about their daily business and interviewed them about their lives and experiences. In the documentary, Savile confided that he used to beat people up and lock them in a basement during his career as a nightclub manager. When Theroux challenged Savile about rumours of paedophilia over a decade before, Savile said: "We live in a very funny world. And it's easier for me, as a single man, to say 'I don't like children', because that puts a lot of salacious tabloid people off the hunt." Savile visited the Celebrity Big Brother house on 14 and 15 January 2006 (in series 4) and "fixed it" for some housemates to have their wishes granted; Pete Burns received a message from his boyfriend, Michael, and Lynn, his ex-wife, while Dennis Rodman traded Savile's offering for a supply of cigarettes for the other housemates. In 2007, Savile returned to television with Jim'll Fix It Strikes Again showing some of the most popular fix-its, recreating them with the same people, and making new dreams come true. Fundraising, sponsorship and voluntary work Savile is estimated to have raised £40 million for charity. One cause for which he raised money was Stoke Mandeville Hospital, where he volunteered for many years as a porter. He raised money for the Spinal Unit, NSIC (National Spinal Injuries Centre), and St Francis Ward – a ward for children and teens with spinal cord injuries. Savile also volunteered at Leeds General Infirmary and Broadmoor Hospital. In August 1988, he was appointed by junior health minister Edwina Currie chair of an interim task force overseeing the management of Broadmoor Hospital, after its board members had been suspended. Savile had his own rooms at both Stoke Mandeville and Broadmoor. In 1989, Savile started legal proceedings against News Group Newspapers after the News of the World published an article, in January 1988, suggesting he had been in a position to secure the release of patients from Broadmoor who were considered "dangerous". Savile won on 11 July 1989; News Group paid his legal costs, and he received an apology from editors Kelvin MacKenzie and Patsy Chapman. In 2012, it was reported that Savile had sexually abused vulnerable patients at the hospitals. From 1974 to 1988, Savile was the honorary president of Phab (Physically Handicapped in the Able Bodied community). He sponsored medical students performing undergraduate research in the Leeds University Research Enterprise scholarship scheme, donating more than £60,000 every year. In 2010, the scheme was given a commitment of £500,000 over the following five years. Following Savile's death in October 2011, it was confirmed that a bequest had been made to allow continued support for the programme. Savile was a participant in marathons (many for Phab, including its annual half marathon around Hyde Park, London). He also cycled from Land's End to John o' Groats in 10 days for the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, and ran in the Scottish People's Marathon. It was reported that he completed the London Marathon at the age of 79; rumours that he was driven round in a lead vehicle as an "observer", were denied by marathon officials. Savile set up two charities, the Jimmy Savile Stoke Mandeville Hospital Trust in 1981, and the Leeds-based Jimmy Savile Charitable Trust in 1984. During the sexual abuse scandal in October 2012 the charities announced that they would distribute their funds, of £1.7 million and £3.7 million respectively, among other charities and then close down. He also raised money for several Jewish charities. Public image and friendships During his lifetime and at the time of his death, Savile was regarded as "an eccentric adornment to British public life ... an ubiquitous and distinctive face on television", who "relished being in the public eye" and was "a shrewd promoter of his own image". He created a "bizarre yodel", and catchphrases which included "How's about that, then?", "Now then, now then", "Goodness gracious", "As it 'appens" and "Guys and gals". Savile was frequently spoofed for his dress sense, which usually featured a tracksuit or shellsuit and gold jewellery. A range of licensed fancy dress costumes was released with his consent in 2009. Savile was often pictured holding a cigar. He claimed to have started smoking cigars at the age of seven, saying "My dad gave me a drag on one at Christmas, thinking it would put me off them forever, but it had the opposite effect." Savile was a member of Mensa and the Institute of Advanced Motorists and drove a Rolls-Royce. He was made a life member of the British Gypsy Council in 1975, becoming the first "outsider" to be made a member. In 1984, Savile was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum, a gentlemen's club in London's Pall Mall, after being proposed by Cardinal Basil Hume. He was chieftain of the Lochaber Highland Games for many years, and owned a house in Glen Coe; his appearance on the final edition of Top of the Pops in 2006 was pre-recorded as it clashed with the games. Through his support of charities, Savile became a friend of Margaret Thatcher, who in 1981 described his work as "marvellous". It has been reported that Savile spent 11 consecutive New Year's Eves at Chequers with Thatcher and her family, although this is disputed by Thatcher's daughter, Carol, and by Lord Bell, a close friend of the Thatcher family, who said "people make up such rubbish". Letters released in December 2012 by the National Archives under the thirty-year rule confirm the "close friendship" between Savile and Thatcher. Some of the correspondence was heavily redacted before publication, using exemptions under the Freedom of Information Act. Savile met Prince Charles through mutual charity interests. His work with Stoke Mandeville Hospital also made Savile a suitable figure to whom the Prince could turn "for advice on navigating Britain's health authorities". Charles met Savile on several occasions. In 1999, Charles visited Savile's Glen Coe home for a private meal and reportedly sent him gifts on his 80th birthday and a note reading: "Nobody will ever know what you have done for this country, Jimmy. This is to go some way in thanking you for that." Savile was also in contact with other members of the royal household and received telegrams from Diana, Princess of Wales, and Prince Philip, as well as a handwritten letter from Princess Alexandra's husband Angus Ogilvy and a homemade card from Sarah, Duchess of York. A lifelong bachelor, Savile lived with his mother (whom he referred to as the "Duchess") and kept her bedroom and wardrobe exactly as it was when she died. Every year he had her clothes dry cleaned. Savile's personal relationships were rarely the subject of media report or comment in his lifetime. In his autobiography, he claimed he had had many sexual relations with women, and that "there have been trains and, with apologies to the hit parade, boats and planes (I am a member of the 40,000ft club) and bushes and fields, corridors, doorways, floors, chairs, slag heaps, desks and probably everything except the celebrated chandelier and ironing board". Health and death On 9 August 1997, Savile underwent a three-hour quadruple heart-bypass operation at Killingbeck Hospital in Leeds, having known he needed the surgery for at least four years after attending regular check-ups. He arranged for a bench in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, to be dedicated to his memory, with a plaque saying "Jimmy Savile – but not just yet!" Savile was found dead at his home in Roundhay on 29 October 2011, two days before his 85th birthday. He had been in hospital with pneumonia, and his death was not suspicious. His closed satin gold coffin was displayed at the Queens Hotel in Leeds, with the last cigar he smoked and his two This Is Your Life books. Around 4,000 people visited to pay tribute. His funeral took place at Leeds Cathedral on 9 November 2011, and he was buried at Woodlands Cemetery in Scarborough. As specified in his will, his coffin was inclined at 45 degrees to fulfil his wish to "see the sea". The coffin was encased in concrete "as a security measure". An auction of Savile's possessions was conducted at the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds, on 30 July 2012, with the proceeds going to charity. His silver Rolls-Royce Corniche convertible was sold for £130,000 to an Internet bidder. The vehicle's number plate, JS 247, featured the original medium wave wavelength used by BBC Radio 1 (247 metres). Allegations of sexual abuse During his lifetime During Savile's lifetime, sporadic allegations of child abuse were made against him dating back to 1963, but these only became widely publicised after his death. Savile claimed the key to his success on Jim'll Fix It had been that he disliked children, although he later admitted to saying this to deflect scrutiny of his personal life. He did not own a computer, claiming that he did not want anybody to think he was downloading child pornography. His autobiography As it Happens (1974, reprinted as Love is an Uphill Thing, 1976) contains admissions of improper sexual conduct which appear to have passed unnoticed during his lifetime. Former Sex Pistols and Public Image Ltd vocalist John Lydon alluded to sordid conduct committed by Savile, as well as suppression of widely held knowledge about such activity, in an October 1978 interview recorded for BBC Radio 1. Lydon stated: "I'd like to kill Jimmy Savile; I think he's a hypocrite. I bet he's into all kinds of seediness that we all know about, but are not allowed to talk about. I know some rumours." He added: "I bet none of this will be allowed out." As predicted, the comment was edited out by the BBC prior to broadcasting, but the complete interview was included as a bonus track on a re-release of Public Image Ltd's 1978 debut album Public Image: First Issue in 2013, after Savile's death. In October 2014, Lydon expanded on his original quote, saying: "By killed I meant locking him up and stopping him assaulting young children... I'm disgusted at the media pretending they weren't aware." In a 1990 interview for The Independent on Sunday, Lynn Barber asked Savile about rumours that he liked "little girls". Savile's reply was that, as he worked in the pop music business, "the young girls in question don't gather round me because of me – it's because I know the people they love, the stars... I am of no interest to them." In April 2000, in a documentary by Louis Theroux, When Louis Met... Jimmy, Savile acknowledged "salacious tabloid people" had raised rumours about whether he was a paedophile, and said, "I know I'm not." A follow-up documentary, Louis Theroux: Savile, about Savile and Theroux's inability to dig more deeply, aired on BBC Two in 2016. In 2007, Savile was interviewed under caution by police investigating an allegation of indecent assault in the 1970s at the now-closed Duncroft Approved School for Girls near Staines, Surrey, where he was a regular visitor. In October 2009 the Crown Prosecution Service advised there was insufficient evidence to take any further action and no charges were brought. In March 2008, Savile started legal proceedings against The Sun, which had linked him in several articles to child abuse at the Jersey children's home Haut de la Garenne. At first, he denied visiting Haut de la Garenne, but later admitted he had done so following the publication of a photograph showing him at the home surrounded by children. The States of Jersey Police said that in 2008 an allegation of an indecent assault by Savile at the home in the 1970s had been investigated, but there had been insufficient evidence to proceed. In a 2009 interview with his biographer, Savile defended viewers of child pornography, including pop star and convicted sex offender Gary Glitter. He argued that viewers "didn't do anything wrong but they are then demonised", and described Glitter as a celebrity being unfairly vilified for watching "dodgy films" in the privacy of his home: "Gary... has not tried to sell 'em, not tried to show them in public or anything like that. It were for his own gratification. Whether it was right or wrong is, of course, it's up to him as a person." The interview was not published at the time, and the recording was not released until after Savile's death. In 2012, Sir Roger Jones, a former BBC governor for Wales and chairman of BBC charity Children in Need, disclosed that more than a decade before Savile's death he had banned the "very strange" and "creepy" Savile from involvement in the charity. Former royal family press secretary Dickie Arbiter said Savile's behaviour had raised "concern and suspicion" when Savile acted as an informal marriage counsellor between Prince Charles and Princess Diana in the late 1980s, although no reports had been made. Arbiter added that during his regular visits to Charles's office at St James's Palace, Savile would "do the rounds of the young ladies taking their hands and rubbing his lips all the way up their arms". After his death Immediately after Savile's death, the BBC's Newsnight programme began an investigation into reports that he was a sexual abuser. Meirion Jones and Liz MacKean interviewed one victim on camera and others agreed to have their stories told. The interviewees alleged abuse at Duncroft approved school for girls in Staines, Stoke Mandeville Hospital and the BBC. Newsnight also discovered that Surrey Police had investigated allegations of abuse against Savile. The item was scheduled for broadcast in Newsnight on 7 December 2011 but was withdrawn before broadcast; over Christmas 2011, the BBC broadcast two tributes to Savile. In December 2012, a review led by Nick Pollard of the BBC's handling of the issue described the decision not to broadcast the Newsnight investigation as "flawed". The review said that Jones and MacKean had found "cogent evidence" that Savile was an abuser. George Entwistle – at that time the Director of BBC Vision – who had been told about the plan to broadcast the Newsnight item, was described by the review as "unnecessarily cautious, and an opportunity was lost". There was no public mention of the Newsnight investigation into Savile in December 2011 but in early 2012 several newspapers reported that the BBC had investigated but not broadcast (its report of) allegations of sexual abuse immediately after his death. The Oldie alleged there had been a cover-up by the BBC. On 28 September 2012, almost a year after his death, ITV said it would broadcast a documentary as part of its Exposure series, The Other Side of Jimmy Savile. The documentary, presented by Mark Williams-Thomas, a consultant on the original Newsnight investigation, revealed claims by up to 10 women, including one aged under 14 at the time, that they had been molested or raped by Savile during the 1960s and 1970s. The announcement attracted national attention, and more reports and claims of abuse against him accumulated. The documentary was broadcast on 3 October. The next day, the Metropolitan Police said the Child Abuse Investigation Command would assess the allegations. The developing scandal led to inquiries into practices at the BBC and the National Health Service. It was alleged that rumours of Savile's activities had circulated at the BBC in the 1960s and 1970s, but no action had been taken. The Director-General of the BBC, George Entwistle, apologised for what had happened, and on 16 October 2012 appointed former High Court judge Dame Janet Smith to review the culture and practices of the BBC during the time Savile worked there; and Nick Pollard, a former Sky News executive, was appointed to look at why the Newsnight investigation into Savile's activities was dropped shortly before transmission in December 2011. By 19 October 2012, police were pursuing 400 lines of inquiry based on testimony from 200 witnesses via 14 police forces across the UK. They described the alleged abuse as "on an unprecedented scale", and the number of potential victims as "staggering". Investigations codenamed Operation Yewtree were opened to identify criminal conduct related to Savile's activities by the Metropolitan Police, and to review the 2009 decision by the Crown Prosecution Service to drop a prosecution as "unlikely to succeed". By 25 October, police reported the number of possible victims was approaching 300. On 22 October 2012, the BBC programme Panorama broadcast an investigation into Newsnight and found evidence suggesting "senior manager" pressure; on the same day Newsnight editor Peter Rippon "stepped down" with immediate effect. The Department of Health appointed former barrister Kate Lampard to chair and oversee its investigations into Savile's activities at Stoke Mandeville Hospital, Leeds General Infirmary, Broadmoor Hospital and other hospitals and facilities in England. On 12 November 2012, the Metropolitan Police announced the scale of sexual allegations reported against Savile was "unprecedented" in Britain: a total of 450 alleged victims had contacted the police in the ten weeks since the investigation was launched. Officers recorded 199 crimes in 17 police force areas in which Savile was a suspect, among them 31 allegations of rape in seven force areas. Analysis of the report showed 82% of those who came forward to report abuse were female and 80% were children or young people at the time of the incidents. One former Broadmoor nurse claimed that Savile had said that he engaged in necrophiliac acts with corpses in the Leeds General Infirmary mortuary; Savile was said to be friends with the chief mortician, who gave him near-unrestricted access. Exposure Update: The Jimmy Savile Investigation was shown on ITV on 21 November 2012. In March 2013, Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary reported that 214 of the complaints that had been made against Savile after his death would have been criminal offences if they had been reported at the time. Sixteen victims reported being raped by Savile when they were under 16 (the age of heterosexual consent in England) and four of those had been under the age of 10. Thirteen others reported serious sexual assaults by Savile, including four who had been under 10 years old. Another 10 victims reported being raped by Savile after the age of 16. In January 2013 a joint report by the NSPCC and Metropolitan Police, Giving Victims a Voice, stated that 450 people had made complaints against Savile, the period of alleged abuse stretching from 1955 to 2009 and the ages of the complainants at the times of the assaults ranging from 8 to 47. The suspected victims included 28 children aged under 10, including 10 boys aged eight. A further 63 were girls aged between 13 and 16, and nearly three-quarters of his alleged victims were under 18. Some 214 criminal offences were recorded, 34 rapes having been reported across 28 police forces. Former professional wrestler Adrian Street described in a November 2013 interview how "Savile used to go on and on about the young girls who'd wait in line for him outside his dressing room ... He'd pick the ones he wanted and say to the rest, 'Unlucky, come back again tomorrow night'." Savile, who cultivated a "tough guy" image promoted by his entourage, was hit with real blows during a 1971 bout with Street, who commented that had he "known then the full extent of what I know about [Savile] now, I'd have given him an even bigger hiding – were that physically possible." During the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse in March 2019, it was reported that Robert Armstrong, the head of the Honours Committee, had resisted attempts by Margaret Thatcher to award Savile a knighthood in the 1980s, due to concerns about his private life. An anonymous letter received by the committee in 1998 said that "reports of a paedophilia nature" could emerge about Savile. Aftermath An authorised biography, How's About That Then?, by Alison Bellamy, was published in June 2012. After the claims made against him were published, the author said that, in the light of the allegations, she felt "let down and betrayed" by Savile. Within a month of the child abuse scandal emerging, many places and organisations named after or connected to Savile were renamed or had his name removed. A memorial plaque on the wall of Savile's former home in Scarborough was removed in early October 2012 after it was defaced with graffiti. A wooden statue of Savile at Scotstoun Leisure Centre in Glasgow was also removed around the same time. Signs on a footpath in Scarborough named "Savile's View" were removed. Savile's Hall, the conference centre at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds, was renamed New Dock Hall. The Jimmy Savile Charitable Trust and the Jimmy Savile Stoke Mandeville Hospital Trust, two registered charities founded in his name to fight "poverty and sickness and other charitable purposes" announced they were too closely tied to his name to be sustainable and would close and distribute their funds to other charities, so as to avoid harm to beneficiaries from future media attention. On 9 October 2012, relatives said the headstone of Savile's grave would be removed, destroyed and sent to landfill. The Savile family expressed their sorrow for the "anguish" of the victims and "respect [for] public opinion". Savile's body is interred in the cemetery in Scarborough, although it has been proposed that it be exhumed and cremated. On 28 October, it was reported that Savile's cottage in Glen Coe had been vandalised with spray-paint and the door damaged. The cottage was sold in May 2013. In 2012, Richard Harrison, a long-serving psychiatric nurse at Broadmoor Hospital, said that Savile had long been regarded by staff as "a man with a severe personality disorder and a liking for children". Another nurse, Bob Allen, considered Savile to be a psychopath, stating: "A lot of the staff said he should be behind bars." Allen also said that he had once reported Savile to his supervisor for apparent improper conduct with a juvenile, but no action was taken. Psychologists in The Guardian and The Herald argued that Savile exhibited the dark triad of personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Savile's estate, believed to be worth about £4–4.3 million, was frozen by its executors, NatWest bank, in view of the possibility that those alleging that they had been assaulted by Savile could make claims for damages. After "a range of expenses" were charged to the estate, a remainder of about £3.3 million was available to compensate victims, those victims not having a claim against another entity (such as the BBC or the National Health Service) being given priority, and all victims limited to a maximum claim of £60,000 against all entities combined. The compensation scheme was approved in late 2014 by the courts. Most of Savile's honours were rescinded following the sexual abuse claims. As a knighthood expires when the holder dies, it cannot be posthumously revoked. Episodes of Top of the Pops hosted by him are not repeated. On 26 June 2014, UK Secretary of State for Health Jeremy Hunt delivered a public apology in the House of Commons to the patients of the National Health Service abused by Savile. He confirmed that complaints had been raised before 2012 but were ignored by the bureaucratic system: Dramatisation In October 2020, the BBC announced a mini-series with the working title The Reckoning, which will recount Savile's rise to fame and the sexual abuse scandal that emerged after his death. Writer Neil McKay and producer Jeff Pope had previously worked together on dramatisations on the murders of Fred West, the disappearance of Shannon Matthews and the murders of Stephen Port. In September 2021, Steve Coogan was cast as Savile; Coogan said he did not take the decision lightly, and that it was a "horrific story which – however harrowing – needs to be told". Honours and awards In the 1972 New Year Honours, Savile was appointed an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, entitled to append OBE to his name. In the 1990 Queen's Birthday Honours, Savile was made a Knight Bachelor "for charitable services", entitled to use the honorific prefix Sir. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had made four attempts to have him knighted before succeeding in her final year in office. Following the allegations of sexual abuse, British Prime Minister David Cameron suggested in October 2012 that it would be possible for Savile's honours to be rescinded by the Honours Forfeiture Committee. A Cabinet Office spokesman said that there was no procedure to posthumously revoke an OBE or knighthood, as these honours automatically expire when a person dies, but that the committee might consider introducing a process to do so in the light of Savile's case. Savile was honoured with a Papal knighthood by being made a Knight Commander of the Pontifical Equestrian Order of Saint Gregory the Great (KCSG) by Pope John Paul II in 1990. After the scandal broke, the Catholic Church in England and Wales asked the Holy See to consider stripping Savile of the honour. In October 2012, Father Federico Lombardi told BBC News: Savile was an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Radiologists (FRCR). Savile had the Cross of Merit of the . Withdrawn honours Many honours are considered to cease on the death of the holder; some of Savile's honours were considered no longer applicable, and did not need to be rescinded. In other cases honours were withdrawn, or removed from lists: In the 1970s, Savile was awarded an honorary green beret by the Royal Marines for completing the Royal Marine Commando speed march, across Dartmoor carrying of kit. Following the allegations of child abuse, his beret award was not revoked, as that honour expires upon death of the Marine. However, the Royal Marines ordered that any certification granted to Savile or mention of Savile's name in their records be expunged immediately. Savile was awarded an honorary doctorate of law (LLD) by the University of Leeds in 1986, which was revoked in 2012. Savile was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Bedfordshire in 2009, which was posthumously rescinded in October 2012. Savile was made a Freeman of the Borough of Scarborough in 2005. This honour was removed in November 2012. Books, recordings and other works Books Savile, Jimmy. As it Happens, , Barrie & Jenkins 1974 (autobiography) Savile, Jimmy. Love is an Uphill Thing, , Coronet 1976 (paperback edition of As it Happens) Savile, Jimmy. God'll Fix It, , Mowbray, Oxford 1979 Recordings 1962, "Ahab the Arab" with Brian Poole and the Tremeloes. Decca, F11493 (single) References External links BBC News profile Jimmy Savile Biography and Radio 1 audio clips at Radio Rewind 1926 births 2011 deaths BBC Radio 1 presenters Bevin Boys British children's television presenters Charity fundraisers (people) Child sexual abuse in England DJs from Leeds English autobiographers English male professional wrestlers English people of Scottish descent English philanthropists English radio DJs English Roman Catholics English television presenters Knights Bachelor Knights Commander of the Order of St Gregory the Great Knights of Malta Mensans Officers of the Order of the British Empire Operation Yewtree People associated with the University of Leeds People stripped of honorary degrees Radio Luxembourg (English) presenters Sexual harassment Sportspeople from Leeds Television personalities from West Yorkshire Top of the Pops presenters Violence against women in the United Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Carlyle

Robert Carlyle

Robert Carlyle (born 14 April 1961) is a Scottish actor and director. His film work includes Trainspotting (1996), The Full Monty (1997), The World Is Not Enough (1999), Angela's Ashes (1999), The Beach (2000), 28 Weeks Later (2007), and Yesterday (2019). He has been in the television shows Hamish Macbeth, Stargate Universe, and Once Upon a Time. He won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for The Full Monty and a Gemini Award for Stargate Universe, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for his work in Human Trafficking (2005). Early life Carlyle was born in Maryhill, Glasgow, the son of Elizabeth, a bus company employee, and Joseph Carlyle, a painter and decorator. He was raised by his father after his mother left when Carlyle was four years old. He left school at the age of 16 without any qualifications and worked for his father as a painter and decorator. He later attended night classes at Cardonald College in Glasgow. Career Carlyle became involved in drama at the Glasgow Arts Centre at the age of 21 (having been inspired by reading Arthur Miller's The Crucible), and subsequently graduated from the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD). In 1991, he and four friends founded a theatre company, Raindog (which was involved in television and film work). The same year he guest starred in The Bill and also starred in his first movie, Riff-Raff, directed by Ken Loach. In 1994, he played the gay lover of Father Greg in the film Priest. Carlyle's first high-profile role came as murderer Albert "Albie" Kinsella in an October 1994 episode of Cracker opposite Robbie Coltrane and Christopher Eccleston (notoriously killing off Eccleston's character, DCI David Bilborough). This highly acclaimed role showcased Carlyle's "pure intensity". Shortly after his appearance in Cracker, he landed the role of Highland policeman Hamish Macbeth in the BBC comedy-drama Hamish Macbeth. The series ran for three seasons from 1995 to 1997. In 1996 and 1997, he appeared in the two highest-profile roles of his career to date: as the psychopathic Francis Begbie in Trainspotting and Gaz, the leader of a group of amateur male strippers, in The Full Monty. The latter earned Carlyle a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. He also starred with Ray Winstone in the 1997 film Face. Carlyle played the senior Malachy McCourt (father of author Frank McCourt) in the 1999 film adaptation of McCourt's first memoir, Angela's Ashes; the arch villain Renard in the 1999 James Bond film The World Is Not Enough; and a cannibalistic soldier in the 1999 Ravenous. Carlyle appeared in the 2002 Oasis music video for "Little By Little". He played Adolf Hitler in the 2003 miniseries Hitler: The Rise of Evil. In 2006 he played the villain Durza in Eragon. In 2007 Carlyle played one of the main characters in the film 28 Weeks Later. He also played the lead role as a marine engineer attempting to save London from total devastation in the disaster film Flood. That year he also portrayed Father Joseph Macavoy in the film The Tournament. In 2008 Carlyle narrated a BBC audiobook version of The Cutting Room. In 2008, he was cast as Dr. Nicholas Rush in the television series Stargate Universe. His role in the series has been described thus: "As [the team fights] to survive, Dr. Rush (Carlyle) works to unlock the mysteries of the ship and return the group home, but evidence of his ulterior motives soon arises." His was touted by the studio as the "leading role" in Universe. In December 2008, Carlyle appeared in 24: Redemption, a television movie based on the popular TV series 24, starring alongside Kiefer Sutherland. In 2009, Carlyle appeared in "The Man Who Walked Around The World," a long-form commercial for Johnnie Walker whisky. Carlyle was shown walking down a path and talking for six minutes in a single long take. The ad took two days to film. The director, Jamie Rafn, afterwards referred to Carlyle as an "utter genius". He voices the character of Gabriel Belmont, and his counterpart, Dracula in the video game Castlevania: Lords of Shadow, as well as its sequels Mirror of Fate and Lords of Shadow 2. From 2011 to 2018, Carlyle portrayed Mr. Gold (Rumplestiltskin) in the fantasy-drama television series Once Upon A Time. The character is a wizard, deal-maker, and master manipulator. In his interview, Robert explained that his son inspired him to create Rumplestiltskin's voice. In 2019, he portrayed Ogilvy in a three-part television adaption of The War of the Worlds for the BBC, and made an uncredited appearance as John Lennon in the film Yesterday. In 2020, he portrayed Robert Sutherland, the Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party in Cobra. Acting style Known for his commitment to authenticity in roles, Carlyle has often altered his lifestyle and physical appearance to gain a better understanding of a character; much akin to method acting. Before playing a homeless character in Antonia Bird's Safe, for example, he went to live in the Waterloo area of London where the film was set. For his role as a bus driver in Ken Loach's Carla's Song, he passed the test for a PSV licence (a licence to drive a bus with passengers) in a Glasgow Leyland Atlantean bus. Carlyle also had dentistry as part of his preparations for reprising his role as Begbie in T2 Trainspotting, choosing to have a dental implant and an adjacent tooth that became damaged during the implant's removal, extracted. Writing of Carlyle's performance in The Full Monty, Andrew Johnston stated: "Carlyle was brilliant as the savage psycho Begbie in Trainspotting; here, he proves he can be almost as good when kept on a short leash. We don't know much about Gaz, but he's the most interesting character in the movie, largely because of Carlyle's down-to-earth warmth." Personal life Carlyle has been married to make-up artist Anastasia Shirley since 1997. They have three children: a daughter born in 2002, and two sons born in 2004 and 2006, respectively. Carlyle is a patron of School for Life in Romania. Carlyle supports Rangers F.C. He was awarded the OBE in 1999. Filmography Film Television Video games Audio books Awards and nominations References External links An onstage video interview with Robert Carlyle at BAFTA 1961 births Living people Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners Male actors from Glasgow Alumni of the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland Scottish male film actors Scottish male television actors Scottish male video game actors Scottish male voice actors Best Actor BAFTA Award winners Officers of the Order of the British Empire Best Actor in a Drama Series Canadian Screen Award winners 20th-century Scottish male actors 21st-century Scottish male actors People from Maryhill

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Illinois

List of people from Illinois

This is a list of notable individuals who come from the state of Illinois, a state within the larger United States of America. A Aa–Ag Emma Abbott (1850–91), opera soprano. Born and raised in Illinois until age 16; funeral held in Illinois, but interred in Massachusetts. Margaret Abbott (1878–1955), first modern-era Olympic United States female champion. Lived during her teens and learned her Olympic sport of golf in Illinois. Robert Sengstacke Abbott (1868–1940), African-American lawyer, newspaper publisher and editor. Studied law and had his newspaper career in Chicago. Jessica Abel (1969–living), comic book writer and artist. Born and educated in Illinois. Gertrude Abercrombie (1909–77), surrealist painter. Lived most of her life in Chicago and known for her association with the city. Max Abramovitz (1908–2004), architect. Born and college-educated in Illinois. Ben Abruzzo (1930–85), balloonist. Born and college-educated in Illinois. Tony Accardo (1906–1992), organized crime figure. Born and lived entire life in Chicago metropolitan area. Barbara Acklin (1943–98), singer. Came to Illinois at age of five and resided until her death. Ron Acks (1944–living), NFL linebacker 1968–76. Acks was born, attended high school and college in Illinois. Valdas Adamkus (1926–living), president of Lithuania 1998–2009. Lived in Illinois for a number of years after emigrating to the United States from Lithuania, getting a college degree and entering Chicago politics. Berle Adams (1917–2009), founder of Mercury Records. Born and lived first thirty years in Illinois. Franklin P. Adams (1881–1960), writer, member of Algonquin Round Table. Described as "a native of Chicago", he found fame and lived most of his life in New York. John Hicks Adams (1820–78), gunslinger, Wild West lawman. Born and attended college in Illinois. Katrina Adams (1968–living), president of United States Tennis Association. Born and educated in Illinois. Jane Addams, social worker, teacher, Nobel Peace Prize recipient George Ade, author and cartoonist (born in Indiana) Paul Adelstein, actor, Prison Break, Private Practice Victor Adeyanju, NFL defensive end 2006–10 Dankmar Adler, architect (born in Germany) David Adler, architect (born in Wisconsin) Max Adler, founder of Adler Planetarium Scott Adsit, actor, writer, improvisational comedian, 30 Rock, Big Hero 6 John Agar, actor, Sands of Iwo Jima, She Wore a Yellow Ribbon, husband of Shirley Temple Alex Agase, football player for Cleveland Browns; head coach of Northwestern, Purdue Lou Agase, football player for Illinois, coach of CFL's Toronto Argonauts Milton Ager, composer, "Ain't She Sweet", "Happy Days Are Here Again" Benjamin Agosto, ice dancer, 2006 Turin Olympics silver medalist Mark Aguirre, forward for DePaul, NBA's Dallas Mavericks and Detroit Pistons; top pick of 1981 NBA draft Ah–Am Gene Ahern, cartoonist Joe Aiello, organized crime figure (born in Sicily) Joseph Aiuppa, organized crime figure Stan Albeck, basketball head coach, Bradley, Cleveland Cavaliers, San Antonio Spurs, Chicago Bulls Abraham Adrian Albert, mathematician Eddie Albert, Oscar-nominated actor, Green Acres, Switch, Oklahoma!, Roman Holiday, The Heartbreak Kid, The Longest Yard Frankie Albert, quarterback and head coach for San Francisco 49ers, College Football Hall of Famer Bruce Alberts, biochemist, original author of Molecular Biology of the Cell Steve Albini, musician, producer Ted Albrecht, offensive tackle for Purdue and Chicago Bears James L. Alcorn, governor and U.S. Senator of Mississippi Jody Alderson, swimmer, 1952 Olympic bronze medalist Dorothy Aldis, children's author Gus Alex, organized crime figure Dan Alexander, football player, 2000 Alamo Bowl MVP Houston Alexander, mixed martial artist Linsey Alexander, blues musician (born in Mississippi) Lorez Alexandria, jazz and gospel singer Nelson Algren, author, The Man with the Golden Arm, A Walk on the Wild Side (born in Michigan) Saul Alinsky, founder of modern community organizing and writer Brian Allard, MLB pitcher 1979–81 Jeff Allen, offensive guard for Kansas City Chiefs Joan Allen, Oscar-nominated actress, The Bourne Ultimatum, The Contender, The Upside of Anger, Nixon, Face/Off Karen Allen, actress, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Animal House, Scrooged Leo E. Allen, 14-term U.S. Representative Leslie Allen, auto racer, 9th in 1930 Indianapolis 500 Rex Allen Jr., country singer, narrator of film Me, Myself and Irene Ronnie Allen, professional pool player Sandy Allen, tallest U.S. woman Steve Allen, television personality, actor, author, songwriter, first host of The Tonight Show (born in New York) Tony Allen, forward for Memphis Grizzlies William J. Allen, judge, U.S. Representative (born in Tennessee) Justin Allgaier, auto racer, 2008 ARCA RE/MAX Series champion Fran Allison, radio-TV personality, Kukla, Fran and Ollie (born in Iowa) Luther Allison, blues musician (born in Arkansas) Samuel Allison, prominent physicist who worked on Manhattan Project Arthur Allyn Jr., co-owner of Chicago White Sox in 1960s John Allyn, owner of White Sox 1961–75 Mike Alstott, fullback for Tampa Bay Buccaneers 1996–2007, Super Bowl XXXVII champion Michael J. Alter, real estate developer, owner of WNBA's Chicago Sky John Peter Altgeld, Governor of Illinois 1893–97 (born in Germany) Dave Altizer, MLB infielder 1906–11 Scott Altman, astronaut, four Space Shuttle missions John Altschuler, screenwriter, Blades of Glory, Silicon Valley Anita Alvarez, Cook County State's Attorney John Alvin, actor, The Beast with Five Fingers, Objective, Burma! A.A. Ames, 4-term mayor of Minneapolis Edward Ames, founder, McKendree University (born in Ohio) Knowlton Ames, college football player and coach Rosemary Ames, actress, Our Little Girl, Pursued Stephen E. Ambrose, author, historian, Band of Brothers The American Breed, band, "Bend Me, Shape Me" Warren Amling, Ohio State athlete in College Football Hall of Fame Albert Ammons, jazz musician Gene Ammons, jazz musician Morey Amsterdam, actor and comedian, The Dick Van Dyke Show An–Ar Merry Anders, actress, The Dalton Girls, Hear Me Good, Tickle Me Arthur E. Andersen, founder of accounting firm Alexandria Anderson, NCAA champion sprinter Andree Anderson, ice dancer, member of Figure Skating Hall of Fame Craig Anderson, goaltender for Ottawa Senators Gillian Anderson, Emmy Award-winning actress, The X-Files, The House of Mirth, Bleak House, Hannibal J. J. Anderson, forward for Bradley and Utah Jazz John B. Anderson, politician, U.S. Representative 1961–81, U.S. presidential candidate Ken Anderson, NFL quarterback 1971–86, four-time Pro Bowl selection Kevin Anderson, actor, Sleeping with the Enemy, Miles from Home, Hoffa Kurt Anderson, football player and coach Laurie Anderson, performance artist and musician Les Anderson, auto racer, 11th in 1947 Indy 500 Margaret C. Anderson, editor and publisher (born in Indiana) Nick Anderson, guard for Orlando Magic and Sacramento Kings Philip Warren Anderson, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Ray Anderson, musician Robert Orville Anderson, founder of ARCO oil company Sherwood Anderson, novelist Walter Stratton Anderson, naval vice admiral, battleship commander Fern Andra, circus performer, actress, director Emil Andres, auto racer, drove in nine Indianapolis 500s Bruce Andrews, poet Stanley Andrews, actor Ethel Percy Andrus, founder of AARP Elmer Angsman, running back for Notre Dame, Chicago Cardinals John Ankerberg, Christian evangelist, TV presenter Morris Ankrum, actor Ann-Margret, Oscar-nominated actress, Bye Bye Birdie, Viva Las Vegas, Carnal Knowledge, The Cincinnati Kid, Tommy (born in Sweden) Beulah Annan, inspiration for "Roxie Hart" in play and film Chicago Moses Annenberg, newspaper publisher (born in Prussia) Frank Annunzio, politician (Democrat), 13-term U.S. Representative Albert Anselmi, Chicago gangster (born in Sicily) Cap Anson, Hall of Fame infielder for Chicago White Stockings (born in Iowa) Luis Aparicio, Hall of Fame infielder for Chicago White Sox (born in Venezuela) Clarence Applegran, basketball coach, Kentucky 1924–25 Amy Applegren, pro baseball player Arthur I. Appleton, businessman, thoroughbred owner Luke Appling, Hall of Fame infielder for White Sox (born in North Carolina) Lee Archambault, astronaut Robert Ardrey, playwright and screenwriter, Khartoum, The Three Musketeers Leslie C. Arends, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1943–74, Majority and Minority Whip Mark Arie, two gold medals in shooting at 1920 Olympics Hub Arkush, publisher of Pro Football Weekly Andrew Watson Armour III, meat-packing executive, philanthropist Philip Danforth Armour, businessman, founder of Armour and Company (born in New York) Terron Armstead, NFL offensive lineman Matthew John Armstrong, actor, Heroes Otis Armstrong, running back for Denver Broncos 1973–80 Billy Arnold, auto racer, won 1930 Indianapolis 500 Billy Boy Arnold, blues musician Isaac N. Arnold, U.S. Representative, author (born in New York) Cliff Arquette, comedian and actor (born in Ohio) Lewis Arquette, actor, Sherlock Hound, Camp Candy, The Waltons Patricia Arquette, Oscar and Emmy-winning actress, Boyhood, Medium, True Romance, CSI: Cyber Gerry Arrigo, MLB pitcher 1961–70 As–Az Jon Asamoah, offensive guard for Atlanta Falcons Diandra Asbaty, bowler Tom Ashbrook, NPR personality John Ashcroft, politician (Republican), U.S. Attorney General 2001–05, Missouri senator and governor Darryl Ashmore, NFL tackle 1992–2002 James N. Ashmore, basketball coach, North Carolina, Iowa, Washington State, DePauw Ed Asner, actor, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Up, Elf (born in Missouri) Mary Astor, Oscar-winning actress, The Maltese Falcon, Dodsworth, Meet Me in St. Louis, The Great Lie Joe Astroth, MLB catcher 1945–56 Ira Aten, lawman, Texas Ranger Doug Atkins, defensive end for Chicago Bears 1955–66, Hall of Fame (born in Tennessee) Smith D. Atkins, editor, Civil War colonel (born in New York) Edith Atwater, actress, True Grit, Family Plot, The Body Snatcher Richard and Florence Atwater, co-authors of Mr. Popper's Penguins Steve Atwater, twice Super Bowl champion with Denver Broncos James T. Aubrey Jr., television executive, president of CBS David Auburn, playwright, Proof Jean M. Auel, author, The Clan of the Cave Bear James Augustine, center for Illinois' 2005 NCAA runners-up Jeff Austin, mandolinist, singer Lovie Austin, jazz musician (born in Tennessee) Jason Avant, NFL wide receiver Charles Avery, silent film actor, Keystone Kops Sewell Avery, chairman of Montgomery Ward, first president of Museum of Science and Industry (born in Michigan) John Avildsen, Oscar-winning film director, Rocky, Save the Tiger, Lean on Me, The Karate Kid David Axelrod, political advisor to Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, author, TV commentator Brendon Ayanbadejo, NFL linebacker 1999–2012 Marion Aye, silent-film actress David Ayer, screenwriter and director, Training Day, End of Watch, Fury Edward E. Ayer, benefactor and first president of Field Museum of Natural History (born in Massachusetts) Harriet Hubbard Ayer, 19th-century cosmetics maven, journalist Bill Ayers, founder and member of Weather Underground Reiko Aylesworth, actress, Michelle Dessler on 24 Agnes Ayres, silent-film actress Irving Azoff, music executive, head of Ticketmaster, Live Nation Entertainment B Ba–Bd Richard Bach, author, Jonathan Livingston Seagull Charlie Bachman, football coach, Kansas State, Florida, Michigan State Bill Bachrach, Olympic swim coach Henry Bacon, architect of the Lincoln Memorial Mary Bacon, jockey Benjamin F. Bailar, United States Postmaster General 1975–78 Chantal Bailey, Olympic speed skater Cory Bailey, MLB pitcher 1993–2002 Willis J. Bailey, Governor of Kansas 1903–05 Barbara Bain, actress, Mission: Impossible Harold Baines, outfielder, coach for Chicago White Sox (born in Maryland) Butch Baird, pro golfer Leah Baird, silent-film actress David J. Baker, judge, U.S. Senator for 29 days (born in Connecticut) David J. Baker Jr., 19th-century judge Edward Dickinson Baker, U.S. Representative of Illinois, U.S. Senator of Oregon (born in England) Jehu Baker, 19th-century politician, U.S. Representative (born in Kentucky) Ralph Baker, Northwestern halfback in College Football Hall of Fame LaVern Baker, singer in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame A. J. Balaban, theater owner and showman Barney Balaban, Hollywood studio chief Bob Balaban, actor, Gosford Park, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Catch-22, Waiting for Guffman Frank Balasz, NFL running back 1939–45 Marcelo Balboa, pro soccer player H.C. Baldridge, Governor of Idaho 1927–31 Adam Baldwin, actor, voice actor, blogger, Chuck, Full Metal Jacket, Serenity, My Bodyguard Rosecrans Baldwin, novelist, essayist George Ball, diplomat, adviser to JFK and LBJ, U.S. Ambassador to United Nations Carl Ballantine, magician, comedian, actor, McHale's Navy Edwin Balmer, editor of Redbook magazine Eddie Bane, MLB pitcher and executive Ted Banker, NFL lineman 1983–91 Ernie Banks, 19-year infielder for Chicago Cubs, in Baseball Hall of Fame (born in Texas) Kelcie Banks, boxer, 1987 Pan American Games champion Jerry Barber, golfer, winner of 1961 PGA Championship Curt Barclay, MLB pitcher 1957–59 Paris Barclay, Emmy-winning TV director and producer, In Treatment, NYPD Blue, Cold Case John Bardeen, winner of two Nobel Prizes in Physics (born in Wisconsin) Jesse Barfield, outfielder for Toronto Blue Jays and New York Yankees 1981–92 Ike Barinholtz, actor, comedian, voice actor, Mad TV, The Mindy Project, The Awesomes Al Barlick, Hall of Fame baseball umpire Brandon Barnes, rock musician in band Rise Against Brenda C. Barnes, CEO of Sara Lee and PepsiCo Edward Larrabee Barnes, architect Margaret Ayer Barnes, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist Charlene Barnett, pro baseball player Robert Barnett, attorney Carol Ross Barney, architect Dale Barnstable, basketball player for Kentucky, banned by NBA Tony Barone, basketball coach, Creighton, Texas A&M and NBA's Memphis Grizzlies Bea Barrett, golfer The Barrett Sisters, gospel singers Barbara Barrie, Oscar-nominated, Tony Award-winning actress, Barney Miller, Breaking Away George Barris, auto customizer, created TV's Batmobile Ed Barrow, baseball manager, executive John Barrowman, actor, singer, dancer (born in Scotland) Jimmy Barry, 19th-century boxing champion Norman Barry, head coach of 1925 NFL champion Chicago Cardinals, judge Viola Barry, silent-film actress Dick Bartell, shortstop, played in three World Series William Bartholomay, owned baseball's Milwaukee and Atlanta Braves Bonnie Bartlett, actress, St. Elsewhere (born in Wisconsin) Peter Bartlett, actor, One Life to Live Dan Barton, actor Dick Barwegan, MLB outfielder 1947–54 Burt Baskin, co-founder of Baskin-Robbins Mary Bass, editor of Ladies' Home Journal 1936–63 Granville Bates, actor Bates Battaglia, NHL winger 1997–2008 Sam Battaglia, organized crime figure Kenny Battle, player for four NBA teams Lloyd Batts, pro basketball player Hank Bauer, outfielder and manager, New York Yankees, Kansas City A's; decorated World War II U.S. Marine Sybil Bauer, swimmer, gold medalist at 1924 Summer Olympics Tom Baugh, center for Southern Illinois and Kansas City Chiefs H. R. Baukhage, news broadcaster Harry Neal Baum, ad executive, author (born in South Dakota) L. Frank Baum, creator of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Chicago journalist (born in New York) Ross Baumgarten, MLB pitcher 1978–82 Stan Baumgartner, MLB pitcher 1914–26 (born in Texas) Harry Bay, baseball player and bandleader Nora Bayes, actress, singer and songwriter, "Shine On, Harvest Moon" Rick Bayless, chef and Chicago restaurateur (born in Oklahoma) Beverly Bayne, silent-film actress (born in Minnesota) Be–Bg Jennifer Beals, actress, Flashdance, The L Word, The Bride, Devil in a Blue Dress, The Book of Eli Harry P. Beam, U.S. Representative 1931–42 Todd Beamer, heroic passenger on United 93 on 9/11 (born in Michigan) Melissa Bean, U.S. Representative 2005–11 Warren A. Bechtel, founder of Bechtel Boom-Boom Beck, MLB pitcher 1924–45 Fred Beck, MLB player 1909–15 John Beck, actor, The Other Side of Midnight, Rollerball, Dallas Marilyn Beck, syndicated columnist George Becker, labor leader Kurt Becker, lineman for Michigan and Chicago Bears Rich Becker, MLB outfielder 1993–2000 Arnold Orville Beckman, chemist and inventor Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, great-grandson of Abraham Lincoln Hal Bedsole, tight end, College Football Hall of Fame Don Beebe, wide receiver for Buffalo Bills and Super Bowl XXXI champion Green Bay Packers Fred Beebe, MLB pitcher (born in Nebraska) June Beebe, golfer Edward Beecher, theologian and abolitionist (born in New York) Ken Behring, real-estate developer, owned NFL's Seattle Seahawks Ed Beinor, NFL tackle 1939–42 Bob Bell, star of Bozo's Circus (born in Michigan) Darryl M. Bell, actor, A Different World, Homeboys in Outer Space Edward Price Bell, foreign correspondent Josh Bell, third baseman for Baltimore Orioles 2010–11 Lee Phillip Bell, television personality, creator of The Young and the Restless Rex Bell, actor, lieutenant governor of Nevada, husband of Clara Bow William J. Bell, television producer, creator of The Bold and the Beautiful Ralph Bellamy, Oscar-nominated actor, His Girl Friday, Sunrise at Campobello, Rosemary's Baby, Trading Places Harry Bellaver, actor, Naked City, From Here to Eternity, Love Me or Leave Me Dan Bellino, MLB umpire Saul Bellow, Nobel Prize and Pulitzer Prize-winning writer, Humboldt's Gift, Seize the Day Louis Bellson, jazz drummer, bandleader and musician James Belushi, actor, comedian, According to Jim, Saturday Night Live, Taking Care of Business, K-9 John Belushi, actor, comedian, Saturday Night Live, Animal House, 1941, The Blues Brothers Solon Spencer Beman, architect Albert Benbrook, guard, College Football Hall of Fame Bob Bender, basketball player, Indiana and Duke; head coach, Illinois State, Washington Riley A. Bender, politician Vincent Hugo Bendix, automotive and aviation pioneer Chloe Bennet, actress, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Beck Bennett, comedian, Saturday Night Live Doc Bennett, baseball manager and scout Gary Bennett, MLB catcher 1995–2008 Rhona Bennett, singer Harve Bennett, producer, The Six Million Dollar Man, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan John W. F. Bennett, athlete and engineer Jack Benny, iconic comedian, radio and TV personality and actor, The Jack Benny Program Jodi Benson, actress, voice actress, singer, The Little Mermaid Jack Berch, singer and radio personality Pete Bercich, linebacker for Notre Dame and Minnesota Vikings Tom Berenger, Oscar-nominated actor, Platoon, Major League, The Big Chill, Sniper, Inception Edgar Bergen, actor and ventriloquist, You Can't Cheat an Honest Man, father of Candice Bergen Heinie Berger, MLB pitcher 1907–10 Norma Berger, pro baseball player Wally Berger, MLB outfielder 1930–40, four-time All-Star Emily Bergl, actress, Men in Trees Dave Bergman, first baseman for 1984 World Series champion Detroit Tigers Sean Bergman, MLB pitcher 1993–2000 Nate Berkus, designer, television personality Shelley Berman, comedian, actor, Curb Your Enthusiasm, The Best Man, Meet the Fockers Carlos Bernard, actor, 24 Dwight Bernard, MLB pitcher 1978–82 Jason Bernard, actor, All of Me, While You Were Sleeping, Liar Liar Ernani Bernardi, musician and politician Joseph Bernardin, Cardinal Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Chicago Edward Bernds, director, Return of the Fly, Queen of Outer Space Edward Allen Bernero, TV writer, director, co-creator of Third Watch Ken Berry, actor, F Troop, Mayberry, R.F.D., Mama's Family Marcheline Bertrand, actress, mother of Angelina Jolie Dick Bertell, catcher for Cubs 1960–67 Jay Berwanger, football star for University of Chicago, first winner of Heisman Trophy (born in Iowa) William P. Bettendorf, inventor, Bettendorf, Iowa named for him Gary Bettenhausen, auto racer, third place in 1980 Indianapolis 500 Tony Bettenhausen, auto racer, five top-10 finishes in Indy 500 Tony Bettenhausen Jr., auto racer, 7th place in 1981 Indy 500 Tom Bettis, NFL linebacker, coach John Lourie Beveridge, Civil War officer and 16th Governor of Illinois (born in New York) Patrick Beverley, guard for NBA's Houston Rockets Bh–Bm Kapri Bibbs, NFL running back Bill Bidwill, owner of NFL's Arizona Cardinals Charles Bidwill, owner of Chicago Cardinals 1933–47 Judy Biggert, U.S. Representative 1999–2013 Michael Bilandic, Mayor of Chicago 1976–79, chief justice of Illinois Supreme Court George Binks, MLB outfielder 1944–48 Claude Binyon, journalist, screenwriter and film director William Morris Bioff, organized crime figure Andrew Bird, musician Chris Bisaillon, college football player Frank Biscan, MLB pitcher 1942–48 William Bissell, doctor, Governor of Illinois 1857–60 (born in New York) Uwe Blab, basketball player (born in Germany) Black Beaver, 19th-century scout Black Hawk, Sauk Indian Chief Edwin Black, columnist, author of IBM and the Holocaust John Charles Black, Civil War general, district attorney (born in Mississippi) Jordan Black, comedy writer, actor, Halfway Home Karen Black, Oscar-nominated actress, The Great Gatsby, Five Easy Pieces, Airport 1975, Family Plot Quincy Black, NFL linebacker 2007–12 Harry Blackmun, Supreme Court justice 1970–94 Harry Blackstone Sr., stage magician and illusionist Timothy Blackstone, railroad mogul, founder of Union Stock Yards, mayor of LaSalle, Illinois Ray Blades, MLB outfielder and manager Rod Blagojevich, Governor of Illinois 2003–09, imprisoned in 2012 Bonnie Blair, speed skater, five-time Winter Olympics gold medalist (born in New York) William M. Blair, financier Zach Blair, musician, Rise Against John Blake, football coach Rosa Blasi, actress, Strong Medicine, Make It or Break It, Hitz Neil Blatchford, two-time Olympian speed skater Tony Blazine, football player for Illinois Wesleyan and Chicago Cardinals, College Football Hall of Fame Tempestt Bledsoe, actress, Vanessa Huxtable on The Cosby Show Herbert Blitzstein, organized crime figure Robert Bloch, writer, author of Psycho John Rusling Block, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture 1981–86 Ike Bloom, nightclub owner during Prohibition Sol Bloom, impresario, 14-term U.S. Representative of New York Ossie Bluege, MLB player and manager Deborah Blum, journalist and author Sidney Blumenthal, journalist, aide to President Bill Clinton Jimmy Blythe, musician and composer Bn–Bo Harold P. Boas, mathematician Michael Boatman, actor, writer, Spin City, China Beach, Arliss Ryan Boatright, basketball player Nicole Bobek, figure skater, 1995 national champion Bucky Bockhorn, basketball player and broadcaster Tom Bodett, ad spokesman for Motel 6 Samuel Bodman, politician (Republican), U.S. Secretary of Energy 2005–09 Tom Boerwinkle, center for Chicago Bulls 1968–78, broadcaster (born in Ohio) Budd Boetticher, film director, The Tall T, The Killer Is Loose, Seven Men from Now Clarence John Boettiger, journalist, son-in-law of FDR Tim Bogar, MLB infielder 1993–2001 (born in Indiana) Bill Bogash, pioneer of Roller Derby Suzy Bogguss, country singer David Boies, attorney Charles Bolles, aka Black Bart, stagecoach bandit Bob Boken, MLB infielder 1933–34 John Boles, MLB manager and executive Eric Bolling, anchor at the Fox Business Network, co-host of The Five Don Bollweg, first baseman for 1953 World Series champion Yankees Shadrach Bond, first Governor of Illinois (born in Maryland) Beulah Bondi, Oscar-nominated actress, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, It's a Wonderful Life (born in Indiana) Winifred Bonfils, early 20th-century journalist (born in Wisconsin) Skeeter Bonn, country musician Bonnie Lou, singer Ron Bontemps, captain of 1952 Olympic gold-medal basketball team Ed Boon, creator of Mortal Kombat video game Levi Boone, former Mayor of Chicago of Know-Nothing Party (born in Kentucky) William Borah, 33-year U.S. Senator of Idaho George Bork, Northern Illinois quarterback, Hall of Fame Bruce Borland, golf course designer Alex Borstein, actress, Family Guy Tom Bosley, actor, Happy Days, Father Dowling Mysteries, Murder, She Wrote Cathy Boswell, basketball player Jim Bottomley, Hall of Fame first baseman for St. Louis Cardinals Lou Boudreau, Hall of Fame shortstop, manager, broadcaster Peter Bourjos, MLB outfielder Mel Bourne, Oscar-nominated art designer Dick Boushka, 1956 Olympic basketball gold medalist Henry S. Boutell, U.S. Representative 1897–1911 (born in Massachusetts) Charles Bowden, non-fiction author, journalist, essayist Michael Bowden, pitcher for Boston Red Sox 2008–12 Louise DeKoven Bowen, suffragist, philanthropist Matt Bowen, safety for four NFL teams Roger Bowen, actor, M*A*S*H, charter member of Second City Jon Bowermaster, adventurer, National Geographic oceans expert Ken Bowman, center for Super Bowl I and II champion Green Bay Packers Charles Box, first African-American mayor of Rockford Bruce Boxleitner, actor, science fiction novelist, Babylon 5, Scarecrow and Mrs. King, the Tron films Charles Boyce, syndicated cartoonist (born in Mississippi) William D. Boyce, founder of Boy Scouts of America (born in Pennsylvania) Guy Boyd, actor, Streamers, Body Double William W. Boyington, architect of Chicago Water Tower, mayor of Highland Park (born in Massachusetts) Ronnie Boykins, jazz musician Lara Flynn Boyle, actress, The Practice, Twin Peaks, The Temp, Men in Black II Walter J. Boyne, Air Force pilot, author, historian, director of National Air and Space Museum Megan Bozek, hockey player, 2014 Winter Olympics silver medalist Br–Bt Emil J. Brach, candy mogul Helen Brach, candy heiress, presumed murder victim (born in Ohio) Ray Bradbury, science-fiction author, Fahrenheit 451, The Illustrated Man, Something Wicked This Way Comes Harold Bradley Jr., football player and actor Lydia Moss Bradley, philanthropist, founder of Bradley University (born in Indiana) Phil Bradley, college football and pro baseball player (born in Indiana) Morris Bradshaw, wide receiver for Oakland Raiders 1974–81 Sufe Bradshaw, actress, Veep James B. Bradwell, judge (born in England) Myra Bradwell, state's first female lawyer (born in Vermont) Ed Brady, linebacker for three NFL teams James Brady, advisor and White House press secretary to Ronald Reagan Neville Brand, actor, D.O.A., Love Me Tender, The Untouchables, Birdman of Alcatraz Mark Staff Brandl, art critic, reviewer for Art in America Marlon Brando, Oscar-winning actor, The Godfather, Last Tango in Paris, Apocalypse Now (born in Nebraska) Mac Brandt, actor, Prison Break Erik Brann, guitarist with Iron Butterfly Oscar Brashear, jazz musician Cameron Brate, tight end for Tampa Bay Buccaneers Zeke Bratkowski, NFL quarterback and coach Andre Braugher, actor, Homicide: Life on the Street, Hack, Men of a Certain Age, Brooklyn Nine-Nine Ben Braun, basketball coach, Rice, Cal, Eastern Michigan Carol Moseley Braun, first African-American female U.S. Senator Tamara Braun, soap opera actress Anthony Braxton, jazz musician Henry Skillman Breckinridge, attorney in Charles Lindbergh kidnap case, Olympic fencer Brent Brede, MLB outfielder 1996–98 Richard L. Breen, Oscar-winning screenwriter Sidney Breese, judge, U.S. Senator, advocate of Illinois Central railroad Buddy Bregman, music arranger Edward A. Brennan, president and CEO of Sears, Roebuck & Co. 1980–95 Kathleen Brennan, songwriter, producer, wife of Tom Waits Josh Brent, nose tackle for Dallas Cowboys Jerry Bresler, songwriter, "Five Guys Named Moe" Carl Brettschneider, NFL linebacker 1956–63 Jim Brewer, basketball player, 1972 Olympics and Cleveland Cavaliers Ralph Breyer, swimmer, 1924 Olympic gold medalist Jack Brickhouse, Hall of Fame baseball broadcaster Paul Brickman, writer-director, Risky Business, Men Don't Leave Donald Briggs, actor Nancy Brinker, ambassador, winner of Presidential Medal of Freedom John Briscoe, pitcher for Oakland A's 1991–96 Nicole Briscoe, sportscaster, Miss Teen Illinois 1998 (born in Wisconsin) Frank Brisko, auto racer, 12 times in Indianapolis 500 Paul Brittain, actor, comedian, cast member on Saturday Night Live Frederick A. Britten, 22-year U.S. Representative David Broder, journalist, author, 1973 Pulitzer Prize-winning Washington Post columnist Charles W. Brooks, World War I veteran, U.S. Senator of Illinois 1940–49 Gwendolyn Brooks, poet (born in Kansas) Phil Brooks, professional wrestler and WWE Champion under ring name "CM Punk" Bill Brown, fullback for Minnesota Vikings, four-time Pro Bowl selection Bobbi Brown, CEO of Bobbi Brown Cosmetics Buck Brown, cartoonist Chelsea Brown, actress, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In Chris Brown, NFL running back 2003–09 Corwin Brown, defensive back, coach for New England Patriots Dee Brown, guard for Illinois 2005 NCAA basketball tournament runners-up Emil Brown, MLB outfielder 1997–2009 Jason Brown, figure skater, 2015 U.S. champion Jesse Brown, U.S. Secretary of Veterans' Affairs 1993–97 (born in Michigan) Mike Brown, wing for San Jose Sharks Nancy Elizabeth Brown, highly decorated U.S. Navy Vice Admiral Oscar Brown, songwriter Patrick Brown, offensive tackle for Carolina Panthers Peter Brown, songwriter, "Material Girl" Roy Brown, children's entertainer, The Bozo Show, Garfield Goose and Friends (born in Arizona) Sergio Brown, safety for Indianapolis Colts Shannon Brown, guard for eight NBA teams Theotis Brown, NFL running back 1979–83 Tony Brown, NBA player and coach Warren Brown, early 20th-century sportswriter Orville Hickman Browning, completed U.S. Senate term of Stephen A. Douglas, U.S. Secretary of Interior (born in Kentucky) David Bruce, actor, The Mad Ghoul, Lady on a Train Hank Bruder, NFL guard 1931–39, Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame Don Brumm, NFL defensive tackle 1963–72 Avery Brundage, athlete, decathlon and pentathlon, President of International Olympic Committee 1952–72 Liz Brunner, television journalist, 1979 Miss Illinois Doug Bruno, women's basketball coach, DePaul University, 2012 U.S. Olympic team Hal Bruno, political journalist Jalen Brunson, basketball player Milton Brunson, gospel musician Charles W. Bryan, mayor of Lincoln, Nebraska 1915–17 and 2-term Governor of Nebraska Johnny Bryan, pro football player and team owner William Jennings Bryan, politician (Democrat), U.S. Secretary of State 1913–15, presidential candidate 1896, 1900, 1908 Corbin Bryant, NFL player for Buffalo Bills Em Bryant, guard for 1969 NBA champion Boston Celtics Kelci Bryant, diver, silver medalist at 2012 London Olympics Rosalyn Bryant, sprinter, silver medalist at 1976 Summer Olympics Bob Bryar, musician, My Chemical Romance drummer Bu–Bz Ray Buchanan, NFL defensive back 1993–2004 Frank Buck, hunter, zookeeper, actor (born in Texas) Bob Buckhorn, mayor of Tampa, Florida The Buckinghams, pop group, "Kind of a Drag" Tom Buckingham, film director Quinn Buckner, basketball player, winner of high school, NCAA, Olympic and NBA championships John Carl Buechler, horror movie writer/director, special effects artist Doug Buffone, linebacker for Chicago Bears, sportscaster (born in Pennsylvania) John Buford, Civil War general (born in Kentucky) Napoleon Bonaparte Buford, Civil War general (born in Kentucky) Bryan Bulaga, offensive tackle for Green Bay Packers Richard Bull, actor, Little House on the Prairie, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea Storm Bull, musician John Whitfield Bunn, financier, treasurer of Abe Lincoln campaign (born in New Jersey) Elbridge Ayer Burbank, artist Horatio C. Burchard, director of U.S. Mint 1879–85, U.S. Representative 1869–79 (born in New York) Jacob Burck, cartoonist for Chicago Sun-Times 1938–1982 (born in Poland) Hannibal Buress, stand-up comedian, actor, The Eric Andre Show, Broad City Anne M. Burke, Illinois Supreme Court justice, co-founder of Special Olympics Bobby Burke, MLB pitcher 1927–37 Edward M. Burke, politician (Democrat), Chicago alderman Johnny Burke, lyricist in Songwriters Hall of Fame (born in California) Kathleen Burke, actress, Island of Lost Souls, The Lives of a Bengal Lancer Leo Burnett, advertising executive W. R. Burnett, novelist, screenwriter, Little Caesar, Nobody Lives Forever, High Sierra (born in Ohio) Smiley Burnette, country singer and musician, Western actor Daniel H. Burnham, architect, Chicago city planner (born in New York) Heather Burns, actress, Bored to Death, Miss Congeniality and its sequel Ronnie Burns, actor, Burns and Allen Pete Burnside, pitcher for six MLB teams Hedy Burress, actress Edgar Rice Burroughs, author, creator of Tarzan Cheryl Burton, television journalist Ed Busch, MLB infielder 1943–45 Samuel T. Busey, Civil War general, politician (born in Indiana) Homer Bush, MLB infielder Fred A. Busse, postmaster, Mayor of Chicago 1907–11 Cheri Bustos, U.S. Representative Fanny Butcher, influential critic and editor Mike Butcher, pitching coach for Arizona Diamondbacks Drew Butera, catcher for 2015 World Series champion Kansas City Royals Dick Butkus, Hall of Fame football player for Illinois and Chicago Bears, actor Brett Butler, MLB outfielder 1981–97 (born in California) Daws Butler, voice of Yogi Bear, other cartoon characters (born in Ohio) Jerry Butler, singer, member of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Michael Butler, theatrical producer Paul Butler, polo champion, founder of Oak Brook and Butler National Golf Club Robert L. Butler, 50-year mayor of Marion, Illinois Paul Butterfield, musician in Blues Hall of Fame and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Dave Butz, defensive lineman for Washington Redskins, St. Louis Cardinals, 2-time Super Bowl champion Ernie Byfield, hotelier, founder of The Pump Room Will Bynum (born 1983), NBA point guard 2006–15 John Byrum, screenwriter and director, Heart Beat, Duets, The Razor's Edge Tim Byrdak, pitcher for five MLB teams Jane Byrne, first female Mayor of Chicago Jeff Bzdelik, associate head coach, Houston Rockets, Air Force, Colorado, Wake Forest C Ca–Cd Frances Xavier Cabrini, nun, missionary, canonized saint (born in Austria) Leon Cadore, MLB player 1915–24, pitched a record 26 innings in one game Jack Cafferty, political commentator for CNN 2005–12 Beth Cahill, comedian Leo Cahill, CFL coach and executive Frank Calabrese Sr., organized crime figure Nicholas Calabrese, organized crime figure Ben F. Caldwell, banker, U.S. Representative 1899–1905 L. Scott Caldwell, actress, Lost, Queens Supreme Corky Calhoun, NBA forward 1972–80 Frank Caliendo, comedian Earnest Elmo Calkins, advertising executive Bill Callahan, head coach of Oakland Raiders 2002–03 and University of Nebraska 2004–07 Frances Callier, actress, comedian, Hannah Montana Sarah Wayne Callies, actress, The Walking Dead Ann Hampton Callaway, singer and actress John Callaway, public television journalist Liz Callaway, singer and actress Chris Calloway, NFL wide receiver 1990–2000 George H. Cameron, World War I general Julia Cameron, writer, second wife of Martin Scorsese Bruce Campbell, MLB outfielder 1930–42 Danielle Campbell, actress, The Originals Heather Anne Campbell, comedian Louise Campbell, actress, The Star Maker, Night Club Scandal Tom Campbell, U.S. Representative in California 1989–2001 Marvin Camras, inventor Larry Canada, NFL running back 1978–81 Tony Canadeo, halfback for Green Bay Packers 1941–52, Pro Football Hall of Fame Vincent Canby, film critic Glenn Canfield Jr., metallurgist and businessman Joe Cannon, politician (Republican), Speaker of the House 1903–11 (born in North Carolina) Kay Cannon, screenwriter Jim Cantalupo, CEO of McDonald's Corporation 1991–2004 Shorty Cantlon, runner-up in 1930 Indianapolis 500, killed in 1947 race Homaro Cantu, restaurateur (born in Washington) Dominique Canty, pro basketball player Al Capone, gangster, bootlegger, boss of Chicago Outfit, subject of Capone, The Untouchables (born in New York) Frank Capone, organized crime figure, brother of Al (born in New York) John Caponera, comedian, actor, The Good Life Antonio "Tony Bananas" Caponigro, consigliere of Angelo Bruno in Philadelphia crime family Buzz Capra, MLB pitcher 1971–77 The Caravans, gospel singers Perry Caravello, Comedian, skateboarder, and star of Windy City Heat (born in Park Ridge) Harry Caray, Hall of Fame broadcaster for Chicago White Sox and Chicago Cubs (born in Missouri) Brian Cardinal, forward for six NBA teams Steve Carell, actor and comedian, Second City alumnus (born in Massachusetts) Gabe Carimi (born 1988), All-American and NFL football player Thomas Carlin, Governor of Illinois 1838–42; Carlinville named for him (born in Kentucky) Amy Carlson, actress, Third Watch, Blue Bloods Hal Carlson, MLB pitcher 1917–30 Mark Carlson, MLB umpire John P. Carmichael, sportswriter Chuck Carney, football and basketball All-American Sue Carol, talent agent, wife of Alan Ladd J. C. Caroline, halfback for Illinois, defensive back for Chicago Bears Ed Carpenter, auto racer, fifth place 2008 Indianapolis 500, pole sitter 2013, 2014 John Alden Carpenter, composer Philo Carpenter, pharmacist John Carpino, president of MLB's Los Angeles Angels Allan Carr, producer, Grease, Saturday Night Fever Charmian Carr, actress, The Sound of Music Darleen Carr, actress, The Smith Family, The Beguiled Chico Carrasquel, shortstop for White Sox, first Latin starter in All-Star Game (born in Venezuela) Mark Carreon, MLB player 1987–96 Janet Carroll, actress, Risky Business, Family Business Lucille Carroll, Hollywood studio executive Jenny Lou Carson, sharpshooter, country music singer, in Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame Terrence C. Carson, actor, voice actor, Living Single, Star Wars: Clone Wars Johnny Carter, singer, The Flamingos Myra Carter, stage actress Maurice Carthon, NFL running back and coach James Cartwright, USMC general, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Cartwright, revivalist (born in Virginia) William Frank Carver, Wild West sharpshooter and showman Marty Casey, musician Robert J. Casey, decorated soldier and correspondent Zadok Casey, founder of Mount Vernon, Illinois, lieutenant governor, U.S. Representative (born in Georgia) Vera Caspary, author, Laura Bill Cassidy, U.S. Senator of Louisiana Claudia Cassidy, music and drama critic Dan Castellaneta, actor, The Simpsons, The Pursuit of Happyness, Happy Feet John Castino, MLB infielder 1979–84, 1979 A.L. Rookie of the Year Anthony Castonzo, offensive lineman for Indianapolis Colts Frank Catalano, saxophonist Wayne Catalano, horse racing trainer George Catavolos, football coach Tamika Catchings, basketball player, winner of NCAA, WNBA and Olympic championships Mark Catlin Sr., football coach for Iowa 1906–08 Phil Cavarretta, player and manager for Chicago Cubs, 1945 National League MVP Ce–Ch Anton Cermak, politician (Democrat), assassinated Mayor of Chicago 1931–33 (born in Eastern Europe) Eugene Cernan, astronaut, commander of Apollo 17 Jackie Cerone, mobster Peter Cetera, singer and songwriter, "Glory of Love" Tom T. Chamales, novelist Wes Chamberlain, MLB outfielder 1990–95 John Chambers, Oscar-winning makeup artist Gower Champion, multiple Tony Award-winning dancer, choreographer and actor, Show Boat, Carnival, Hello, Dolly! Chance the Rapper, hip-hop artist Frank Chance, Hall of Fame first baseman for Cubs (born in California) John Chancellor, television journalist, NBC news anchor Bill Chandler, basketball coach for Marquette 1930–51 Gene Chandler, singer, "The Duke of Earl" George Chandler, actor Kyle Chandler, Emmy-winning actor, Friday Night Lights, Argo, Carol, The Wolf of Wall Street Raymond Chandler, author and screenwriter, The Big Sleep, Double Indemnity, The Long Goodbye, Farewell, My Lovely Melanie Chandra, actress, Code Black Jay Chandrasekhar, actor, comedian, film director Octave Chanute, aviation pioneer John Putnam Chapin, Mayor of Chicago 1846–47 (born in Vermont) Brenda Chapman, animator and film director, The Prince of Egypt, Brave Charles Chapman, mayor of Fullerton, California, founder of Chapman College Pleasant T. Chapman, educator, lawyer, U.S. Representative Ray Chapman, infielder for Cleveland Indians 1912–20 (born in Kentucky) Joe Charboneau, outfielder with Cleveland Indians 1980–82 Ezzard Charles, boxing champion (born in Georgia) Nick Charles, broadcaster for CNN Hobart Chatfield-Taylor, author Wayne Chatfield-Taylor, commerce and treasury secretary to FDR Cheap Trick, rock band Maurice Cheeks, NBA point guard, assistant coach for the Oklahoma City Thunder Chris Chelios, Hall of Fame hockey player for Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Blackhawks Steve Chen, co-creator of YouTube (born in Taiwan) Virginia Cherrill, actress, City Lights, wife of Cary Grant Leonard Chess, music executive, founder of Chess Records (born in Poland) Lisa Chesson, Olympic hockey player Augustus Louis Chetlain, Civil War general (born in Missouri) Elizabeth Pickett Chevalier, tobacco heiress, silent-film director and writer Chicago, musical group, 23 gold albums Judy Chicago, feminist artist and author Gery Chico, lawyer, politician, chairman of Illinois State Board of Education Brad Childress, head coach of Minnesota Vikings 2006–10 The Chi-Lites, R & B group Carl R. Chindblom, Cook County attorney, U.S. Representative 1919–33 Bob Chinn, restaurateur (born in Minnesota) Burnett M. Chiperfield, veteran of Spanish–American War, U.S. Representative Robert B. Chiperfield, veteran of World War I, U.S. Representative Harry Chiti, catcher for four MLB teams Whitney Chitwood, stand-up comedian Kim Chizevsky-Nicholls, IFBB pro bodybuilder Anna Chlumsky, actress, My Girl, Veep Clyde L. Choate, politician, World War II Medal of Honor recipient Greta Christina, atheist blogger, speaker, and author William Christopher, actor, M*A*S*H June Christy, big-band singer Amy Chua, professor at Yale Law School, author of World on Fire Kenneth Choi, actor, Sons of Anarchy, The Wolf of Wall Street Marguerite S. Church, psychologist, 6-term U.S. Representative, widow of Ralph Church Ralph E. Church, lawyer, U.S. Representative 1935–49 Ci–Cn Tony Cingrani, pitcher for St. Louis Cardinals Gertrude Claire, silent-film actress Bud Clancy, MLB first baseman 1924–34 Jim Clancy, pitcher for Toronto Blue Jays and Houston Astros Bridgetta Clark, silent-film actress Colbert Clark, screenwriter and director Danny Clark, linebacker for five NFL teams Dee Clark, singer, "Raindrops" George Clark, football coach, Kansas State, Nebraska Mark Clark, pitcher for five MLB teams Mark W. Clark, World War II general (born in South Carolina) Randy Clark, NFL lineman 1980–87 Wesley Clark, retired U.S. Army general, Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient, 2004 presidential candidate Wilbur Clark, original owner of Desert Inn hotel in Las Vegas Otis Clay, musician in Blues Hall of Fame Ethel Clayton, early 20th-century actress James Cleveland, Grammy-winning gospel singer Nathaniel Clifton, player for New York Knicks, Harlem Globetrotters Hillary Clinton, attorney and politician, former First Lady (1993–2000), U.S. Senator of New York (2000–2009) and U.S. Secretary of State; 2016 Democratic presidential nominee William H. Clothier, Oscar-nominated cinematographer Coa–Com Ed Coady, quarterback of first Notre Dame victory, 1888 Pat Coady, Notre Dame quarterback, 1892 Henry Ives Cobb Jr., artist and architect Junie Cobb, musician and bandleader (born in Arkansas) Silas B. Cobb, industrialist (born in Vermont) Ali Cobrin, actress, American Reunion, Lap Dance Diablo Cody, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Juno Eleanor Coen, artist Ryan Cohan, jazz pianist Paul Cohen, music producer David Cohn (born 1995), American-Israeli basketball player Sonny Cohn, trumpeter Mark Cohon, commissioner of Canadian Football League Bryan Colangelo, NBA executive Jerry Colangelo, chairman of USA Basketball, owned Arizona Diamondbacks and Phoenix Suns Stephen Colbert, comedian, alumnus of Northwestern and Second City (born in Washington, D.C.) Freddy Cole, jazz musician, brother of Nat King Cole Gary Cole, actor, The Brady Bunch Movie, Office Space, Midnight Caller, Fatal Vision, Family Guy Ike Cole, jazz musician, brother of Nat King Cole James M. Cole, U.S. Deputy Attorney General under President Barack Obama Nat King Cole, singer, musician and actor, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (born in Alabama) Robert MacFarlan Cole III, chemical engineer, inventor, and author Bessie Coleman, aviator Ellis Coleman, Greco-Roman wrestler Gary Coleman, actor, Arnold Jackson on Diff'rent Strokes John Coleman, TV weather forecaster (born in Texas) Tevin Coleman, running back for Atlanta Falcons Edward Coles, secretary to James Madison, second Governor of Illinois (born in Virginia) Michael Colgrass, winner of 1978 Pulitzer Prize for music Ned Colletti, general manager for Los Angeles Dodgers 2006–14 Harold R. Collier, mayor of Berwyn, 18-year U.S. Representative Lou Collier, MLB player 1997–2004 Bob Collins, radio personality (born in Florida) Cardiss Collins, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1973–97 (born in Missouri) Chris Collins, basketball head coach for Northwestern Doug Collins, NBA and Olympic basketball player, head coach of Philadelphia 76ers, Detroit Pistons, Washington Wizards and Chicago Bulls, TV commentator Eddie Collins, Hall of Fame infielder, manager for White Sox (born in New York) George W. Collins, U.S. Representative 1970–72 Julia Collins, 20-time winner on TV's Jeopardy! Kreigh Collins, tennis player, 1899 US Open semi-finalist Marva Collins, educator (born in Alabama) Phil Collins, pitcher for three MLB teams Sherron Collins, NBA point guard James Colosimo, organized crime figure George Radcliffe Colton, U.S. Representative from Nebraska, governor of Puerto Rico Harvey Doolittle Colvin, city treasurer, Mayor of Chicago 1873–75 (born in New York) Ruth Johnson Colvin, literacy activist, Presidential Medal of Freedom Shawn Colvin, singer and songwriter Harry Combes, 20-year head basketball coach at Illinois Charles Comiskey, founding owner of Chicago White Sox, member of baseball Hall of Fame Chuck Comiskey, owner of White Sox 1956–61 Grace Comiskey, owner of White Sox 1939–56 J. Louis Comiskey, owner of White Sox 1931–39 Common, rap musician, songwriter, producer, actor Ann Compton, television journalist Con–Coz Douglas Conant, CEO of the Campbell Soup Company Edwin H. Conger, ambassador, congressman, Civil War officer Jocko Conlan, Hall of Fame baseball umpire Darlene Conley, actress, The Bold and the Beautiful Mike Conley Sr., athlete, gold medalist, triple jump, 1992 Barcelona Olympics Bart Conner, gymnast, gold medalist, parallel bars, 1984 Los Angeles Olympics Mike Connolly, gossip columnist George Connor, Hall of Fame offensive tackle and linebacker for Chicago Bears Jimmy Connors, tennis player, 5-time US Open champion, twice Wimbledon champion, ranked No. 1 in world Robert Conrad, actor, Hawaiian Eye, The Wild Wild West, Baa Baa Black Sheep, Palm Springs Weekend Bill Conroy, MLB catcher 1935–44 Sean Considine, safety for five NFL teams Hollis Conway, high jumper, two-time Olympic medalist Brian Cook, forward for Illinois and five NBA teams Daniel Pope Cook, lawyer, publisher, state's first attorney general; Cook County named for him (born in Kentucky) Elisha Cook Jr., character actor, The Maltese Falcon, Shane, The Killing, The Big Sleep, House on Haunted Hill John Pope Cook, Civil War general, mayor of Springfield Toi Cook, defensive back for San Francisco 49ers, New Orleans Saints Sam Cooke, singer, "You Send Me", "Chain Gang", recipient of Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (born in Mississippi) William F. Coolbaugh, 19th-century banker (born in Pennsylvania) Ron Coomer, infielder for Minnesota Twins, sportscaster Sam Coonrod, major league pitcher Cynthia Cooper, basketball player and coach, 4-time WNBA champion Jerome Cooper, drummer Job Adams Cooper, Governor of Colorado 1889–91 Martin Cooper, inventor of modern cell phone Maxine Cooper, actress, Kiss Me Deadly Wyllis Cooper, radio writer, screenwriter Ira C. Copley, publisher, U.S. Representative 1911–23 Ben Corbett, film actor George Corbett, running back for Chicago Bears 1932–38 Virginia Lee Corbin, actress (born in Arizona) Tom Corcoran, politician (Republican), 4-term U.S. Representative Kevin Cordes, NCAA champion swimmer Billy Corgan, musician for alternative rock band Smashing Pumpkins Bartlett Cormack, playwright and screenwriter Jim Cornelison, tenor, anthem singer Don Cornelius, television host, producer, creator of Soul Train Lillian Cornell, singer and actress Frank Cornish, NFL lineman 1990–95 Frank J. Corr, alderman, acting Mayor of Chicago 1933 Charles Correll, co-creator and star of Amos 'n' Andy Eldzier Cortor, artist (born in Virginia) Joe Corvo, hockey player Dave Corzine, center for DePaul and Chicago Bulls Jon Corzine, CEO of Goldman Sachs, U.S. Senator of New Jersey 2001–06, Governor 2006–10 Pete Cosey, guitarist for Miles Davis Jerry F. Costello, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1988–2013 Neal Cotts, pitcher for 2005 World Series champion White Sox John Coughlin, politician (Democrat), Chicago alderman 1893–1938 Johnny Coulon, boxer, bantamweight champion 1910–14 (born in Canada) Jim Courtright, Wild West gunfighter, lawman Kirk Cousins, quarterback for the Minnesota Vikings Bryan Cox, linebacker for Miami Dolphins and Super Bowl XXXVI champion New England Patriots Jim Cox, MLB player 1973–76 Sonny Cox, musician, coach (born in Ohio) Wally Cox, actor, Mister Peepers, Underdog (born in Michigan) Dale Coyne, auto racing driver and executive Kendall Coyne, hockey player, silver medalist at 2014 Winter Olympics James Gould Cozzens, novelist, By Love Possessed Cr–Cz Wallace Craig, experimental psychologist, behavior scientist (born in Canada) Yvonne Craig, actress, Batman, Kissin' Cousins Dan Crane, dentist, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative Phil Crane, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1969–2005 Cindy Crawford, supermodel, cosmetics entrepreneur, actress and TV personality, House of Style Danny Crawford, NBA referee Ellen Crawford, actress, ER Jim Crawford, MLB pitcher 1973–78 Oliver Crawford, blacklisted screenwriter Dewitt Clinton Cregier, engineer, mason, Mayor of Chicago 1889–91 (born in New York) John Crerar, industrialist, railroad director (born in New York) Jim Crews, basketball head coach for St. Louis University Michael Crichton, author, screenwriter, director, Jurassic Park, ER, Westworld, Rising Sun, Coma, Disclosure Fritz Crisler, football head coach for Michigan, Minnesota, Princeton John P. Cromwell, submarine commander James Cronin, physicist, 1980 Nobel Prize recipient Kevin Cronin, lead vocalist for REO Speedwagon Shawn Cronin, NHL defenseman 1988–95 Casey Crosby, pitcher for Detroit Tigers 2012 Jim Crowley, NFL player, coach, College Football Hall of Fame Henry Crown, businessman, philanthropist Lester Crown, businessman, philanthropist Arthur Crudup, musician, "That's All Right" (born in Mississippi) Dave Cruikshank, speed skater, four-time Olympian The Cryan' Shames, rock band Bob Cryder, NFL guard 1978–86 Walt Cudzik, NFL center 1954–64 Melinda Culea, actress, Brotherly Love, Knots Landing, The A-Team John Cullerton, politician William J. Cullerton, decorated World War II pilot Shelby Moore Cullom, lawyer, Governor of Illinois 1877–1883, U.S. Senator 1883–1913 (born in Kentucky) Edith Cummings, golfer, 1923 U.S. Women's Amateur champion Terry Cummings, player for DePaul and seven NBA teams Lester Cuneo, silent-film actor Barbara Flynn Currie, politician (Democrat), state representative since 1979 Betty Currie, personal secretary to President Bill Clinton Adrianne Curry, model and America's Next Top Model winner Eddy Curry, center for four NBA teams Alan Curtis, actor, High Sierra, Buck Privates Charlotte Curtis, journalist, New York Times James Curtiss, Mayor of Chicago 1847–51 (born in Connecticut) Mary Curzon, baroness Ann Cusack, actress, The Jeff Foxworthy Show, Maggie Joan Cusack, actress, Working Girl, In & Out, Broadcast News, School of Rock, Toy Story 2, Shameless John Cusack, actor, Eight Men Out, Con Air, High Fidelity, The Grifters, Grosse Pointe Blank, 1408, 2012 Matt Cushing, NFL tight end 1999–2004 Clive Cussler, novelist of multiple best-sellers, Raise the Titanic!, Sahara, creator of Dirk Pitt Ethan Cutkosky, actor, Shameless Slade Cutter, decorated World War II submarine officer Mike Cvengros, MLB pitcher 1922–29 Ziggy Czarobski, Hall of Fame tackle for Notre Dame D Da–Dd Bob Dahl, NFL lineman 1991–97 Bill Daily, actor, I Dream of Jeannie, The Bob Newhart Show (born in Iowa) John Francis Daley, actor, Bones, Freaks and Geeks Richard J. Daley, politician (Democrat), member of the Illinois State Assembly, Mayor of Chicago 1955–1976 Richard M. Daley, politician (Democrat), attorney, Illinois state senator, Mayor of Chicago 1989–2011, son of Richard J. Daley William M. Daley, U.S. Secretary of Commerce and White House Chief of Staff Rick Dalpos, pro golfer Dorothy Dalton, silent-film actress Joel Daly, television journalist Lar Daly, perennial politician Mark Damon, actor Anthony D'Andrea, organized crime figure (born in Sicily) Ben Daniels, lawman, one of Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders Bert Daniels, MLB outfielder 1910–14 Owen Daniels, NFL tight end Randy Daniels, politician (Republican), Secretary of State of New York, Deputy Mayor of New York City Shirley Danz, pro baseball player Eleanor Dapkus, pro baseball player Scott Darling, NHL goaltender Erik Darnell, NASCAR driver for Roush Fenway Racing Lisa Darr, actress, Popular, Life As We Know It, Flesh 'n' Blood Frankie Darro, actor Clarence Darrow, renowned Chicago-based attorney, Leopold and Loeb case, Scopes Trial (born in Ohio) Justin Whitlock Dart Sr., executive of Walgreens, Rexall Tom Dart, sheriff of Cook County Kristin Dattilo, actress, The Chris Isaak Show, Hitz Brian Daubach, MLB outfielder, minor-league manager Doris Davenport, actress, The Westerner George Davenport, frontiersman, Rock Island settler, Davenport, Iowa named for him (born in England) Bob Davidson, baseball umpire Andrew Davis, film director, The Fugitive, Under Siege, A Perfect Murder, The Guardian Anthony Davis, basketball player for New Orleans Pelicans Carl Davis, boxing cruiserweight champion, 2010 Carl Davis, music producer Clifton Davis, actor and songwriter, "Never Can Say Goodbye" Danny K. Davis, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative David Davis, campaign manager of Abe Lincoln, U.S. Senator, Supreme Court justice (born in Maryland) Dorothy Salisbury Davis, crime novelist Edith Luckett Davis, mother of Nancy Reagan (born in Virginia) Floyd Davis, co-winner of 1941 Indianapolis 500 George Davis, magazine editor George R. Davis, Civil War captain, U.S. Representative (born in Massachusetts) Jessie Bartlett Davis, opera contralto Miles Davis, jazz musician, bandleader and composer, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award Orbert Davis, trumpeter Rece Davis, television sportscaster Richard Davis, jazz musician Scott Davis, defensive end for Los Angeles Raiders 1988–94 Shani Davis, two-time Olympic and world champion speed skater Zachary Taylor Davis, architect, Comiskey Park, Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary Clinton Davisson, Nobel Prize-winning physicist who discovered electron diffraction Charles G. Dawes, Vice President of United States 1925–29, winner of Nobel Peace Prize (born in Ohio) Jimmy Dawkins, blues musician (born in Mississippi) Johnny Dawson, golfer, course designer William L. Dawson, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1943–70 (born in Georgia) J. Edward Day, lawyer and United States Postmaster General 1961–63 Todd Day, basketball player, all-time scoring leader for Arkansas De–Dh Margia Dean, actress and Miss America 1939 runner-up William F. Dean, World War II and Korean War general Jeffery Deaver, mystery novelist Billy DeBeck, cartoonist, creator of Barney Google Eugene V. Debs, socialist, IWW union leader, presidential candidate (born in Indiana) H. Joel Deckard, U.S. Representative for Indiana 1979–83 Steve Decker, MLB catcher 1990–99 Bill DeCorrevont, Northwestern and pro football player Karen DeCrow, president of National Organization for Women Frances Dee, actress, Wells Fargo, Four Faces West (born in California) Lola Dee, singer Merri Dee, television personality John Deere, founder of Deere & Company (born in Vermont) Archie Dees, two-time Big Ten basketball MVP (born in Mississippi) Dudley DeGroot, coach of Washington Redskins and college teams Jack DeJohnette, jazz drummer Paul DeJong, MLB player (born in Florida) Lois Delander, first Miss America from Illinois (1927) Frederic Delano, railroad president, uncle of FDR (born in New York) Lea DeLaria, actress Vaughn De Leath, singer Floyd Dell, novelist and playwright The Dells, singing group, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Al Demaree, MLB pitcher 1912–19 AnnMaria De Mars, technology executive, author, world champion judoka; mother of Ronda Rousey Bruce DeMars, four-star U.S. Navy admiral William Dembski, mathematician, philosopher and theologian Ray Demmitt, MLB outfielder 1909–19 Charles S. Deneen, two-term Governor of Illinois Edward E. Denison, politician, U.S. Representative 1915–31 Elias Smith Dennis, politician, Civil War general (born in New York) Richard Dent, Hall of Fame defensive lineman for Chicago Bears, MVP of Super Bowl XX (born in Georgia) Thomas Dent, 19th-century attorney Justin Dentmon, professional basketball player, 2010 top scorer in the Israel Basketball Premier League Oscar Stanton De Priest, U.S. Representative, civil rights advocate, first African American elected to Congress in 20th century (born in Alabama) Bruce Dern, Oscar-nominated actor, Black Sunday, The Great Gatsby, Silent Running, Family Plot, Coming Home, Nebraska Ed Derwinski, politician, U.S. Representative 1959–83 and U.S. Secretary of Veteran Affairs 1989–92 Tony DeSantis, theatre owner, Drury Lane Jackie DeShannon, singer, "What the World Needs Now Is Love" Paul Des Jardien, University of Chicago center, College Football Hall of Fame, MLB pitcher (born in Kansas) Sam DeStefano, mobster Armand Deutsch, film producer William Emmett Dever, Mayor of Chicago 1923–27 (born in Massachusetts) Karla DeVito, singer and actress Laura Devon, actress, Red Line 7000, Goodbye Charlie Peter De Vries, author, Pete 'n' Tillie, Reuben, Reuben James Dewar, baker, creator of Hostess Twinkie John Dewey, philosopher (born in Vermont) Lee DeWyze, singer, American Idol Season 9 winner Susan Dey, actress, The Partridge Family, L.A. Law Dennis DeYoung, musician for rock band Styx Di–Dn David Díaz, lightweight boxing champion 2007–08 Victor Diaz, baseball player (born in Dominican Republic) Andy Dick, comedian, NewsRadio (born in South Carolina) Philip K. Dick, science-fiction author, stories became films Blade Runner, Minority Report, Total Recall Augustus Dickens, brother of Charles Dickens (born in England) Basil Dickey, screenwriter Johnny Dickshot, MLB outfielder 1936–45 Bo Diddley, rock and blues musician, composer, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Mississippi) Nelson Diebel, swimmer, 1992 Olympic gold medalist David Diehl, offensive tackle, two-time Super Bowl champion with New York Giants 2003–13 Pony Diehl, Wild West outlaw Doug Dieken, offensive lineman for Cleveland Browns 1971–84 Ryan Diem, offensive tackle for Super Bowl XLI champion Indianapolis Colts 2001–11 Scott Dierking, running back for New York Jets 1977–83 William H. Dieterich, U.S. Senator of Illinois 1933–39 Charles Henry Dietrich, U.S. Senator and Governor of Nebraska Vince DiFrancesca, football coach, Western Illinois, Iowa State Tracy Dildy, basketball coach for Chicago State John Dillinger, notorious bank robber, lived and died in Chicago, subject of films Dillinger, Public Enemies (born in Indiana) Frank Dillon, baseball player Melinda Dillon, Oscar-nominated actress, A Christmas Story, Absence of Malice, Close Encounters of the Third Kind Paul Dinello, actor, comedian, The Colbert Report Gerald Di Pego, screenwriter Everett Dirksen, politician (Republican), United States Senator 1951–69, Senate Minority Leader Louis Disbrow, auto racer, drove in first four Indianapolis 500s Roy O. Disney, co-founder of Walt Disney Productions Walt Disney, iconic film and TV director, producer and animator, Disney studio founder and creator of Disneyland Mike Ditka, Hall of Fame pro football player and coach, TV commentator, restaurateur (born in Pennsylvania) Michael Diversey, brewer, 19th-century alderman (born in Germany) Alan J. Dixon, state treasurer, U.S. Senator 1981–93 Jessy Dixon, gospel singer Leo Dixon, MLB catcher 1925–29 Malik Dixon, American basketball player, top scorer in the 2005 Israel Basketball Premier League Sherwood Dixon, lieutenant governor under Adlai Stevenson II Willie Dixon, blues musician (born in Mississippi) Do–Dt Conrad Dobler, NFL offensive lineman 1972–81 Larry Doby, baseball pioneer, outfielder, manager for Chicago White Sox (born in South Carolina) Townsend F. Dodd, World War I pilot, Distinguished Service Medal Katherine Sturges Dodge, illustrator Dorothy L. Dodson, U.S. champion in javelin and shot put Eddie Doherty, journalist, Oscar-nominated screenwriter Edward A. Doisy, biochemist, 1943 Nobel Prize Dave Dombrowski, President of Baseball Operations of Boston Red Sox Jim Donahue, 19th-century baseball player John Donahoe, CEO of eBay, chairman of PayPal Mark Donahue, lineman for Michigan and Cincinnati Bengals Dorothy Donegan, jazz pianist Mike Donlin, baseball player and actor George Donner, organizer of Donner Party (born in North Carolina) Ral Donner, singer Professor Mike Donovan, middleweight boxer of bare-knuckle era Jimmy Dore, stand-up comedian, political commentator Tom Dore, basketball player and broadcaster Dolores Dorn, actress, The Bounty Hunter, Underworld U.S.A. Thomas A. Dorsey, gospel musician John Dos Passos, novelist Emily Taft Douglas, politician, U.S. Representative, first female Democrat from state elected to Congress Mike Douglas, singer and television talk-show host Paul Douglas, professor, politician (Democrat), 18-year U.S. Senator of Illinois (born in Massachusetts) Stephen A. Douglas, politician (Democrat), U.S. Senator 1847–61, presidential candidate vs. Abe Lincoln (born in Vermont) John A. Dowie, faith healer, Zion, Illinois founder (born in Scotland) Dave Downey, basketball player, holder of University of Illinois single-game scoring record Mike Downey, Los Angeles and Chicago newspaper columnist Susan Downey, film producer, Sherlock Holmes, Iron Man 2, The Judge, wife of Robert Downey Jr. Wayne A. Downing, four-star U.S. Army general Larry Doyle, infielder, New York Giants, 1912 National League MVP Larry Doyle, writer, I Love You, Beth Cooper, The Simpsons Betsy Drake, actress, wife of Cary Grant (born in France) Francis M. Drake, Civil War general, Governor of Iowa Frank Drake, astronomer, astrophysicist John Drake, co-founder of the Drake Hotel Johnny Drake, NFL running back 1937–41 Tracy Drake, co-founder of the Drake Hotel Yochi Dreazen, journalist Jack Drees, television sportscaster Lance Dreher, 1986 Mr. Universe Theodore Dreiser, author, social activist (born in Indiana) Chuck Dressen, football quarterback, baseball manager for Brooklyn Dodgers and four more MLB teams Paddy Driscoll, Hall of Fame quarterback and head coach for the Chicago Cardinals and Chicago Bears Robert Drivas, actor, The Illustrated Man, Cool Hand Luke Vincent Drucci, mobster John Drury, television journalist Charles Dryden, early 20th-century sportswriter Du–Dz Fred Dubois, 2-term U.S. Senator from Idaho Richard L. Duchossois, horse racing executive Kevin Duckworth, center for five NBA teams Tammy Duckworth, veteran of Iraq War, U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator (born in Thailand) Art Dufelmeier, played for 1947 Rose Bowl champion Illinois, coached Western Illinois 1960–68 John Duff, counterfeiter, Revolutionary War scout Dennis Dugan, director, actor, Big Daddy, Beverly Hills Ninja, Happy Gilmore, Jack and Jill, Grown Ups Tom Duggan, television commentator Tony Dumas, NBA player 1994–98 Arne Duncan, U.S. Secretary of Education 2009–15 Joseph Duncan, Governor of Illinois 1834–38, 4-term U.S. Representative (born in Kentucky) Michael Clarke Duncan, actor, The Green Mile, Kung Fu Panda, Armageddon, Planet of the Apes Thomas Duncan, Civil War general Katherine Dunham, dancer and choreographer Russell E. Dunham, decorated World War II soldier Robert Hugo Dunlap, officer at Iwo Jima, winner of Medal of Honor Kevin Dunn, actor, Transformers, Nixon, Unstoppable, Veep Nora Dunn, actress, comedian, Saturday Night Live, Sisters, Bruce Almighty, Three Kings Edward Joseph Dunne, bishop of Dallas 1894–1910 (born in Ireland) Finley Peter Dunne, author and journalist Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne, Mayor of Chicago 1905–07 and Governor of Illinois 1913–17 (born in Connecticut) George Dunne, president of Cook County Commissioners 1969–91 Murphy Dunne, actor, keyboard player for Blues Brothers Santiago Durango, musician, attorney (born in Colombia) Chad Durbin, pitcher for eight MLB teams Dick Durbin, politician (Democrat), senior U.S. Senator of Illinois, Majority Whip, U.S. Representative Jim Durkin, politician (Republican), state representative Lindsey Durlacher, Greco-Roman wrestler, bronze medalist at World Championships Charles Duryea, automotive pioneer Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, settler, founder of Chicago Erv Dusak, player for 1946 World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals Charles Dvorak, pole vaulter, 1904 Olympic gold medalist Jim Dwyer, outfielder for seven MLB teams Conor Dwyer, swimmer, gold medalist at 2012 London Olympics Thomas Dyer, president of Chicago Board of Trade, Mayor of Chicago 1856–57 (born in Connecticut) Walter Dyett, musician and educator Jimmy Dykes, player and manager for White Sox (born in Pennsylvania) E Ea–Em Amelia Earhart, pioneer aviator, Chicago Hyde Park High graduate (born in Kansas) Jug Earp, pro football player Wyatt Earp, iconic American West lawman, subject of Tombstone, My Darling Clementine, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral Earth, Wind & Fire, band in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame John Porter East, U.S. Senator for North Carolina 1981–86 Martin Eberhard, co-founder of Tesla Motors Christine Ebersole, 2-time Tony Award-winning actress and singer, Saturday Night Live, Ryan's Hope, 42nd Street Roger Ebert, film critic, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, author, television personality, co-host of Siskel & Ebert Buddy Ebsen, actor, The Beverly Hillbillies, Barnaby Jones, Captain January, Davy Crockett, Breakfast at Tiffany's Vilma Ebsen, dancer and actress, Broadway Melody of 1936 Earl Eby, athlete, silver medalist in 1920 Summer Olympics Garrett Eckbo, landscape architect Walter Eckersall, fullback for Chicago 1905 national champions, Hall of Fame, sportswriter, referee William Eckert, Major League Baseball commissioner 1965–68 James Eckhouse, actor, Beverly Hills, 90210 Nora Eddington, actress, wife of Errol Flynn Dwight Eddleman, three-sport Illinois athlete, NBA All-Star J. W. Eddy, politician, lawyer, Angels Flight designer (born in New York) John R. Eden, 19th-century U.S. Representative (born in Kentucky) Jim Edgar, secretary of state and 1991–99 Governor of Illinois John Edgar, naval commander, land baron, politician (born in Ireland) Robert W. Edgren, cartoonist, 1904 Olympic athlete Benjamin S. Edwards, 19th-century lawyer and politician Bruce Edwards, MLB catcher 1946–56 India Edwards, vice-chair of Democratic National Committee 1950–56 Jon Edwards, pitcher for San Diego Padres Ninian Edwards, politician (Democratic-Republican), U.S. Senator 1818–26 and Governor of Illinois 1826–30 (born in Maryland) Ninian Wirt Edwards, educator, married to sister of Mary Todd Lincoln Steve Edwards, pro football lineman Chandler Egan, NCAA, U.S. Amateur golf champion, course designer Edward Egan, cardinal, archbishop of New York 2000–2009 John Joseph Egan, monsignor, civil rights activist Walter Egan, golfer, 1904 Olympic gold medalist Dave Eggers, writer, editor, and publisher, author of A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius Rube Ehrhardt, MLB pitcher 1924–29 David Eigenberg, actor, Steve Brady on Sex and the City Deborah Eisenberg, short story writer, actress Brett Eldredge, country singer Charlie Elgar, bandleader (born in Louisiana) Karl Eller, owner of the Phoenix Suns Kurt Elling, jazz singer Bump Elliott, halfback for Michigan and Purdue, coach at Michigan, athletic director at Iowa, College Football Hall of Fame Ezekiel Elliott, running back for the Dallas Cowboys Jake Elliott, placekicker for the Philadelphia Eagles Pete Elliott, football head coach for Nebraska, Illinois, Cal and Miami, College Football Hall of Fame Bo Ellis, basketball player for 1977 NCAA champion Marquette and Denver Nuggets Fred Ellis, cartoonist LaPhonso Ellis, center for four NBA teams Nelsan Ellis, actor, True Blood, Get On Up Larry Ellison, co-founder and CEO of Oracle Corporation Elmer E. Ellsworth, first Civil War casualty (born in New York) Bob Elson, Hall of Fame baseball broadcaster John Ely, pitcher for Los Angeles Dodgers 2010–12 Melvin Ely, center-forward for five NBA teams Ari Emanuel, Hollywood superagent, co-CEO of William Morris Endeavor Rahm Emanuel, Mayor of Chicago, U.S. Representative 2003–09, senior advisor to Bill Clinton 1993–98, Chief of Staff to Barack Obama 2009–10 Louis Lincoln Emmerson, merchant, secretary of state and Governor of Illinois 1929–33 En–Ez Eric Engberg, television journalist Larry English, linebacker for Tampa Bay Buccaneers Jason Enloe, pro golfer Rex Enright, football coach, South Carolina 1938–56 William Enyart, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 2013–15 A. J. Epenesa, defensive lineman for Iowa Hawkeyes Philip "Phil" Erenberg (1909–1992), gymnast and Olympic silver medalist Paul Erickson, pitcher for Cubs 1941–48 Roger Erickson, MLB pitcher 1978–83 John Erlander, furniture manufacturer (born in Sweden) John N. Erlenborn, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1965–85 Cameron Esposito, comedian Joe Esposito, road manager of Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson Joe Esposito, organized crime figure (born in Italy) Sammy Esposito, infielder for White Sox 1952–63 Tony Esposito, 15-year goaltender for Chicago Blackhawks, member of Hockey Hall of Fame (born in Canada) Bill Essick, MLB pitcher and scout Richard Estes, photorealistic painter Nick Etten, MLB first baseman 1938–47 Ruth Etting, singer, subject of Love Me or Leave Me (born in Nebraska) Aja Evans, bobsledder, bronze medalist at 2014 Winter Olympics Andrea Evans, actress, One Life to Live Bergen Evans, television personality, professor (born in Ohio) Bill Evans, jazz musician Billy Evans, MLB umpire Chick Evans, golfer, won U.S. Open as amateur, member of World Golf Hall of Fame Dan Evans, baseball executive Fred Evans, NFL defensive tackle 2006–13 John Evans, physician, governor of Colorado territory, co-founder of Northwestern University (born in Ohio) Lane Evans, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1983–2007 Marsha J. Evans, admiral, CEO of American Red Cross Betty Everett, singer (born in Mississippi) Phil Everly, singer with Everly Brothers, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Hoot Evers, MLB outfielder 1941–56 (born in Missouri) Johnny Evers, Hall of Fame second baseman, managed Cubs and White Sox (born in New York) Cory Everson, 6-time Ms. Olympia (born in Wisconsin) Jimmy Evert, tennis player and coach, father of Chris Evert Fred Ewing, surgeon, Oklahoma football coach Thomas W. Ewing, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1991–2001 William Lee D. Ewing, governor (14 days) and U.S. Senator 1835–37 (born in Kentucky) F Fa–Fh Red Faber, Hall of Fame pitcher for White Sox; three wins in 1917 World Series (born in Iowa) Janet Fairbank, opera singer N.K. Fairbank, soap manufacturer, philanthropist Don Fairfield, pro golfer (born in Kansas) Ben Falcone, actor, director, Tammy, Bridesmaids Cy Falkenberg, MLB pitcher 1903–17 Richard Fancy, actor, General Hospital, The District, Seinfeld Jim Fanning, MLB player, manager and general manager Kay Fanning, newspaper editor and publisher Dennis Farina, actor, Chicago police officer, Law & Order, Crime Story, Get Shorty, Manhunter, Saving Private Ryan Chris Farley, comedian and actor, Second City and Saturday Night Live (born in Wisconsin) Dot Farley, silent-film actress Ed Farmer, pitcher for eight MLB teams, sportscaster Mimsy Farmer, actress, Spencer's Mountain, Hot Rods to Hell Henry Farnam, surveyor, builder and president of Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad (born in New York) Elon J. Farnsworth, Union general in Civil War, killed at Gettysburg John F. Farnsworth, Union general in Civil War, 7-term U.S. Representative (born in Canada) Louis Farrakhan, Nation of Islam leader James T. Farrell, author, Studs Lonigan Charles B. Farwell, philanthropist, U.S. Senator (born in New York) John V. Farwell, department store founder (born in New York) Sal Fasano, MLB catcher 1996–2008 Jeff Fassero, pitcher for nine MLB teams Nancy Faust, musician, stadium organist Harris W. Fawell, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1985–99 Meagen Fay, actress, Second City, Dirty Rotten Scoundrels, Malcolm in the Middle Kenneth Fearing, poet and novelist Carol Feeney, rower, Olympic silver medalist Jesse W. Fell, land baron, helped establish Illinois State University (born in Pennsylvania) Alfred T. Fellheimer, architect John Felske, MLB player and manager Gary Fencik, defensive back for Super Bowl XX champion Chicago Bears Jean Fenn, opera singer Irene Fenwick, silent-film actress, wife of Lionel Barrymore Tom Fergus, NHL center 1981–93 Helen Ferguson, film publicist and actress Enrico Fermi, nuclear physicist, University of Chicago professor, 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics winner (born in Italy) Joseph Ferriola, mobster George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., inventor of Ferris wheel Elisha P. Ferry, first Governor of Washington (born in Michigan) Edwin Feulner, president of The Heritage Foundation 1977–2013 Tina Fey, actress and comedian, writer-performer for Second City (born in Pennsylvania) Fi–Fn Lupe Fiasco, rapper, musician Carl Fick, filmmaker, novelist Orlando B. Ficklin, U.S. Representative 1843–49 (born in Kentucky) Eugene Field, journalist and author Marshall Field, businessman, department store founder and philanthropist (born in Massachusetts) Marshall Field III, banker, publisher and philanthropist Marshall Field IV, owner of Chicago Sun-Times 1956–65 Ted Field, entrepreneur, auto racing, film producer, Cocktail, Runaway Bride, Mr. Holland's Opus, Riddick Jackie Fields, boxer, Olympic and pro welterweight champ Joseph W. Fifer, Civil War officer, city attorney of Bloomington, Governor of Illinois (born in Virginia) Tim Finchem, commissioner of golf's PGA Tour Paul Findley, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1961–83 Vivian Fine, composer Jim Finigan, MLB infielder 1954–59 Tom Fink, mayor of Anchorage, Alaska 1987–94 Charles O. Finley, owner of Oakland A's 1960–81 (born in Alabama) John Huston Finley, educator, New York Times editor Michael Finley, pro basketball player, film producer Katie Finneran, actress Allison Finney, golfer Mauro Fiore, Oscar-winning cinematographer (born in Italy) Harvey S. Firestone Jr., chairman of Firestone Tire and Rubber Company Bill Fischer, lineman for NFL's Chicago Cardinals, member of College Football Hall of Fame Bobby Fischer, world chess champion Leo Fischer, sports journalist, basketball executive John Fischetti, 1969 Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist (born in New York) Bud Fisher, cartoonist, Mutt and Jeff Eileen Fisher, fashion designer (born in New York) George M.C. Fisher, CEO of Eastman Kodak and Motorola Steve Fisher, basketball coach for San Diego State, coached 1989 NCAA champion Michigan Carlton Fisk, Hall of Fame catcher for Red Sox and White Sox (born in Vermont) Jack Fisk, film director, Oscar-nominated art and production designer, husband of Sissy Spacek Horatio Fitch, silver medalist in 400 meters at 1924 Summer Olympics John Fitzgerald, two-time Olympian in pentathlon Pat Fitzgerald, football coach for Northwestern Patrick Fitzgerald, U.S. Attorney, 2001–12 (born in New York) Peter Fitzgerald, politician (Republican), U.S. Senator 1999–2005 John Fitzpatrick, catcher, 1,787 hits in minor leagues Bob Fitzsimmons, boxing heavyweight champion (born in England) Five Stairsteps, singing group, "O-o-h Child" Max Flack, outfielder, played in 1918 World Series The Flamingos, singing group, "I Only Have Eyes for You" Crista Flanagan, comedic actress, MADtv Walter Flanigan, co-founder of National Football League Michael Flatley, dancer and choreographer, Lord of the Dance P. J. Fleck, football head coach, Western Michigan Coby Fleener, tight end for Indianapolis Colts Darius Fleming, linebacker for Notre Dame and New England Patriots Bill Flemming, sportscaster Art Fletcher, MLB player, coach and manager Darrin Fletcher, MLB catcher 1989–2002 Calista Flockhart, actress, Ally McBeal, wife of Harrison Ford Milton S. Florsheim, founder of Florsheim shoe company Paul Flory, Nobel Prize-winning chemist Cliff Floyd, outfielder for seven Major League teams Fahey Flynn, Chicago radio-TV journalist (born in Michigan) John Flynn, director, screenwriter, Rolling Thunder, The Outfit, Out for Justice, Lock Up Neil Flynn, actor, Scrubs, The Middle Fo–Fp Dan Fogelberg, folk/rock musician and composer Lee Fogolin, NHL player 1974–87 Pat Foley, hockey broadcaster Thomas C. Foley, U.S. Ambassador to Ireland 2006–09 Tim Foley, 10-year defensive back for Miami Dolphins Mike Foltynewicz, MLB pitcher Art Folz, banned NFL player Ralph Foody, actor, Home Alone, Code of Silence Tom Foran, U.S. Attorney, chief prosecutor of Chicago Seven trial Betty Ford, 1974–1977 First Lady of the United States, founder of Betty Ford Center Dorothy Ayer Gardner Ford, mother of President Gerald Ford Harrison Ford, Oscar-nominated actor, Indiana Jones films, original Star Wars trilogy, Blade Runner, Patriot Games, Air Force One, The Fugitive, 42 Judith Ford, 1969 Miss America Percy Ford, auto racer, third in 1921 Indy 500 Ruth VanSickle Ford, painter, director of Chicago Academy of Fine Arts Thomas Ford, 8th Governor of Illinois (born in Pennsylvania) Carl Foreman, Oscar-winning screenwriter, High Noon, The Bridge on the River Kwai, The Guns of Navarone James Forman, Civil Rights leader Harry Forrester, basketball coach Josephine Forsberg, improv coach, Second City, Players Workshop Aldo Forte, NFL player and coach Frank Foss, pole vaulter, 1920 Summer Olympics gold medalist George Edmund Foss, U.S. Representative 1895–1913 Bob Fosse, Oscar and Tony-winning choreographer, director, Cabaret, Sweet Charity, Lenny, Chicago, All That Jazz Ray Fosse, catcher for five Major League teams Steve Fossett, commodities trader, aviator, adventurer (born in Tennessee) Bill Foster, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Gloria Foster, actress, The Matrix Greg Foster, hurdler, 10-time national champion, three-time world champion, 1984 Olympic silver medalist Kevin Foster, MLB pitcher 1993–2001 Martin D. Foster, surgeon, mayor of Olney, U.S. Representative Rube Foster, manager of Chicago American Giants, member of Baseball Hall of Fame (born in Texas) Scott Michael Foster, actor, Greek, Chasing Life, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend Susanna Foster, actress, Phantom of the Opera David Foulis, Chicago golf pro and innovator (born in Scotland) James Foulis, 1896 U.S. Open golf champion (born in Scotland) Albert Fowler, mayor of Rockford 1864–68 (born in Massachusetts) Richard Fowler, radio show host, media personality, political activist, Fox News contributor Carol Fox, opera impresario Nellie Fox, Hall of Fame infielder for White Sox (born in Pennsylvania) Terry Fox, MLB pitcher Virgil Fox, organist Redd Foxx, comedian and actor, Sanford and Son, Cotton Comes to Harlem, Harlem Nights Bryan Foy, film producer Fr–Fz Clint Frank, football player for Yale, winner of 1937 Heisman Trophy Melvin Frank, director and screenwriter, White Christmas, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Pat Frank, journalist and author Art Frantz, umpire, crew chief of 1975 World Series Frank Frantz, final Governor of Oklahoma Territory Dennis Franz, actor, NYPD Blue, Hill Street Blues, Dressed to Kill, American Buffalo, Psycho II, Die Hard 2 John E. Franz, organic chemist, discovered glyphosate Jonathan Franzen, author Chick Fraser, pitcher for 1907, 1908 champion Chicago Cubs Laura Gardin Fraser, sculptor, coin designer Bobby Frasor, basketball player, 2009 NCAA champion North Carolina Jason Frasor, relief pitcher for Kansas City Royals Harry Frazee, owned Boston Red Sox, traded Babe Ruth Walt Frazier, Hall of Fame guard for Southern Illinois and New York Knicks (born in Georgia) Andy Frederick, offensive lineman for two Super Bowl champions John T. Frederick, literary scholar, professor (born in Iowa) Bud Freeman, big-band saxophonist Cassidy Freeman, actress, musician, Smallville, Longmire Donnie Freeman, pro basketball player Kathleen Freeman, actress, The Blues Brothers, The Nutty Professor, North to Alaska, Blues Brothers 2000 Marvin Freeman, MLB pitcher 1986–96 Russ Freeman, jazz pianist Von Freeman, saxophonist Paul Frees, voice actor Augustus C. French, lawyer, Governor of Illinois 1846–53 (born in New Hampshire) Arny Freytag, photographer Betty Friedan, writer, activist, feminist, author of The Feminine Mystique William Friedkin, Oscar-winning director, The Exorcist, The French Connection, Sorcerer, To Live and Die in L.A. Leo Friedman, songwriter, "Let Me Call You Sweetheart" Milton Friedman, Nobel Prize-winning economist Friend & Lover, singing duo, "Reach out of the Darkness" Owen Friend, MLB infielder 1949–56 Johnny Frigo, violinist, bassist and songwriter Art Fromme, MLB pitcher 1906–15 Charles Sumner Frost, architect of Navy Pier Auditorium, LaSalle Street Station (born in Maine) Jim Fuchs, two-time Olympic medalist, 1951 Pan Am Games shot put and discus champion Nicholas J. Fuentes, paleoconservative political commentator, podcaster, activist Francis Fukuyama, philosopher, political economist, author Charles Eugene Fuller, U.S. Representative 1903–13, 1915–26 Jack Fuller, editor and publisher of Chicago Tribune Loie Fuller, pioneer of modern dance Melville Fuller, lawyer, editor, politician, Chief Justice of United States 1888–1910 (born in Maine) R. Buckminster Fuller, scientist, architect, inventor, author Hugh Fullerton, early 20th-century sportswriter, exposed Black Sox scandal Xavier Fulton, tackle in Canadian Football League Zach Fulton, offensive lineman for Kansas City Chiefs Ivan Fuqua, relay gold medalist, 1932 Summer Olympics George Furth, playwright, actor, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, Shampoo, Cannonball Run Jules Furthman, Oscar-nominated screenwriter, Mutiny on the Bounty, To Have and Have Not, Rio Bravo G Ga–Gd Marianne Gaba, actress, Miss Illinois USA 1957, Playboy Playmate Andrew Gabel, speed skater, 1994 Olympic silver medalist John Wayne Gacy, serial killer Gadabout Gaddis, fly-fishing expert Eddie Gaedel, baseball pinch-hitter Belva Gaertner, inspiration for "Velma Kelly" in play and film Chicago Gary Gaetti, third baseman, primarily for Minnesota Twins Ben Gage, announcer, husband of Esther Williams Lyman J. Gage, politician (Republican), banker and US Secretary of The Treasury (born in New York) Frank Galati, screenwriter and playwright Milt Galatzer, MLB outfielder 1933–39 George Washington Gale, namesake of Galesburg, founder of Knox College (born in New York) Gladys Gale, singer and actress Johnny Galecki, actor, Roseanne, The Big Bang Theory Harry Gallatin, forward for New York Knicks, player and coach for Southern Illinois, basketball Hall of Fame Tom Gallery, actor, married to ZaSu Pitts Ralph Galloway, pro football player Paul Galvin, founder of Motorola Harry Gamage, football coach, South Dakota, Kentucky Lu Gambino, football player, MVP of 1948 Gator Bowl Kevin Gamble, player for four NBA teams Mason Gamble, actor, Dennis the Menace, Spy Hard, Rushmore James Gammon, actor, Nash Bridges, Revenge, Major League Gale Gand, chef, television personality Mike Gandy, NFL lineman 2001–09 Jeanne Gang, architect Terry Gannon, sportscaster for Golf Channel Rudolph Ganz, pianist, music educator (born in Switzerland) Aimee Garcia, actress, Dexter, Greetings from Tucson, George Lopez Dave Garcia, MLB manager Barry Gardner, NFL player 1999–2006 Earle Gardner, MLB player 1908–1912 Robert Gardner, golfer, 2-time U.S. Amateur champion Wix Garner, football coach, Western Illinois 1942–47 Jeff Garlin, actor, comedian, director, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Daddy Day Care, The Goldbergs Lee Garmes, Oscar-winning cinematographer Kevin Garnett, center for Minnesota Timberwolves, 2004 MVP of NBA (born in South Carolina) Jimmy Garoppolo, quarterback, Eastern Illinois and New England Patriots Scott Garrelts, baseball pitcher for San Francisco Giants Darell Garretson, NBA referee Augustus Garrett, land speculator, Mayor of Chicago 1843–46 (born in New York) Dick Garrett, guard for four NBA teams Dave Garroway, Chicago radio-TV personality, first host of NBC's Today show (born in New York) Jennie Garth, actress, Beverly Hills, 90210 Elbert Henry Gary, lawyer, county judge, corporate officer, a U.S. Steel founder; Gary, Indiana named for him John Warne Gates, barbed wire mogul, founder of company that became Texaco William Gates, subject of documentary Hoop Dreams Bryan Gaul, pro soccer player Janina Gavankar, actress, True Blood, The Mysteries of Laura Hobart R. Gay, World War II general Mitzi Gaynor, entertainer and actress, South Pacific, There's No Business Like Show Business, The Joker Is Wild, Les Girls Ge–Gm Jason Gedrick, actor, Iron Eagle, Boomtown, Murder One, Luck Eric Gehrig, pro soccer player Gary Geiger, outfielder for four MLB teams Bill Geist, author, TV correspondent, CBS Sunday Morning Willie Geist, co-host of MSNBC's Morning Joe and NBC's Today Larry Gelbart, Emmy-winning television and Oscar-nominated film writer, Tony-winning playwright Michael Gelman, television producer Angelo Genna, organized crime figure (born in Sicily) Bill George, 13-year linebacker for Chicago Bears, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame (born in Pennsylvania) Francis George, Roman Catholic cardinal, Archbishop of Chicago Kenny George, among tallest basketball players in history Phil Georgeff, horse-racing caller of more than 95,000 races Sid Gepford, NFL player Henry Gerber, gay rights activist (born in Germany) Neva Gerber, early 20th-century actress Jami Gertz, actress, Still Standing, Sibs, Twister, Less Than Zero Jody Gerut, MLB outfielder 2003–10 Charlie Getzien, 19th-century MLB pitcher Tavi Gevinson, blogger and feminist Georgie Anne Geyer, journalist and author Carl Giammarese, lead vocalist of The Buckinghams Sam Giancana, organized crime figure John Giannini, basketball coach for La Salle University Jim Gibbons, tight end for Detroit Lions 1958–68 Marla Gibbs, actress, The Jeffersons, 227, The Hughleys Charles Gibson, television journalist and personality, ABC News and Good Morning, America Diana Gibson, actress, Adventure's End, Behind the Headlines Norwood Gibson, MLB pitcher 1903–06 Oliver Gibson, NFL defensive tackle Emily Giffin, novelist Barry Gifford, novelist, Wild at Heart Florence Gilbert, silent-film actress Warren Giles, National League president 1957–69, Hall of Fame Zach Gilford, actor, Friday Night Lights Kendall Gill, pro basketball player, commentator Earl Gillespie, sportscaster King C. Gillette, inventor of safety razor (born in Wisconsin) Fred Gillies, tackle for Chicago Cardinals Paul Gilmartin, comedian, podcaster, TV personality, Dinner and a Movie Douglas H. Ginsburg, judge Joe Girardi, manager of New York Yankees Adele Givens, actress, The Hughleys, Queens of Comedy Henry P. Glass, architect, Art Institute professor Stephen Glass, journalist for The New Republic fired for fraud Roy Gleason, outfielder, 1-for-1 in only MLB at-bat Otis F. Glenn, lawyer, U.S. Senator 1928–33 Caroline Glick, journalist, deputy managing editor of Jerusalem Post Joseph Glidden, patented barbed wire (born in New York) Gina Glocksen, 2-time American Idol contestant Al Glossop, MLB infielder 1939–46 Bruce Glover, actor, Diamonds Are Forever, Chinatown Go–Gq Bob Goalby, professional golfer, winner of 1968 Masters Tournament George Gobel, comedian, musician and Emmy Award-winning actor Godfrey, comedian, actor Timothy Goebel, figure skater, 2002 Olympics bronze medalist John D. Goeken, founder of MCI Inc and Airfone Harold Goettler, World War I aviator Mike Goff, NFL guard 1998–2009 Gracie Gold, U.S. champion figure skater (born in Massachusetts) Albert Goldbarth, poet Arthur Goldberg, U.S. Secretary of Labor 1961–62, Ambassador to U.N. 1965–68 Barry Goldberg, keyboardist, record producer Bertrand Goldberg, architect, designer of Marina City Sarah Goldberg, actress, 7th Heaven Grant Golden (1929-2018), tennis player Jack Golden, NFL linebacker 2000–03 James Goldman, playwright and screenwriter, The Lion in Winter, Nicholas and Alexandra, Robin and Marian Ronald Goldman, murder victim in O. J. Simpson trial William Goldman, author, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, All the President's Men, The Princess Bride Arlene Golonka, actress, Mayberry R.F.D., Hang 'Em High, The Busy Body Andrew Golota, heavyweight contender, 1988 Summer Olympics medalist Jaslene Gonzalez, fashion model, winner of America's Next Top Model Cycle 8 Benny Goodman, musician and bandleader, recipient of Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award Steve Goodman, singer-songwriter, "City of New Orleans" William O. Goodman, lumber tycoon, founder of Goodman Theater (born in Pennsylvania) Charles Goodnight, cattle baron and trailblazer Andrew Goodpaster, U.S. Army general, NATO Supreme Commander, superintendent of West Point Ron Gora, swimmer, NCAA and Pan-Am Games champion Alicia Goranson, actress, Roseanne, Boys Don't Cry Seth Gordon, director, Horrible Bosses, Identity Thief Stuart Gordon, director, writer, producer, Re-Animator Edward Gorey, artist and writer Ken Gorgal, defensive back, 1950, 1954 NFL champion Mark Gorski, cyclist, gold medalist in 1984 Summer Olympics Tom Gorzelanny, pitcher for 5 MLB teams Freeman Gosden, co-creator and star of Amos 'n' Andy Tuffy Gosewisch, catcher for Arizona Diamondbacks Jeff Gossett, NFL punter 1981–96 Sue Gossick, diver, gold medalist in 1968 Summer Olympics Robert Gottschalk, cameraman, founder of Panavision Chester Gould, creator of Dick Tracy (born in Oklahoma) Gra–Grd Harry Grabiner, longtime White Sox executive Jim Grabowski, MVP of 1964 Rose Bowl, running back for Chicago Bears and Green Bay Packers, broadcaster Joe Grace, MLB outfielder 1938–47 Thomas Joseph Grady, archbishop of Orlando, Florida Joseph V. Graff, lawyer, U.S. Representative 1895–1911 (born in Indiana) Billy Graham, evangelist (born in North Carolina) Bruce Graham, architect of Sears Tower and John Hancock Center (born in Colombia) Kent Graham, NFL quarterback 1992–2002 Otto Graham, Hall of Fame quarterback for Cleveland Browns, head coach for Washington Redskins Nancy Lee Grahn, actress, General Hospital, Santa Barbara Peaches Graham, early 20th-century ballplayer Stedman Graham, businessman, partner of Oprah Winfrey Judy Grahn, poet Billy Grammer, musician, "Detroit City" Curtis Granderson, outfielder for New York Mets Red Grange, college and pro Hall of Fame football player (born in Pennsylvania) Bill Granger, novelist and journalist (born in Wisconsin) Bob Grant, radio personality Frederick Dent Grant, soldier, diplomat, son of President Ulysses S. Grant James Grant, first president of Chicago and Rock Island Railroad James Edward Grant, screenwriter, The Alamo, Hondo, McLintock! Mark Grant, MLB pitcher 1984–93, broadcaster Michael Grant, boxer Ulysses S. Grant, commander of Illinois regiment, Civil War general and 18th President of the United States (1869–1877) (born in Ohio) Ulysses S. Grant III, soldier, city planner, grandson of U.S. Grant Cammi Granato, captain of 1998 Winter Olympics gold-medal U.S. women's hockey team, Hockey Hall of Fame Tony Granato, player for three NHL teams, head coach of Colorado Avalanche 2002–04 Bonita Granville, film actress and TV producer, Nancy Drew franchise, The Glass Key, Now, Voyager Laura Granville, professional tennis player Nick Gravenites, blues musician Catt Gravitt, songwriter Beatrice Gray, actress Charles McNeill Gray, candle maker, Mayor of Chicago 1853–54 (born in New York) Clifford Gray, two-time gold medalist in 1932 Winter Olympics bobsled Dolores Gray, actress, Designing Woman, It's Always Fair Weather, Kismet, The Opposite Sex Glen Gray, bandleader and musician Harold Gray, creator of Little Orphan Annie Kenneth J. Gray, Air Force combat pilot, U.S. Representative 1955–89 William S. Gray, co-created Dick and Jane stories Eli Grba, MLB pitcher 1959–63 Gre–Grz Luke Gregerson, baseball pitcher for Houston Astros Virginia Gregg, actress John Milton Gregory, first president of University of Illinois Wilton Daniel Gregory, archbishop of Atlanta Andrew Greeley, Roman Catholic priest, sociologist, columnist and author Chad Green, pitcher for the New York Yankees (born in South Carolina) Dwight H. Green, 1941–49 Governor of Illinois, prosecutor of Al Capone (born in Indiana) Rickey Green, guard for eight NBA teams Shawn Green, MLB 2-time All Star outfielder 1993–2007, had 4-homer game Seymour Greenberg, 4-time US Open tennis quarterfinalist Robert Greenblatt, chairman of NBC television entertainment Dan Greenburg, author, husband of Nora Ephron Gene Greene, ragtime musician Kevin Greene, linebacker for five NFL teams Shecky Greene, comedian and actor, Tony Rome, History of the World, Part I, Splash Ralph Greenleaf, pocket billiards Hall of Fame Sam Greenlee, novelist, government agent Luke Gregerson, relief pitcher for Houston Astros Rose Gregorio, Tony Award-nominated actress Brian Gregory, head basketball coach at Georgia Tech John Milton Gregory, first president of University of Illinois Matt Grevers, 2-time relay gold medalist in 2008 Olympic Games, backstroke gold in 2012 Olympics Elmer Grey, architect of The Beverly Hills Hotel Tom Gries, director, Will Penny, 100 Rifles, Breakheart Pass Kenneth C. Griffin, financier, philanthropist (born in Florida) Johnny Griffin, bop sax musician Kathy Griffin, actress, Emmy-winning comedian, My Life on the D-List, Fashion Police Marion Mahony Griffin, pioneering architect Montell Griffin, boxer, WBC light-heavyweight champ Walter Burley Griffin, architect, associated with Frank Lloyd Wright Charles B. Griffith, screenwriter, Little Shop of Horrors, Death Race 2000, Eat My Dust! Howard Griffith, NFL running back 1991–2001, 8-TD game for Illinois John L. Griffith, first commissioner of Big Ten Conference Rashard Griffith, pro basketball player Yolanda Griffith, 2000 and 2004 Olympic basketball gold medalist, 8-time WNBA All-Star, 1999 league MVP Boomer Grigsby, NFL fullback 2005–09 Dennis Grimaldi, Broadway choreographer, producer Charlie Grimm, player and manager for Cubs (born in Missouri) Gary Groh, golfer Bob Groom, MLB pitcher 1909–18 Mary Gross, actress, Saturday Night Live, Feds, The Couch Trip, Troop Beverly Hills Michael Gross, actor, Family Ties, Big Business, The Young and the Restless, Tremors Johnny Groth, MLB outfielder 1946–60 Orval Grove, pitcher for White Sox 1940–49 (born in Kansas) Johnny Gruelle, cartoonist, creator of Raggedy Ann Dov Grumet-Morris (born 1982), professional ice hockey player Tim Grunhard, NFL center 1990–2000 John M. Grunsfeld, astronaut and physicist Glen Grunwald, general manager of New York Knicks, Toronto Raptors Gs–Gz Lisa Guerrero, model and television personality Ozzie Guillén, infielder, manager for White Sox (born in Venezuela) Charles J. Guiteau, assassin of President James A. Garfield Bill Gullickson, MLB pitcher 1979–94 (born in Minnesota) Bryant Gumbel, television journalist (born in Louisiana) Greg Gumbel, television sportscaster (born in Louisiana) Frank W. Gunsaulus, educator, orator and minister (born in Ohio) Charles F. Gunther, confectioner, introduced CrackerJack (born in Germany) John Gunther, foreign correspondent and author Larry Gura, pitcher for Kansas City Royals and Chicago Cubs Walter S. Gurnee, tannery owner, Mayor of Chicago 1851–53; Gurnee named for him (born in New York) Andy Gustafson, football coach, Virginia Tech, Miami Frankie Gustine, MLB infielder 1939–50 Luke Guthrie, golfer Luis Gutiérrez, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Buddy Guy, blues guitarist, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award A.J. Guyton, basketball player Boone Guyton, test pilot, aviation pioneer Brad Guzan, professional soccer goalkeeper H Haa–Ham Bert Haas, MLB first baseman 1937–51 Carl Haas, auto racing executive Jay Haas, pro golfer, 9-time PGA Tour winner (born in Missouri) Jerry Haas, pro golfer, college coach Stan Hack, player and manager for Chicago Cubs (born in California) Warren Hacker, MLB pitcher 1948–61 Gene Hackman, Oscar-winning actor, The French Connection, Superman, Hoosiers, Unforgiven (born in California) H. G. Hadden, 1895 football player-coach for Notre Dame Jerry Hadley, operatic tenor Mickey Haefner, MLB pitcher 1943–50 Jean Hagen, Oscar-nominated actress, Singin' in the Rain, Adam's Rib, The Asphalt Jungle, Make Room for Daddy Kevin Hagen, actor, Little House on the Prairie Hager Twins, country music duo Michael G. Hagerty, actor, Lucky Louie, Friends Tyjuan Hagler, NFL player Kathryn Hahn, actress, Crossing Jordan, Step Brothers, We're the Millers John Charles Haines, water commissioner, Mayor of Chicago 1858–60 (born in New York) Jerry Hairston Jr., baseball player for nine MLB teams George Halas, co-founder of National Football League, coach-owner of Chicago Bears, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame George Halas Jr., president of Chicago Bears 1963–79 Walter Halas, basketball coach, Notre Dame, Drexel Barbara Hale, Emmy-winning actress, Della Street on Perry Mason DeMarlo Hale, bench coach for the Toronto Blue Jays George E. Hale, astronomer Arthur R. Hall, football player and coach for Illinois Bryan Hall, defensive end for Baltimore Ravens Buddy Hall, pocket billiards Hall of Fame Edward K. Hall, football and baseball coach for Illinois Glenn Hall, 10-year Hall of Fame goalie for Blackhawks (born in Canada) Lani Hall, singer, wife of Herb Alpert Gary Hallberg, pro golfer, sixth in 1985 Masters Bill Haller, Major League Baseball umpire Tom Haller, MLB catcher, coach, executive Brett Halliday, mystery writer Lin Halliday, saxophonist (born in Arkansas) Robert Halperin, Olympic yachting medalist, football player, decorated World War II hero, chairman of Commercial Light Co. Victor Halperin, film director, White Zombie Halston, fashion designer (born in Iowa) Roy Hamey, general manager of New York Yankees 1960–63 Dorothy Hamill, figure skater, gold medalist in 1976 Winter Olympics and 1976 world champion Earl Hamilton, MLB pitcher 1911–24 Frank Hamilton, singer with The Weavers John B. Hamilton, U.S. Surgeon General 1879–91 John Marshall Hamilton, Governor of Illinois 1883–85 (born in Ohio) Todd Hamilton, professional golfer, winner of 2004 British Open Penny Hammel, professional golfer Richard Hamming, prominent mathematician, inventor of the Hamming code and Hamming window John Hammond, general manager of Orlando Magic, Milwaukee Bucks Laurens Hammond, inventor of Hammond organ Dan Hampton, Hall of Fame defensive end for Chicago Bears (born in Arkansas) Han–Har Herbie Hancock, jazz musician, Grammy and Oscar winner Elliot Handler, co-founder of Mattel toy company Phil Handler (1908–1968), NFL football player and coach Jam Handy, Olympic swimmer (born in Pennsylvania) Daryl Hannah, actress, Splash, Blade Runner, Wall Street, Steel Magnolias, Kill Bill Lorraine Hansberry, playwright, A Raisin in the Sun Henry C. Hansbrough, U.S. Senator of North Dakota 1891–1909 Brian Hansen, speed skater, 2010 Winter Olympics silver medalist Chris Hansen, television journalist Joseph T. Hansen, labor leader Myrna Hansen, 1953 Miss USA, actress Mark Victor Hansen, co-creator of Chicken Soup for the Soul Snipe Hansen, MLB pitcher 1930–35 Ray Hanson, football coach, Western Illinois 1926–41 (born in Minnesota) Robert Hanssen, FBI agent convicted of espionage Norman Hapgood, editor, ambassador to Denmark 1919 J. A. Happ, relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Luke Harangody, professional basketball power forward Clay Harbor, professional football tight end James Harbord, World War I general, chairman of RCA Tim Hardaway, NBA player 1989–2003 and 2000 Sydney Olympics Abner C. Harding, Civil War officer, U.S. Representative (born in Connecticut) Cory Hardrict, actor, American Sniper Alan Hargesheimer, MLB pitcher 1980–86 Cory Harkey, professional football tight end and fullback James Harlan, Iowa senator, U.S. Secretary of the Interior, son-in-law of Abraham Lincoln John Marshall Harlan II, justice of U.S. Supreme Court 1955–71 Chic Harley, running back, College Football Hall of Fame Jean Harlow, actress, Lake Forest student (born in Missouri) Deborah Harmon, actress, Just the Ten of Us, Used Cars Merle Harmon, sports broadcaster Reginald C. Harmon, Air Force general Ann Harnett, pro baseball player Elise Harney, pro baseball player Sheldon Harnick, lyricist, Fiddler on the Roof Erika Harold, model, 2003 Miss America, conservative activist, attorney Dawn Harper, hurdler, gold medalist in 2008 Beijing Olympics Jesse Harper, football coach for Notre Dame 1913–17 Jessica Harper, actress, My Favorite Year, Stardust Memories, Pennies from Heaven, Suspiria Michael Harper, basketball player, North Park and Portland Trail Blazers William Rainey Harper, first president of University of Chicago and Bradley (born in Ohio) Ken Harrelson, baseball player, executive, broadcaster (born in South Carolina) Will Harridge, president of baseball's American League 1931–59 Arne Harris, television sports producer Barbara Harris, Oscar-nominated actress, Nashville, Plaza Suite, Family Plot, Freaky Friday E.B. Harris, 25-year president of Chicago Mercantile Exchange Eddie Harris, saxophonist Emily Harris, kidnapper of Patty Hearst Harry Harris, boxer Janet Harris, member of Women's Basketball Hall of Fame Moira Harris, actress, One More Saturday Night, Breakdown, wife of Gary Sinise Napoleon Harris, linebacker in NFL, member of Illinois Senate Patricia Roberts Harris, Cabinet member of President Jimmy Carter Paul P. Harris, founder of Rotary International (born in Wisconsin) Robin Harris, comedian and actor, House Party, Do the Right Thing Steve Harris, actor, The Practice Sydney J. Harris, syndicated columnist (born in England) Wood Harris, actor, The Wire Carter Harrison Sr., politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative, Mayor of Chicago 1879–1887, 1893 (born in Kentucky) Carter Harrison Jr., politician (Democrat), Mayor of Chicago 1897–1905, 1911–15 Nolan Harrison, NFL defensive end 1991–2000 Rodney Harrison, NFL defensive back, won two Super Bowls with New England Patriots Dolores Hart, actress, Loving You, Lonelyhearts, Sail a Crooked Ship, Where the Boys Are Jim Hart, quarterback for NFL's St. Louis Cardinals 1966–83 Pearl M. Hart, attorney and activist Justin Hartley, actor, Passions, The Young and the Restless, Smallville Mary Hartline, television personality, Super Circus Johnny Hartman, jazz singer Gabby Hartnett, Hall of Fame catcher for Chicago Cubs (born in Rhode Island) Lynne Cooper Harvey, radio producer (born in Missouri) Paul Harvey, radio personality, Chicago-based for more than 60 years (born in Oklahoma) Has–Haz Karen Hasara, politician (Republican), first female mayor of Springfield Dennis Hastert, teacher, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative, Speaker of the House 1998–2006 Wilbur Hatch, bandleader, I Love Lucy Donny Hathaway, singer, "Where Is the Love" Helge Alexander Haugan, businessman, banker (born in Norway) H. (Hauman) G. Haugan, railroad executive, brother of Helge A. Haugan (born in Norway) Reidar Rye Haugan, newspaper publisher (born in Norway) Enid A. Haupt, magazine publisher, philanthropist Herbert Hans Haupt, executed spy (born in Germany) June Haver, actress, The Daughter of Rosie O'Grady, The Dolly Sisters, Look for the Silver Lining, wife of Fred MacMurray Brent Hawkins, pro football player 2006–13 Coleman Hawkins, saxophonist Fred Hawkins, golfer, co-runnerup in 1958 Masters Tournament Hersey Hawkins, guard for five NBA teams LaRoyce Hawkins, actor, Chicago P.D. Tom Hawkins, basketball player, baseball executive John Hay, secretary to Abe Lincoln, U.S. Secretary of State under William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt (born in Indiana) Kelvin Hayden, NFL cornerback 2005–14, won Super Bowl XLI Julie Haydon, actress, The Scoundrel, The Conquerors Bernadene Hayes, actress, Idiot's Delight, Dick Tracy's Dilemma Bill Hayes, actor, Days of Our Lives Billie Hayes, actress, Li'l Abner Charles Hayes, union official, U.S. Representative 1983–93 Reggie Hayes, actor, Girlfriends Sean Hayes, Emmy-winning actor, Will & Grace, The Bucket List, Martin and Lewis, The Three Stooges Kathryn Hays, actress, As the World Turns Reggie Hayward, defensive end for Denver Broncos and Jacksonville Jaguars Hurley Haywood, auto racer in Motorsports Hall of Fame of America He–Hh Luther Head, basketball player, 2005 Illinois national runners-up Nathan Heald, commandant of Fort Dearborn 1810–12 (born in New Hampshire) Egyptian Healy, 19th-century pitcher George Peter Alexander Healy, painter (born in Massachusetts) Pat Healy, actor Jane Heap, writer and publisher (born in Kansas) Chick Hearn, Hall of Fame basketball broadcaster for Los Angeles Lakers Monroe Heath, politician (Republican), Mayor of Chicago 1876–79 (born in New Hampshire) Erin Heatherton, fashion model Harry Hebner, three-time Olympian, 1912 backstroke gold medalist Ben Hecht, reporter, war correspondent, author, activist, playwright, director, Academy Award-winning screenwriter Bobby "The Brain" Heenan, professional wrestler, manager, TV commentator Kyle T. Heffner, actor, Flashdance, When Harry Met Sally..., Runaway Train Richard T. Heffron, director, I, the Jury, Futureworld, Outlaw Blues Christie Hefner, former Playboy company CEO Hugh Hefner, magazine publisher, founder of Playboy James V. Heidinger, U.S. Representative 1941–45 Mike Heimerdinger, assistant coach for Denver Broncos and Tennessee Titans Don Heinrich, NFL quarterback 1953–62 and coach, College Football Hall of Fame Marg Helgenberger, actress, Northwestern alumna, CSI (born in Nebraska) William Heirens, convicted murderer, served 65 years in prison James Meredith Helm, admiral, Spanish–American War Ernest Hemingway, iconic author, Pulitzer and Nobel Prize-winning journalist and novelist Terri Hemmert, Chicago radio personality (born in Ohio) Bill Henderson, jazz singer, actor Rickey Henderson, Hall of Fame outfielder, holds MLB record for career stolen bases Thomas J. Henderson, Civil War general, U.S. Representative (born in Tennessee) Jack Hendricks, manager of Cincinnati Reds 1924–29 Sue Hendrickson, paleontologist, discoverer of Sue the dinosaur Tim Hendryx, MLB outfielder 1911–21 Max Henius, biochemist, co-founder of American Academy of Brewing Marilu Henner, actress, author, Taxi, Noises Off, Johnny Dangerously, L.A. Story Anne Henning, speed skater, 1992 Olympic gold medalist (born in North Carolina) John W. Henry, businessman and investor, owner of the Boston Red Sox and The Boston Globe Ken Henry, speed skater, gold medalist in 1952 Winter Olympics Roy Henshaw, MLB pitcher 1933–44 Kelley Menighan Hensley, actress, As the World Turns Lou Henson, 21-year head coach of Illinois basketball (born in Oklahoma) Craig Hentrich, NFL punter 1993–2009 Herblock (Herbert Block), cartoonist, winner of three Pulitzer Prizes William Herndon, law partner and biographer of Abe Lincoln, mayor of Springfield James B. Herrick, physician who discovered sickle-cell disease Clarence Herschberger, All-American athlete for University of Chicago 1894–98 Seymour Hersh, Pulitzer-winning investigative journalist John D. Hertz, founder of Yellow Cab Company and The Hertz Corporation (born in Hungary) Whitey Herzog, outfielder, Hall of Fame baseball manager, primarily with St. Louis Cardinals Charlton Heston, Oscar-winning actor, political activist, The Ten Commandments, Ben-Hur, El Cid, The Greatest Show on Earth, The Agony and the Ecstasy, Touch of Evil, Planet of the Apes Willie Heston, halfback, College Football Hall of Fame Hi–Hn John Grier Hibben, president of Princeton University 1912–32 Jesse Hibbs, football player for USC, film and TV director Jim Hickey, pitching coach for Tampa Bay Rays Kevin Hickey, pitcher for White Sox and Baltimore Orioles Fred Hickman, sportscaster Wild Bill Hickok, Wild West gunfighter and lawman Hal Higdon, runner and writer Joan Higginbotham, astronaut Jack Higgins, cartoonist, 1989 Pulitzer Prize winner Joel Higgins, actor, Silver Spoons Rod Higgins, forward for seven NBA tams, executive for Charlotte Hornets Andy High, MLB third baseman 1922–34 Nat Hiken, creator, Car 54, Where Are You?, The Phil Silvers Show Ernest Hilgard, psychologist Homer Hillebrand, MLB player 1905–08 Chuck Hiller, MLB player, hit grand slam home run in 1962 World Series Charles T. Hinde, founder of Hotel del Coronado (born in Ohio) Harry Hinde, Missouri politician, aircraft designer Thomas S. Hinde, founder of Mount Carmel, friend of Mark Twain Earl Hines, jazz musician (born in Pennsylvania) Garrett Hines, bobsled silver medalist at 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics Tony Hinkle, basketball coach (born in Indiana) Chris Hinton, tackle for Indianapolis Colts and Atlanta Falcons Milt Hinton, jazz musician (born in Mississippi) Edward Hirsch, poet and critic Lew Hitch, won two NBA championships with Minneapolis Lakers Michael Hitchcock, actor, MADtv, Wild Hogs, Glee Les Hite, bandleader Robert R. Hitt, U.S. Representative 1882–1906 (born in Ohio) Ho–Ht Edward Francis Hoban, archbishop of Cleveland, Ohio 1945–66 Glen Hobbie, pitcher for Chicago Cubs 1957–64 Mellody Hobson, executive, chairperson of DreamWorks Animation, married to George Lucas Nathan Hodel, NFL center 2001–09 Art Hodes, jazz pianist John R. Hodge, commanding general of U.S. Third Army Craig Hodges, NBA guard, primarily with Milwaukee Bucks and Chicago Bulls Reggie Hodges, NFL punter 2005–12 Tom Hoff, volleyball player, gold medalist in 2008 Beijing Olympics Guy Hoffman, pitcher in MLB and Japan Julius Hoffman, judge in trial of Chicago Seven Isabella Hofmann, actress, Dear John, Homicide: Life on the Street, JAG Paul G. Hoffman, auto executive and statesman James F. Hoge Jr., editor and publisher of Chicago Sun-Times, New York Daily News Helen E. Hokinson, cartoonist for The New Yorker William Holabird, architect (born in New York) Stu Holcomb, GM of White Sox and Chicago Mustangs soccer, Northwestern athletic director Jennifer Holden, actress, Buchanan Rides Alone, Jailhouse Rock William Holden, Oscar-winning actor, Stalag 17, Sunset Boulevard, Born Yesterday, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Picnic, The Wild Bunch, Network Tony Holguin, golfer Nicole Hollander, creator of comic strip Sylvia Mabel Holle, baseball player Robert W. Holley, biochemist, 1968 Nobel Prize Loleatta Holloway, singer Red Holloway, jazz musician Celeste Holm, Academy Award-winning actress, Gentleman's Agreement, All About Eve (born in New York) Andre Holmes, wide receiver for Oakland Raiders H. H. Holmes, serial killer (born in New Hampshire) Phyllis Holmes, basketball coach, Women's Basketball Hall of Fame Nick Holonyak, engineer and educator Lester Holt, Chicago newscaster 1986–2000 (born in California) Jerome Holtzman, baseball writer and historian Ken Holtzman, pitcher for University of Illinois, Cubs, Oakland A's, three-time World Series winner Joseph R. Holzapple, U.S. Air Force four-star general Dianne Holum, speed skater, Olympic gold medalist Skip Homeier, actor, The Gunfighter, The Tall T, Comanche Station John Honnold (1915–2011), law professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School Hector Honore, auto racer Henry Honore, 19th-century real estate baron (born in Kentucky) Ida Marie Honore, socialite, daughter-in-law of Ulysses S. Grant (born in Kentucky) Raymond Hood, architect of Tribune Tower and Rockefeller Center (born in Rhode Island) Jay Hook, MLB pitcher 1957–64 Michael Hoomanawanui, tight end for New Orleans Saints, New England Patriots Albert J. Hopkins, U.S. Representative 1885–1903, U.S. Senator 1903–09 Fred Hopkins, jazz musician John Patrick Hopkins, politician (Democrat), Mayor of Chicago 1893–95 Michael S. Hopkins, astronaut, Illinois football player Jeff Hornacek, NBA player 1986–2000, head coach of New York Knicks, Phoenix Suns Henry Horner, politician (Democrat), Governor of Illinois 1933–40 Rogers Hornsby, Hall of Fame infielder, manager for Chicago Cubs (born in Texas) Big Walter Horton, harmonica player in Blues Hall of Fame Kathleen Horvath, pro tennis player Arnold Horween, All-American for Harvard, NFL player Ralph Horween, All-American for Harvard, NFL player Frances Horwich, television personality, Miss Frances, host of Ding Dong School Stanley Hough, horse racing trainer Lin Houston, guard for 1950 NFL champion Cleveland Browns Charles Edward Hovey, Civil War general, Peoria school superintendent, first president of Illinois State (born in Vermont) Richard Hovey, poet Juwan Howard, forward for Michigan and eight NBA teams; two championships with Miami Heat Margo Howard, writer, daughter of Ann Landers Miki Howard, singer Terrence Howard, actor, Iron Man, Big Momma's House, Lee Daniels' 'The Butler', Empire Tom Howard, photographer Dick Howell, swimmer, 1924 Summer Olympics relay gold George Evan Howell, judge, U.S. Representative 1941–47 Yvonne Howell, actress, wife of director George Stevens Howlin' Wolf, blues musician (born in Mississippi) Hu–Hz Elbert Hubbard, writer, died on RMS Lusitania Trenidad Hubbard, MLB outfielder 1994–2003 Edwin Hubble, astronomer Janet Hubert, singer, actress, Fresh Prince of Bel Air Reginald Hudlin, film director, producer, The Great White Hype, Django Unchained Warrington Hudlin, film director, producer, House Party, Boomerang Jennifer Hudson, R&B singer, Oscar-winning actress, Dreamgirls Michael Hudson, economist Otis Hudson, NFL lineman 2010–14 Rock Hudson, actor, Giant, Magnificent Obsession, Pillow Talk, A Farewell to Arms, Ice Station Zebra, McMillan and Wife Troy Hudson, NBA guard 1998–2008 George Huff, 19th-century football and baseball coach for Illinois, athletic director 1901–35 Brandon Hughes, NFL cornerback 2009–14 Carol Hughes, actress, Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe Jim Hughes, MLB pitcher 1952–57 John Hughes, director, producer, screenwriter, Ferris Bueller's Day Off, The Breakfast Club, Home Alone (born in Michigan) John R. Hughes, cowboy, trail driver, Texas Ranger Kim Hughes, pro basketball center and coach Mary Beth Hughes, actress, The Ox-Bow Incident, Dressed to Kill, Caged Fury, Loophole, The Lady Confesses Matt Hughes, mixed martial artist, UFC Hall of Fame Tom Hughes, MLB pitcher 1900–13 Wayne Huizenga, founder of Blockbuster video, former owner of Miami Dolphins, Florida Marlins William Hulbert, baseball pioneer, president of Chicago White Stockings, who became the Cubs (born in New York) Tim Hulett, MLB player and coach Bobby Hull, Hall of Fame wing for Chicago Blackhawks (born in Canada) Morton D. Hull, lawyer, U.S. Representative 1923–33 William E. Hull, postmaster of Peoria, U.S. Representative 1923–33 Randy Hultgren, U.S. Representative Edward Hume, TV writer, The Day After Paul Hume, music critic Rick Hummel, baseball writer Todd Hundley, catcher for several MLB teams (born in Virginia) Murray Humphreys, organized crime figure William L. Hungate, U.S. Representative of Missouri 1964–77 Chuck Hunsinger, pro football player Bonnie Hunt, actress, director, talk-show host, Beethoven, Jerry Maguire, Cheaper by the Dozen, Return to Me Jarvis Hunt, architect Lester C. Hunt, U.S. Senator and Governor of Wyoming Marsha Hunt, actress, Raw Deal, Panama Hattie, Johnny Got His Gun, Carnegie Hall H. L. Hunt, oil tycoon Myron Hunt, architect of Rose Bowl stadium (born in Massachusetts) Stephen Hunter, novelist, Pulitzer Prize-winning critic (born in Missouri) Steven Hunter, center for four NBA teams Stephen A. Hurlbut, lawyer, Civil War general, ambassador (born in South Carolina) John Huston, pro golfer Ken Huszagh, swimmer, 1912 Olympic Games gold medalist Robert Maynard Hutchins, lawyer, educator, president of University of Chicago (born in New York) Ina Ray Hutton, entertainer and bandleader June Hutton, singer and actress J.B. Hutto, blues musician (born in South Carolina) Dick Hyde, MLB pitcher 1955–61 Henry J. Hyde, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1975–2007, chaired House Judiciary Committee Ida Henrietta Hyde, physiologist and professor (born in Iowa) J. Allen Hynek, astronomer, UFO authority I Harold L. Ickes, U.S. Secretary of the Interior under FDR and Truman (born in Pennsylvania) Harold Iddings, college football, basketball coach Andre Iguodala, player for Golden State Warriors, 2015 NBA Finals MVP Tunch Ilkin, lineman, broadcaster for Pittsburgh Steelers Margaret Illington, silent-film actress Roger Imhof, actor The Impressions, R&B group, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Ebon C. Ingersoll, U.S. Representative 1864–70 (born in New York) Robert G. Ingersoll, Illinois Attorney General, reformer (born in New York) Lloyd Ingraham, actor and director Mark Ingram Sr., NFL wide receiver 1987–96, father of Heisman Trophy winner Mark Ingram Jr. Rex Ingram, actor, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Sahara, Cabin in the Sky, Your Cheatin' Heart Jeff Innis, pitcher for New York Mets 1987–93 Samuel Insull, industrialist, builder of Chicago Opera House (born in England) George Ireland, coach of Loyola team that won 1963 NCAA basketball championship (born in Wisconsin) Jim Irsay, owner of NFL's Indianapolis Colts Robert Irsay, owned Baltimore and Indianapolis Colts 1972–97 Dick Irvin, coach and first captain of Chicago Blackhawks (born in Canada) Wilson Irvine, impressionist painter Charlie Irwin, MLB infielder 1893–1902 Ivan Irwin, NHL player, New York Rangers, Montreal Canadiens Tom Irwin, actor, Saving Grace, My So-Called Life, Related Jason Isringhausen, relief pitcher for six MLB teams Dan Issel, Hall of Fame basketball player, University of Kentucky, Denver Nuggets, NBA coach and GM Burl Ives, Oscar-winning actor, The Big Country, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof; folk musician ("A Holly Jolly Christmas") Judith Ivey, Tony Award-winning actress, Sister, Sister, Brighton Beach Memoirs, The Woman in Red (born in Texas) Eugene Izzi, novelist working in hardboiled crime fiction J Ja–Jn Ray Jablonski, MLB infielder 1953–59 Adoree Jackson, USC and NFL wide receiver Frisman Jackson, NFL wide receiver 2002–07 Jesse Jackson, political activist and candidate, Baptist minister, TV commentator (born in South Carolina) Jesse Jackson Jr., U.S. Representative, tendered resignation 2012 Leroy Jackson, 3-time state 100-yard dash champion, NFL running back Mahalia Jackson, gospel singer, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (born in Louisiana) Mannie Jackson, owner of Harlem Globetrotters Mark Jackson, wide receiver, played in three Super Bowl games Michael Jackson, iconic pop singer (born in Indiana) Phil Jackson, Hall of Fame coach of six-time NBA champion Chicago Bulls (born in Montana) Shoeless Joe Jackson, outfielder for Black Sox banned from baseball (born in South Carolina) Wilfred Jackson, animator, director of Disney's Fantasia, Dumbo, Cinderella, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Harry Jacobs, pro linebacker 1960–72, two AFL championships Jim Jacobs, composer, Grease Colombe Jacobsen, chef and actress Baby Doll Jacobson, MLB outfielder 1915–27 Peter Jacobson, actor, House, Transformers, Ray Donovan Walter Jacobson, television news journalist Scott Jacoby, actor Andrea Jaeger, tennis player, Wimbledon and French Open finalist Evan Jager, distance runner, U.S. record holder in 3000m steeplechase Tom Jager, swimmer, five-time Olympic champion, 11-time U.S. champion Helmut Jahn, architect (born in Germany) John Jakes, author, The Kent Family Chronicles, North and South Ahmad Jamal, jazz pianist Brian James, basketball coach Edmund J. James, president of University of Illinois 1904–20 Joni James, singer, "Why Don't You Believe Me?" Louis N. James, golfer, 1902 U.S. Amateur champion Peter Francis James, actor, voice-over artist William James, NFL defensive back 2001–10 Joyce Jameson, actress Bob Jamieson, television journalist Dick Jamieson, football coach 1972–97 Jim Jamieson, pro golfer (born in Michigan) Bob Janecyk, NHL goalie 1983–89 Bill Janklow, 16-year Governor of South Dakota Natalie Jaresko, minister of finance, Ukraine Joseph Jarman, jazz musician and Buddhist priest (born in Arkansas) Valerie Jarrett, senior advisor to President Barack Obama Pat Jarvis, pitcher for Montreal Expos and Atlanta Braves Ray Jauch, football player and coach Dick Jauron, NFL defensive back, head coach of Buffalo Bills, Chicago Bears and Detroit Lions Dave Jauss, baseball coach and scout William Jayne, first governor of Dakota Territory 1861–63 Betty Jaynes, singer and actress (born in Tennessee) Robert Jeangerard, Olympic basketball gold medalist Denise Jefferson, director Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater 1984–2010 Thomas B. Jeffery, 19th-century auto and bicycle pioneer (born in England) Mae Jemison, physician and astronaut (born in Alabama) Joe Jemsek, golfer and owner of Cog Hill golf course Edward H. Jenison, publisher, Naval commander, U.S. Representative (born in Wisconsin) Ella Jenkins, educator, Grammy-winning singer Ferguson Jenkins, Hall of Fame pitcher for Chicago Cubs (born in Canada) LaTasha Jenkins, sprinter Leroy Jenkins, violinist Richard Jenkins, Oscar-nominated, Emmy-winning actor, The Visitor, Six Feet Under, Step Brothers, Olive Kitteridge James M. Jenness, CEO of Kellogg's 2004–06 William Le Baron Jenney, architect, originator of metal-frame skyscraper William Sherman Jennings, 18th Governor of Florida Derrick Jensen, tight end for Oakland Raiders 1979–86 Jens Jensen, landscape architect (born in Denmark) Jeremih, R&B singer Garry Jestadt, MLB infielder 1969–72 Rob Jeter, basketball coach (born in Pennsylvania) Sam Jethroe, outfielder, 1950 National League Rookie of the Year Martin C. Jischke, president of Iowa State and Purdue Jo–Jz Anton J. Johnson, dairy executive, mayor of Macomb, U.S. Representative Armon Johnson, point guard for Portland Trail Blazers 2010–12 Arnold Johnson, owner of MLB's Philadelphia and Kansas City Athletics Arte Johnson, actor, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In Bob Johnson, pitcher for five Major League teams Bobby Johnson, wide receiver for New York Giants 1984–86 Charles R. Johnson, scholar, novelist, author of Middle Passage Chic Johnson, comedian, Olsen and Johnson Curley Johnson, player for Harlem Globetrotters Diane Johnson, author and screenwriter, Le Divorce, The Shining Don Johnson, MLB player, last Cub to bat in World Series before 2016 Eddie Johnson, player for six NBA teams Ernie Johnson, MLB shortstop 1912–25 George E. Johnson Sr., cosmetics executive (born in Mississippi) Howard Wesley Johnson, president of MIT, chairman of board of trustees Jake Johnson, actor, New Girl Jan Johnson, 3-time NCAA pole vault champion, 1972 Olympic medalist Jim Johnson, defensive coordinator for Notre Dame, NFL teams John H. Johnson, publisher of Ebony, Jet (born in Arkansas) Lynn-Holly Johnson, professional ice skater and actress Mickey Johnson, NBA forward 1974–86 Nancy Johnson, U.S. Representative for Connecticut 1983–2007 Phillip E. Johnson, professor, father of intelligent design movement Raylee Johnson, NFL defensive end 1993–2003 Richard Johnson, defensive back for Houston Oilers Robert L. Johnson, founder of Black Entertainment Television, owned Charlotte Bobcats (born in Mississippi) Sheila Johnson, philanthropist, owner of Washington Mystics Syleena Johnson, singer and TV personality Timothy V. Johnson, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 2001–13 Luke Johnsos, player and coach for Chicago Bears Bruce Johnston, singer for Beach Boys, composer of "I Write the Songs" J. J. Johnston, actor, boxing historian Louis Jolliet, explorer, early Illinois territory settler (born in Canada) Adam Jones, Grammy-winning guitarist Amanda Jones, 1973 Miss USA, first runner-up Miss Universe Austin Jones, former YouTuber, musician, and a capella artist Barbara Jones, sprinter, 1952 and 1960 Olympic relay golds Darryl Jones, guitarist for The Rolling Stones David Jones, physician, second owner of NFL's Chicago Cardinals Earl Jones, athlete, 800 meters bronze in 1984 Summer Olympics Esther Jones, sprinter, 1992 Summer Olympics relay gold Garrett Jones, first baseman and outfielder for the New York Yankees Hoppy Jones, original member of singing group The Ink Spots James Jones, author, From Here to Eternity, Some Came Running, The Thin Red Line Jo Jones, drummer for Count Basie Mary Harris Jones, labor organizer (born in Ireland) Melvin Jones, founder of Lions Club International (born in Arizona) Ralph Jones, coach of Chicago Bears, basketball coach at Purdue, Illinois and Butler (born in Indiana) Quincy Jones, musician, conductor, producer, arranger, composer, film composer, Grammy Legend Award Rickie Lee Jones, Grammy-winning singer and songwriter Sam J. Jones, actor, Flash Gordon, 10, Ted Wesley Livsey Jones, U.S. Senator of Washington 1909–32 Bob Jordan, television journalist (born in Georgia) Clifford Jordan, jazz musician Jim Jordan, actor, radio's Fibber McGee and Molly John Jordan, basketball coach for Loyola and Notre Dame Marian Driscoll Jordan, actress, Fibber McGee and Molly Michael Jordan, basketball player, NCAA champion, two-time Olympic champion, six-time NBA champion for Chicago Bulls, owner of Charlotte Hornets (born in North Carolina) Reggie Jordan, NBA guard 1994–2000 Art Jorgens, MLB catcher 1929–39 (born in Norway) Orville Jorgens, MLB pitcher 1935–37 Ron and Vivian Joseph, Olympic pairs skaters Al Joyner, athlete, gold medalist in triple jump at 1984 Summer Olympics Jackie Joyner-Kersee, athlete, UCLA basketball and track, four-time Olympian, three golds, six medals Tom Joyner, radio personality Norman B. Judd, U.S. Representative 1867–71 (born in New York) Howie Judson, pitcher for Chicago White Sox, Cincinnati Reds Sylvia Shaw Judson, sculptor Whitcomb L. Judson, inventor of the zipper John Jurkovic, football player, radio personality Herb Juul, MLB pitcher, Illinois basketball player, coach K Ka–Kg Ted Kaczynski, notorious Unabomber criminal Mike Kafka, NFL and Northwestern quarterback Gus Kahn, songwriter, "I'll See You in My Dreams" (born in Germany) James Kahn, writer of Star Wars novels, television producer Harry Kalas, Hall of Fame sportscaster for Philadelphia Phillies Floyd Kalber, longtime Chicago television journalist (born in Nebraska) Frank Kaminsky, center for NBA's Charlotte Hornets Stuart M. Kaminsky, mystery novelist Elias Kane, judge, first Illinois Secretary of State, U.S. Senator 1825–35 (born in New York) Marjorie Kane, actress, The Dentist, The Loud Mouth Patrick Kane, three-time Stanley Cup champion with Chicago Blackhawks (born in New York) Maria Kanellis, WWE professional wrestler Kraig Kann, Golf Channel personality, LPGA official Henry Kaplan, pioneer in radiation therapy and radiobiology Irving Kaplansky, mathematician at University of Chicago Jack Kapp, founder of Decca Records Chris Kappler, Olympic equestrian gold medalist Frederick J. Karch, World War II and Vietnam general Fred Karger, political consultant Fred Karlin, songwriter, "For All We Know" Phil Karlson, film director, Kid Galahad, Kansas City Confidential, The Silencers, Walking Tall Roberta Karmel (born 1937), Centennial Professor of Law at Brooklyn Law School, and first female Commissioner of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Johnny Karras, halfback for Illinois 1952 Rose Bowl champions Ted Karras, center for the New England Patriots Kevin Kasper, wide receiver for eight NFL teams Leon Kass, physician, scientist, educator, public intellectual Chuck Kassel, NFL player 1927–33 Terry Kath, musician with band Chicago Stana Katic, actress, Castle Philip Kaufman, film director, The Right Stuff, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, Rising Sun Tony Kaufmann, MLB pitcher 1921–35 Herminie Templeton Kavanagh, writer, Darby O'Gill and the Little People (born in England) Kenneth Kays, decorated soldier Marilyn Kaytor, food writer Tim Kazurinsky, actor, comedian, Saturday Night Live, Police Academy Bill Keating, lineman, 1965 Rose Bowl champion Michigan Tom Keating, NFL defensive tackle 1964–75 Julie Kedzie, mixed martial artist Howard Keel, actor, singer, Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, Kiss Me Kate, Kismet, Calamity Jane, Dallas James Keeley, newspaper publisher (born in England) Leslie Keeley, physician, founder of Keeley Institute for addiction treatment Cody Keenan, speechwriter for President Barack Obama Rosalind Keith, actress, Criminals of the Air, Trouble in Sundown Kent E. Keller, U.S. Representative 1931–41 Sheldon Keller, comedy writer Barry Kelley, actor Florence Kelley, social reformer, founder of National Consumers' League (born in Pennsylvania) Mike Kelley, creator of TV series Revenge Dennis Kelly, offensive tackle for Philadelphia Eagles Edward Joseph Kelly, 14-year Mayor of Chicago Harry Kelly, decorated World War I soldier, Governor of Michigan James Kelly, founder of Chicago Tribune Megyn Kelly, NBC journalist, host of Megyn Kelly Today R. Kelly, singer and songwriter Robin Kelly, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Caren Kemner, volleyball player, bronze medal in 1992 Summer Olympics Mike Kenn, tackle for Atlanta Falcons, starter in 251 NFL games Michael Kenna, saloonkeeper, Chicago alderman Bob Kennedy, manager of Chicago Cubs and Oakland Athletics Christopher G. Kennedy, president of Merchandise Mart, university trustee, nephew of John F. Kennedy (born in Massachusetts) D. James Kennedy, pastor, Christian broadcaster Ethel Kennedy, widow of U.S. senator and attorney general Robert F. Kennedy, awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom John Kennedy, MLB infielder 1962–74 Madge Kennedy, actress, The Marrying Kind, Lust for Life Merna Kennedy, actress, wife of Busby Berkeley Martin H. Kennelly, Mayor of Chicago 1948–55 Ernie Kent, basketball head coach for Washington State and Oregon Mel Kenyon, auto racer, five top-5 finishes in Indy 500 Robert Keohane, co-founder of the neoliberalism school of thought Hugh Keough, horse racing official and sportswriter Joe E. Kernan, Governor of Indiana 2003–05 Otto Kerner Jr., Governor of Illinois 1961–68 Johnny Kerr, NBA player, coach, broadcaster for Chicago Bulls, member of basketball Hall of Fame Walter Kerr, Broadway drama critic Jack Kerris, Loyola and pro basketball player Donald Kerst, physicist, worked on Manhattan Project Brian Kerwin, actor, Murphy's Romance, Love Field, Torch Song Trilogy, 27 Dresses, Beggars and Choosers Joseph Kerwin, astronaut and physician T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh, actress, That's So Raven, Cosby, In Living Color Madison Keys, tennis player, 2017 U.S. Open runner-up Kh–Kn Chaka Khan, singer, multiple Grammy Award winner Fazlur Khan, designer of John Hancock Center, Willis Tower (born in India) Shahid Khan, owner, Jacksonville Jaguars (born in Pakistan) Gerald Frederick Kicanas, archbishop of Tucson, Arizona John Kidd, NFL punter 1984–98 Adolph Kiefer, swimmer, backstroke gold medalist in 1936 Olympics Richard Kiley, actor, Blackboard Jungle, A Year in the Life, Man of La Mancha, The Phenix City Story, Looking for Mr. Goodbar Dorothy Kilgallen, columnist, game show panelist Philip G. Killey, director of Air National Guard James M. Kilts, CEO of Gillette William Wallace Kimball, piano manufacturer (born in Maine) Elbert Kimbrough, defensive back for San Francisco 49ers 1962–66 Kyle Kinane, stand-up comedian Bill King, radio voice, Oakland A's, Raiders, Golden State Warriors Bradley King, early Hollywood screenwriter Edward John King, 7-term U.S. Representative (born in Massachusetts) Frank King, cartoonist, creator of Gasoline Alley (born in Wisconsin) Freddie King, musician in Blues Hall of Fame (born in Texas) Ginevra King, socialite Ray King, MLB pitcher 1999–2008 Wayne King, bandleader Dave Kingman, 15-year MLB outfielder (born in Oregon) Sam Kinison, stand-up comedian, actor (born in Washington) Terry Kinney, actor, Oz, The Unusuals, Sleepers, The Firm, co-founder of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company William Kinney, lieutenant governor 1826–30 (born in Kentucky) John Kinsella, swimmer, gold medalist at 1972 Summer Olympics Juliet Magill Kinzie, historian (born in Connecticut) John Kinzie, early Chicago settler (born in Ireland) John H. Kinzie, trader, Chicago politician (born in Canada) Adam Kinzinger, Air Force pilot, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative Jason Kipnis, second baseman for Cleveland Indians Bob Kipper, MLB pitcher 1985–92 George Kirby, comedian Rollin Kirby, cartoonist Mark Kirk, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator of Illinois Jimmy Kite, auto racer Kurt Kittner, football quarterback Tom Kivisto, basketball player, businessman Nick Kladis, basketball player, businessman, part-owner of Chicago White Sox, St. Louis Cardinals Billy Klaus, MLB player Bobby Klaus, MLB player Gary Kleck, criminologist, Florida State University Professor Emeritus Chris Klein, actor, American Pie film series, Rollerball Dick Klein, first owner, general manager of Chicago Bulls (born in Iowa) Dick Klein, tackle for Chicago Bears, Dallas Cowboys Josh Kline, offensive guard for the New England Patriots William G. Kline, basketball and baseball coach, Nebraska and Florida Frank Klopas, soccer player, coach of Chicago Fire Karlie Kloss, fashion model John C. Kluczynski, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1951–75 Ted Kluszewski, first baseman for Cincinnati Reds, Chicago White Sox, hit 3 home runs in 1959 World Series Philip Klutznick, U.S. Secretary of Commerce 1980–81, Chicago Bulls president 1973 (born in Missouri) Anthony L. Knapp, U.S. Representative 1861–65 (born in New York) Robert M. Knapp, U.S. Representative 1873–79 (born in New York) Willie Knapp, jockey in Hall of Fame, winner of 1918 Kentucky Derby Chad Knaus, NASCAR crew chief Alexa Scimeca Knierim, figure skater, 2015 national pairs champion Joe Knollenberg, U.S. Representative of Michigan 1993–2009 Oscar Knop, NFL halfback 1920–27 Frank Knox, newspaper publisher/owner and Secretary of the Navy (born in Massachusetts) Ko–Kz Tom Koch, writer for Mad magazine Leo Kocialkowski, tax appraiser, U.S. Representative 1933–43 Dave Kocourek, tight end in 7 AFL title games Dave Koechner, actor, Second City, Anchorman (born in Missouri) Walter Koenig, actor, Star Trek Gustav Koerner, lieutenant governor, Abe Lincoln aide (born in Germany) Bob Koester, founder of Delmark Records (born in Kansas) Seana Kofoed, actress, Men in Trees Herman Kogan, journalist Rick Kogan, journalist H. H. Kohlsaat, newspaper publisher Dick Kokos, MLB outfielder 1948–54 Dan Kolb, MLB pitcher 1999–2007 Gary Kolb, MLB outfielder 1960–69 Darlene Koldenhoven, Grammy Award-winning singer Henry Kolker, actor, Holiday, Union Pacific Fred Koller, songwriter Don Kolloway, MLB infielder 1940–53 Bonnie Koloc, folk singer (born in Iowa) Lou Kolls, football player, MLB umpire Mort Kondracke, political commentator, columnist for Roll Call Paul Konerko, 15-year first baseman for White Sox (born in Rhode Island) Lee Konitz, saxophonist George Kontos, relief pitcher for San Francisco Giants David Kopay, pro running back, author, gay rights activist Harvey Korman, actor and comedian, The Carol Burnett Show, Blazing Saddles, History of the World, Part I, High Anxiety Sidney Korshak, labor lawyer Eddie Kotal, pro football player Glenn Kotche, drummer Arlene Kotil, pro baseball player Irene Kotowicz, pro baseball player George Kotsiopoulos, TV personality, Fashion Police Rich Koz, television personality Svengoolie Joe Krakoski, NFL defensive back 1961–66 Irene Kral, singer Roy Kral, jazz musician Olof Krans, Swedish-American folk art painter and artist Nelson G. Kraschel, Governor of Iowa 1937–39 Jerry Krause, general manager of six-time NBA champion Chicago Bulls Moose Krause, four-sport athlete, coach, athletic director for Notre Dame Alison Krauss, bluegrass musician and composer Mike Kreevich, MLB outfielder 1931–45 Frederick Kreismann, mayor of St. Louis 1909–13 Rich Kreitling, NFL wide receiver 1959–64 Gary Kremen, founder of Match.com John Kriza, ballet dancer Ray Kroc, CEO of McDonald's, owned San Diego Padres Egil Krogh, lawyer, aide to President Richard Nixon, Watergate figure Ian Krol, MLB pitcher Candace Kroslak, actress, Ocean Ave. Bill Krueger, pitcher for eight MLB teams Ernie Krueger, MLB catcher 1913–25 Gene Krupa, drummer, subject of film The Gene Krupa Story Todd Krygier, hockey player for Washington Capitals and Anaheim Ducks Mike Krzyzewski, basketball coach for Duke University, five NCAA championships, 2008 and 2012 Olympic gold medals, Hall of Fame Steve Kuberski, forward for Boston Celtics and Milwaukee Bucks Daniel Kucera, Catholic bishop, Illinois Benedictine president Jonathan Kuck, speed skater, 2010 Winter Olympics silver medalist John Kuenster, editor of Baseball Digest, author Mickey Kuhn, actor George Kunz, lineman for Atlanta Falcons, Baltimore Colts Stanley H. Kunz, thoroughbred breeder, U.S. Representative 1921–33 (born in Pennsylvania) Irv Kupcinet, newspaper columnist, broadcaster Karyn Kupcinet, actress, murder victim C.J. Kupec, center for Michigan and the Los Angeles Lakers Bill Kurtis, television news journalist (born in Florida) Emil Kush, pitcher for Chicago Cubs 1941–49 Sarah Kustok, sportscaster Zak Kustok, Northwestern quarterback Ken Kwapis, TV and film director, The Office, The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants, He's Just Not That Into You L La–Ld Walter LaBerge, Under Secretary of Army, Air Force, NATO Harry Lachman, film director, Dante's Inferno, Our Relations Bob Lackey, basketball player for Marquette and ABA's New York Nets Ethel Lackie, swimmer, two gold medals in 1924 Summer Olympics Matt LaCosse, tight end for the New England Patriots Tyler Ladendorf, second baseman for the Oakland Athletics Carl Laemmle, motion picture mogul (born in Germany) Carl Laemmle Jr., head of Universal Pictures Carla Laemmle, silent-film actress A.G. Lafley, CEO of Procter & Gamble (born in New Hampshire) Jewel Lafontant, attorney, figure in George H.W. Bush administration Kyung Lah, Tokyo-based international correspondent for CNN Ray LaHood, politician (Republican), state and U.S. Representative, U.S. Secretary of Transportation 2009–13 Bill Laimbeer, basketball player and coach (born in Massachusetts) Frankie Laine, singer and actor, known for themes to 3:10 to Yuma, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Rawhide, Blazing Saddles Jean La Lime, early Chicago settler (born in Canada) Ricardo Lamas, mixed martial-arts fighter Derek Lamely, golfer Robert Lamm, musician, songwriter for band Chicago Gene Lamont, MLB catcher, coach and manager Robert P. Lamont, U.S. Secretary of Commerce 1927–32 (born in Michigan) Amy Landecker, actress, A Serious Man, Louie, Transparent Ann Landers (Ruth Crowley, Eppie Lederer), advice columnist James Landis, noted power engineer Jessie Royce Landis, actress, North by Northwest, To Catch a Thief John Landis, film director, National Lampoon's Animal House, The Blues Brothers, Trading Places, Michael Jackson's Thriller Kenesaw Mountain Landis, judge, baseball commissioner, banned eight Black Sox (born in Ohio) Reed G. Landis, combat pilot, son of Judge Landis Margaret Landon, author, Anna and the King of Siam (born in Wisconsin) Truman H. Landon, Air Force general (born in Missouri) Hobie Landrith, catcher for seven MLB teams Mabel Landry, 4-time U.S. champion in long jump Eric Lane, actor Matteo Lane, comedian Nora Lane, actress, The Man Hunter, The Cisco Kid Tami Lane, Oscar-winning makeup artist Will Lang Jr., war correspondent, bureau chief for Life magazine Harris Laning, admiral Sherry Lansing, actress and CEO of Paramount Pictures Lauren Lapkus, actress, Orange Is the New Black, Are You There, Chelsea?, Clipped, Jurassic World Alison LaPlaca, actress, Open House, Madhouse Angelo J. LaPietra, mobster with Chicago Outfit John Lardner, war correspondent, New York sportswriter Ring Lardner, early 20th-century sportswriter, author, composer, lyricist (born in Michigan) Ring Lardner Jr., Oscar-winning screenwriter, Woman of the Year, The Cincinnati Kid, M*A*S*H Rod La Rocque, actor, The Locked Door, Forbidden Paradise Norm Larsen, industrial chemist, inventor of WD-40 René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, explorer Kirke La Shelle, reporter, editor, playwright, producer Albert Lasker, advertising executive, co-owned Chicago Cubs 1916–25 (born in Germany) Jonathan Latimer, author and screenwriter Johnny Lattner, football player, Heisman Trophy winner for Notre Dame Arnold Laven, director and producer, The Rifleman, The Big Valley, Rough Night in Jericho, Sam Whiskey Hazel Lavery, artist and model Jackie LaVine, swimmer, 1952 Olympic bronze medalist Ralph Lawler, radio-TV broadcaster of Los Angeles Clippers Carol Lawrence, singer and actress George R. Lawrence, photographer and aviator Robert Henry Lawrence Jr., jet pilot and astronaut Victor F. Lawson, publisher of Chicago Daily News 1876–1925 Don Laz, pole vaulter, silver medalist in 1952 Summer Olympics Le–Lh Cloris Leachman, Oscar-winning, 8-time Emmy-winning actress, The Last Picture Show, Mary Tyler Moore, 1946 Miss Illinois (born in Iowa) Brett Lebda, NHL defenseman 2005–11 Mike Lebovitz, stand-up comedian Pepi Lederer, silent-film actress Ang Lee, Oscar-winning director, Illinois alumnus Doug Lee, NBA player 1991–95 Mary Lee, actress, Cowboy and the Senorita, South of the Border Russell Lee, photographer Dan LeFevour, pro football quarterback Joan Lefkow, judge (born in Kansas) Lance LeGault, actor, The A-Team Ernest de Koven Leffingwell, explorer Natasha Leggero, comedian, judge on Last Comic Standing Charlie Leibrandt, MLB pitcher 1979–93 Lefty Leifield, MLB pitcher 1905–20 Levi Leiter, co-founder of Marshall Field & Co., president of Art Institute of Chicago Mark Leiter, pitcher for eight MLB teams Charles LeMaire, Oscar-winning costume designer John LeMay, actor, Friday the 13th: The Series (born in Minnesota) Walt Lemon Jr. (born 1992), American basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Don Lenhardt, player for four MLB teams Harry Lennix, actor, Dollhouse, The Blacklist, Matrix films Thomas Lennon, actor, comedian, Reno 911!, The State, Viva Variety Rick Lenz, actor, Hec Ramsey, Cactus Flower, The Shootist Dutch Leonard, pitcher for four MLB teams Jack E. Leonard, comedian Meyers Leonard, center for Portland Trail Blazers (born in Virginia) Robert Z. Leonard, Oscar-nominated film director, The Great Ziegfeld, Pride and Prejudice, The Bribe Leopold and Loeb, notorious murderers of 1924 Lawrence Leritz, dancer, actor Leo Lerner, newspaper publisher Jim Les, guard for four NBA teams, head coach of UC Davis Mikel Leshoure, running back for Detroit Lions 2011–14 Amy Leslie, opera singer, journalist (born in Iowa) Donald Leslie, inventor of the Leslie speaker Buddy Lester, comedian and actor, Ocean's 11, The Nutty Professor Jerry Lester, comedian, television personality Ronnie Lester, guard for Chicago Bulls and Los Angeles Lakers Tim Lester, quarterback and head coach, Western Michigan Tracy Letts, Tony-winning actor, playwright, screenwriter, August: Osage County (born in Oklahoma) Brian Levant, film director, The Flintstones, Beethoven, Snow Dogs, Are We There Yet? Max Levchin, co-founder of PayPal and Yelp (born in Ukraine) Mel Leven, songwriter Edward H. Levi, U.S. Attorney General 1975–77 Charles Levin, actor, Alice, Capital News Gabe Levin (born 1994), American-Israeli basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Al Levine, pitcher for seven MLB teams Samm Levine, actor Ted Levine, actor, The Silence of the Lambs, Monk (born in Ohio) King Levinsky, boxer, heavyweight contender Steven Levitan, TV director, screenwriter and producer; creator of Just Shoot Me! and Modern Family*Steven Levitt, economist, author of Freakonomics Marv Levy, coach and general manager for Buffalo Bills, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame Greg Lewis, NFL wide receiver 2003–10 J. Hamilton Lewis, congressman for two states, U.S. Senator of Illinois (born in Virginia) Lena Morrow Lewis, suffragist, Socialist Meade Lux Lewis, jazz musician Monica Lewis, singer and actress, The Strip, The D.I., Excuse My Dust, Affair with a Stranger Ramsey Lewis, radio personality and Grammy Award-winning jazz musician, "The 'In' Crowd" J.C. Leyendecker, illustrator (born in Germany) Li–Ln Anna Li, gymnast, NCAA champion for UCLA Marcus Liberty, pro basketball player George Lichty, cartoonist, Grin and Bear It Dennis Lick, offensive tackle for Chicago Bears 1976–81 Don Liddle, pitcher for 1954 World Series champion New York Giants Jeffrey Lieber, TV writer and producer, Lost Jennifer Lien, actress, Star Trek: Voyager DeAndre Liggins, pro basketball player David E. Lilienthal, chairman, Atomic Energy Commission 1946–50 Arlene Limas, world and Olympic champion in taekwondo Abbey Lincoln, singer and actress Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States, Illinois lawyer and legislator, writer of Gettysburg Address, issuer of Emancipation Proclamation (born in Kentucky) Abraham Lincoln II, grandson of Abraham Lincoln Jessie Harlan Lincoln, granddaughter of Abraham Lincoln Mamie Lincoln, granddaughter of Abraham Lincoln Mary Todd Lincoln, Abe Lincoln's wife (born in Kentucky, died in Illinois) Robert Todd Lincoln, attorney, U.S. Ambassador to United Kingdom, Secretary of War, President of Pullman Company, Abe Lincoln's son Tad Lincoln, youngest son of Abe Lincoln, died at 18 Thomas Lincoln, father of Abe Lincoln, lived in Illinois 1831–51 (born in Virginia) Edward Lindberg, athlete, relay gold medalist in 1912 Summer Olympics Jim Lindeman, MLB outfielder 1986–94 Charles Magnus Lindgren, shipping executive (born in Sweden) John R. Lindgren, banking executive, son of Charles M. Lindgren Justa Lindgren, football player for Illinois 1898–1901, coach of 1904 Big Ten champions Benjamin F. Lindheimer, horse racing, owner of Washington Park Race Track and Arlington Park Vachel Lindsay, poet Chuck Lindstrom, catcher, tripled in only MLB at-bat Freddie Lindstrom, Hall of Fame third baseman Ed Linke, MLB pitcher 1933–38 Art Linson, producer, The Untouchables, Heat, The Edge, Into the Wild Dan Lipinski, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative William O. Lipinski, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1993–2005 Clara Lipman, 19th-century stage actress Johnny Lira, boxer, USBA lightweight champ Peter Lisagor, journalist Rusty Lisch, quarterback for Notre Dame and St. Louis Cardinals Jerome Edward Listecki, archbishop of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Little Walter, blues musician (born in Louisiana) J. J. Liu, professional poker player (born in California) Robert Livingston, actor, The Three Mesquiteers Shaun Livingston, forward for 2015 NBA champion Golden State Warriors Danny Lloyd, actor, The Shining Scott Lloyd, basketball player Vince Lloyd, baseball broadcaster Lo–Lp Dick Locher, Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist, writer-artist of Dick Tracy Allan Loeb, screenwriter, Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, The Switch Marshall Loeb, magazine editor Frank J. Loesch, chief of Chicago Crime Commission (born in New York) Nils Lofgren, musician, member of Bruce Springsteen E Street Band Johnny Loftus, Hall of Fame jockey, 2-time Kentucky Derby winner, 1919 Triple Crown David Logan, 19th-century mayor of Portland, Oregon Janice Logan, actress, Opened by Mistake, Dr. Cyclops John A. Logan, politician (Democrat and Republican), Civil War general, U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator John Alexander Logan Jr., soldier, Medal of Honor winner, killed in combat John Logan, screenwriter, Any Given Sunday, Gladiator, The Aviator, Hugo, Skyfall (born in California) Stephen T. Logan, law partner of Abe Lincoln Gary Loizzo, musician with The American Breed Joseph Lombardo, organized crime figure Dutch Lonborg, basketball coach, Northwestern all-time leader in victories Chuck Long, quarterback and coach, College Football Hall of Fame Fred T. Long, baseball player, football coach Herman Long, MLB infielder 1889–1904 Richard Long, actor, The Big Valley, Nanny and the Professor, Bourbon Street Beat, House on Haunted Hill Shelley Long, actress, Second City, Northwestern, Cheers, Troop Beverly Hills, The Brady Bunch Movie (born in Indiana) Frank Loomis, hurdler, gold medalist in 1920 Summer Olympics Horatio G. Loomis, a founder of Chicago Board of Trade (born in Vermont) John Patrick Looney, gangster from Rock Island, inspired character in Road to Perdition Ramón E. López, space physicist Robert Lord, Oscar-winning screenwriter Robert Lorenz, film producer, American Sniper, Mystic River Fred Lorenzen, auto racer, winner of 1965 Daytona 500 William Lorimer, banker and politician Dave Losso, stand-up comedian George Lott, 5-time U.S. doubles champion, 1931 US Open finalist Julia Louis-Dreyfus, actress, Second City, The Practical Theatre Company, Northwestern, Seinfeld (born in New York) Lee Loughnane, musician with band Chicago Tony Lovato, musician, member of band Mest Bob Love, 3-time All-Star forward for Chicago Bulls (born in Louisiana) John Arthur Love, Governor of Colorado 1963–73 Elijah Lovejoy, abolitionist, editor (born in Maine) Owen Lovejoy, minister, abolitionist, U.S. Representative (born in Maine) Frank Orren Lowden, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative, Governor of Illinois 1917–21 (born in Minnesota) Grover Lowdermilk, MLB pitcher 1909–20 (born in Indiana) Fred Lowenthal, college football coach Lynn Lowry, actress Alexander Loyd, Mayor of Chicago 1840–41 (born in New York) Jewell Loyd, basketball player, top pick of 2015 WNBA Draft Lq–Lz Scott W. Lucas, lawyer, U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator Sid Luckman, quarterbacked Chicago Bears to four NFL championships (born in New York) Ludacris (Christopher Bridges), Grammy Award-winning rapper and actor, The Fast and the Furious William H. Luers, ambassador to Czechoslovakia, Venezuela Larry Lujack, radio personality (born in Iowa) Ned Luke, actor, Grand Theft Auto V Deanna Lund, actress, Land of the Giants Helen Lundeberg, painter Carl Lundgren, MLB pitcher 1902–09 Hamilton Luske, Oscar-winning animator, Mary Poppins Greg Luzinski, outfielder for Chicago White Sox and 1980 World Series champion Philadelphia Phillies Abe Lyman, bandleader Jane Lynch, actress and comedian, Glee, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, Julie & Julia, A Mighty Wind, Hollywood Game Night John Lynch, defensive back for Denver Broncos and Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers Jordan Lynch, quarterback for Northern Illinois and Edmonton Eskimos Bird Lynn, catcher for 1917 World Series champion White Sox Fred Lynn, outfielder for Boston Red Sox, California Angels, 1975 American League MVP Ginger Lynn, adult-film actress Janet Lynn, five-time U.S. champion figure skater Marjorie Lynn, singer, National Barn Dance (born in Wisconsin) Ted Lyons, 21-year pitcher for Chicago White Sox, member of Hall of Fame (born in Louisiana) Evan Lysacek, figure skater, 2010 Winter Olympics gold medalist and 2009 world champion, Sullivan Award winner M Maa–Mag Bernie Mac, actor, comedian, The Bernie Mac Show, Mr. 3000, Bad Santa, Ocean's Eleven and its sequels Charles MacArthur, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Chicago journalist, playwright (born in Pennsylvania) Hayes MacArthur, stand-up comedian, actor, writer, Angie Tribeca, Perfect Couples, The Game Plan Franklyn MacCormack, radio personality Charles B. Macdonald, won first U.S. Amateur tournament, built Chicago Golf Club (born in Canada) Hazel MacDonald, film critic and war correspondent Elaine "Spanky" MacFarlane, singer with Spanky and Our Gang Justina Machado, actress, Six Feet Under, Missing, Three Rivers Christy Mack, model, stripper, porn actress Helen Mack, actress, His Girl Friday, The Son of Kong, She Peter F. Mack Jr., pilot, 7-term U.S. Representative Sam Mack, guard for five NBA teams Pete Mackanin, manager for Cincinnati Reds, Philadelphia Phillies Felix Mackiewicz, MLB outfielder 1941–47 Rob Mackowiak, outfielder for Pittsburgh Pirates and White Sox Archibald MacLeish, poet and writer, three-time Pulitzer Prize winner Fred MacMurray, actor, My Three Sons, Double Indemnity, The Caine Mutiny, The Absent-Minded Professor, The Apartment Tress MacNeille, voice actress, The Simpsons, Futurama, Animaniacs Bart Macomber, halfback for Illinois 1914–15 national champions Earle S. MacPherson, automotive engineer, developed MacPherson strut Franklin MacVeagh, banker, U.S. Secretary of the Treasury 1909–13 (born in Pennsylvania) John Macy, civil service chief for Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy Martin B. Madden, U.S. Representative 1905–28 (born in England) David M. Maddox, retired U.S. Army four-star general Amy Madigan, Oscar-nominated actress, Carnivàle, Field of Dreams, Uncle Buck, Pollock, Gone Baby Gone Edward Rell Madigan, U.S. Representative 1973–91, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture 1991–93 Lisa Madigan, Attorney General of Illinois Michael Madigan, Speaker of House, state Democratic Party chairman Slip Madigan, college football player, three-sport coach Cleo Madison, silent-film actress Sarah Danielle Madison, actress Bill Madlock, third baseman, four-time MLB batting champion Michael Madsen, actor, Reservoir Dogs, Kill Bill, The Natural, Thelma & Louise, Donnie Brasco, The Hateful Eight Virginia Madsen, Oscar-nominated actress, Sideways, Candyman, Dune, The Number 23, The Rainmaker, Joy Mike Magac, NFL lineman 1960–66 Mike Magee, soccer player for Chicago Fire Corey Maggette, forward for six NBA teams Magic Sam, blues musician (born in Mississippi) Elizabeth Magie, inventor of game that became Monopoly Sandra Magnus, astronaut, aboard final Space Shuttle Christine Magnuson, swimmer, two-time Olympic medalist Mah–Maq Ron Mahay, relief pitcher for eight MLB teams Maureen Maher, host of CBS series 48 Hours Mystery (born in Michigan) John Lee Mahin, screenwriter, Treasure Island, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Show Boat Jock Mahoney, actor, Tarzan films, Yancy Derringer John Mahoney, actor, Marty Crane on Frasier, Moonstruck, Barton Fink, Primal Fear, Eight Men Out (born in England) Vivian Maier, photographer, Finding Vivian Maier (born in New York) Gil Mains, defensive tackle for Detroit Lions 1953–61 J. Earl Major, judge, U.S. Representative Rebecca Makkai, novelist and short-story writer Karl Malden, Oscar-winning actor, On the Waterfront, A Streetcar Named Desire, Gypsy, The Cincinnati Kid, Patton, The Streets of San Francisco Terrence Malick, Oscar-nominated filmmaker, Days of Heaven, The Thin Red Line, Tree of Life John Malkovich, Oscar-nominated actor, Con Air, In the Line of Fire, Rounders, Secretariat, RED, Being John Malkovich Sax Mallard, jazz musician Dorothy Malone, Oscar-winning actress, The Big Sleep, Written on the Wind, Man of a Thousand Faces, Peyton Place Frank Maloney, college football coach Jasper A. Maltby, Civil War general, gunsmith (born in Ohio) David Mamet, Oscar-nominated screenwriter, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, director, Glengarry Glen Ross, The Verdict, Wag the Dog, Hoffa, The Untouchables Gail Mancuso, TV director, Roseanne, Modern Family, Friends Sammy Mandell, lightweight boxing champion 1926–30 Larry Manetti, actor, Magnum, P.I. Harry Manfredini, film composer Camryn Manheim, actress, The Practice, Ghost Whisperer Lewis Manilow, real estate developer, co-founder of Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago Sebastian Maniscalco, stand-up comedian Carol Mann, golfer, won 38 LPGA tournaments (born in New York) James Robert Mann, politician (Republican), attorney, Chicago alderman, U.S. Representative 1897–1922 Michael Mann, television and Oscar-nominated film director, Miami Vice, Heat, The Insider, Manhunter, Collateral, Ali Joe Mantegna, actor, voice actor, Criminal Minds, The Godfather Part III, House of Games, Joan of Arcadia, The Rat Pack, The Simpsons Joe Mantello, actor and Broadway director Jay Manuel, make-up artist, America's Next Top Model Ray Manzarek, co-founder and keyboardist for The Doors Mar–Mas Paul Marcinkus, archbishop and president of Vatican Bank Carol Marin, television and newspaper journalist Edna Marion, actress Shawn Marion, forward for Dallas Mavericks and U.S. Olympic team Mary Beth Marley, figure skater Jerry Markbreit, professional football referee Gene Markey, screenwriter, decorated naval officer, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts alumnus, husband of Hedy Lamarr and Myrna Loy Morris Markin, founder of Checker Motors Company, owner of Yellow Cab (born in Russia) Harry Markowitz, Nobel Prize-winning economist Clayton Marks, educator, soldier, banker and historian Brit Marling, writer, actress, Another Earth, Arbitrage, Babylon Jess Marlow, television journalist Jacques Marquette, 17th-century explorer (born in France) Frank Clarence Mars, candy maker (born in Minnesota) Kenneth Mars, actor, Young Frankenstein, The Producers, What's Up, Doc?, The Little Mermaid Albert L. Marsh, metallurgist, co-inventor of nichrome Benjamin F. Marsh, railroad czar, Civil War soldier, U.S. Representative Frank Lewis Marsh, Seventh-day Adventist biologist, educator and young Earth creationist Fred Marsh, MLB infielder 1949–56 George Marsh, decorated Civil War soldier Benjamin H. Marshall, architect of Chicago hotels Francis Marshall, brigadier general, World War I George Marshall, film director, You Can't Cheat an Honest Man, Destry Rides Again, Houdini, How the West Was Won Joan Marshall, actress Jim Marshall, MLB first baseman 1958–62 Mike Marshall, outfielder for four MLB teams Samuel S. Marshall, lawyer, 19th-century politician William Marshall, singer, bandleader, husband of Ginger Rogers June Martel, actress, Santa Fe Stampede, Forlorn River Andra Martin, actress, The Thing That Couldn't Die, Up Periscope Billy Martin, tennis player and coach Cecil Martin, NFL fullback 1999–2003 Chuck Martin, football head coach, Miami of Ohio Cuonzo Martin, basketball head coach, University of California James Stewart Martin, Civil War general, U.S. Representative LaRue Martin, center for Loyola and Portland Trail Blazers, top pick of 1972 NBA draft Lynn Morley Martin, U.S. Representative 1981–91, U.S. Secretary of Labor 1991–93 Marcella Martin, actress, Gone With the Wind, West of Tombstone Nan Martin, actress, Goodbye, Columbus, The Other Side of the Mountain, The Drew Carey Show Todd Martin, pro tennis player, U.S. Open and Australian Open finalist Richard Martini, writer and director, Cannes Man Carl Shipp Marvel, organic chemist Dick Marx, jazz musician, ad jingle writer Richard Marx, singer and songwriter Russell Maryland, NFL defensive tackle, College Football Hall of Fame Ron Masak, actor, Murder, She Wrote Phil Masi, MLB catcher 1939–52 Bobby Joe Mason, basketball player for Bradley and Harlem Globetrotters Noah M. Mason, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1937–63 (born in Wales) Roswell B. Mason, mayor during Great Chicago Fire (born in New York) William E. Mason, U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator (born in New York) Michael Masser, songwriter, "Greatest Love of All" Edgar Lee Masters, author and poet (born in Kansas) Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, Oscar-nominated actress, Scarface, The Color of Money, The Abyss, The Perfect Storm, Limitless Mat–Maz Mary Matalin, presidential advisor, television commentator, editor, author Carole Mathews, actress and radio personality Milton W. Mathews, 19th-century publisher and politician T.J. Mathews, MLB pitcher 1995–2002 Jake Matijevic, NASA engineer, developed Mars rovers Marlee Matlin, Oscar-winning actress, Children of a Lesser God Thad Matta, head basketball coach for Ohio State Joel Aldrich Matteson, railroad executive, Governor of Illinois 1853–57 (born in New York) Clyde Matthews, college football coach Wid Matthews, baseball executive Carl Mauck, center for four NFL teams, coach John Mauer, college basketball coach Bill Mauldin, Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist, Willie and Joe (born in New Mexico) Jeff Mauro, television personality, Food Network Jason Maxiell, NBA forward 2005–15 Dal Maxvill, MLB infielder, played in five World Series Lucien Maxwell, hunter, owned ranch where Billy the Kid was killed Philip Maxwell, 19th-century doctor, namesake of Chicago's Maxwell Street (born in Vermont) William Keepers Maxwell, fiction editor of New Yorker 1936–75 Tiny Maxwell, football player, sportswriter, namesake of Maxwell Award Donald May, actor, The Roaring 20s Elaine May, actress, director, Oscar-nominated screenwriter, alumna of University of Chicago and Second City (born in Pennsylvania) George S. May, businessman, golf promoter John L. May, archbishop of St. Louis, Missouri 1980–92 William L. May, politician, first mayor of Springfield, Illinois Marilyn Maye, singer (born in Kansas) Oscar F. Mayer, founder of Oscar Mayer meat company (born in Germany) Oscar G. Mayer Sr., chairman of Oscar Mayer 1955–65 Oscar G. Mayer Jr., chairman of Oscar Mayer 1966–2009 Benjamin Mayfield, cowboy, outlaw Curtis Mayfield, soul, R&B and funk singer, songwriter, record producer William Mayfield, cattleman, militia leader (born in Tennessee) Jackie Mayo, outfielder for Philadelphia Phillies 1948–53 Margaret Mayo, playwright Stanley Mazor, co-inventor of first microprocessor Rob Mazurek, musician Marin Mazzie, Tony Award-nominated actress Mca–Mcd Zach McAllister, pitcher for Cleveland Indians James McAndrews, building commissioner, 9-term U.S. Representative (born in Rhode Island) Brian McBride, soccer player, U.S. national team, MSL and English Premier League Chi McBride, actor, Hawaii Five-0, I, Robot, The John Larroquette Show, Boston Public, Human Target Steve McCall, drummer Oliver McCall, boxer, WBC heavyweight champ 1994–95 Mercedes McCambridge, Oscar-winning actress, All the King's Men, Giant, Johnny Guitar, The Exorcist Terrence McCann, wrestling gold medalist at 1960 Summer Olympics Mel McCants, NBA player for Los Angeles Lakers 1989–90 Justin McCareins, NFL wide receiver 2001–08 Larry McCarren, center for Green Bay Packers 1973–84, commentator, Packers Hall of Fame Alex McCarthy, MLB infielder 1910–17 Jenny McCarthy, model, actress, author, activist, Scream 3, Dirty Love, Witless Protection, The View Johnny McCarthy, MLB first baseman 1934–48 Melissa McCarthy, Emmy-winning, Oscar-nominated actress, Mike & Molly, Bridesmaids, Identity Thief, Tammy Peggy McCarthy, rowing bronze medalist, 1976 Olympics Tim McCarthy, wounded Secret Service agent for Ronald Reagan Constance McCashin, actress, Knots Landing Ed McCaskey, chairman of Chicago Bears 1983–1999 George McCaskey, chairman of Chicago Bears Michael McCaskey, chairman of Chicago Bears 1999–2011 Virginia Halas McCaskey, owner of Chicago Bears Hazel A. McCaskrin, politician Harry M. McCaskrin, politician Sergio McClain, basketball player for Illinois Gerald McClellan, middleweight boxing champion 1991–95 Kathleen McClellan, actress, 1988 Miss Illinois Teen USA John Alexander McClernand, Civil War general, advisor to Presidents Lincoln and Grant, U.S. Representative Robert McClory, U.S. Representative 1963–83 Brooks McCormick, CEO of International Harvester Mike McCormack, Hall of Fame NFL player, coach and executive Cyrus Hall McCormick, businessman, inventor of McCormick Reaper (born in Virginia) Edith Rockefeller McCormick, socialite, patron of opera and Brookfield Zoo Harold Fowler McCormick, chairman of International Harvester Co., husband of Edith Rockefeller Katharine McCormick, biologist, suffragist, and philanthropist (born in Michigan) Robert R. McCormick, newspaper publisher and philanthropist Ruth Hanna McCormick, suffragist, U.S. Representative 1929–31 Walter McCornack, first football coach for Northwestern Joseph McCoy, cattle baron LisaRaye McCoy, actress, All of Us, Single Ladies Johnston McCulley, author, creator of Zorro John T. McCutcheon, cartoonist Jim McDermott, U.S. Representative of Washington Glenn McDonald, member of 1976 NBA champion Boston Celtics Ariel McDonald, basketball player; 2000 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP Robert A. McDonald, retired chairman and CEO of Procter & Gamble, U.S. Secretary of Veterans Affairs John McDonough, president and CEO of Chicago Blackhawks Frances McDormand, Oscar and Emmy-winning actress, Fargo, Blood Simple, Almost Famous, Moonrise Kingdom, Olive Kitteridge Mce–Mcz Ray McElroy, NFL defensive back 1995–2001 Frank McErlane, organized crime figure Tatyana McFadden, wheelchair athlete, Paralympian, winner of Boston and Chicago marathons (born in Russia) Chappie McFarland, MLB pitcher 1902–06 Packey McFarland, lightweight boxer T. J. McFarland, relief pitcher for Arizona Diamondbacks Bill McGee, MLB pitcher 1935–42 JaVale McGee, basketball player Carla McGhee, basketball player, two NCAA championships, 1996 Olympic gold medalist Tyler McGill, swimmer, gold medalist at 2012 London Olympics Joe McGinnity, MLB player in Hall of Fame William P. McGivern, novelist, books became films The Big Heat, Odds Against Tomorrow Elizabeth McGovern, Oscar-nominated actress, Ragtime, Ordinary People, Once Upon a Time in America, Downton Abbey Roxana McGowan, silent-film actress Bob McGrath, television personality, Sesame Street Lamar McGriggs, pro football player Aaron McGruder, cartoonist, The Boondocks Roger McGuinn, musician, The Byrds Don McGuire, actor, Oscar-nominated screenwriter Kathryn McGuire, silent-film actress, Sherlock Jr. Jack McGurn, gangster with Chicago Outfit (born in Italy) Donald McHenry, Ambassador to United Nations (born in Missouri) William McHenry, 19th-century soldier and politician Collin McHugh, pitcher for Houston Astros Tim McIlrath, musician, Rise Against Adam McKay, performer for Second City, screenwriter of Anchorman, director of The Big Short (born in Pennsylvania) Lafe McKee, actor William Parker McKee, president of Shimer College Kevin McKenna, basketball player and coach Raymond S. McKeough, U.S. Representative 1935–45 William B. McKinley, U.S. Representative 1905–21, Senator 1921–26 Denny McLain, pitcher, 31-game winner for 1968 World Series champion Detroit Tigers John McLean, 19th-century U.S. Senator (born in North Carolina) Frederic McLaughlin, first owner of Chicago Blackhawks Claude McLin, saxophonist Greg McMahon, college and NFL assistant coach Jim McMahon, quarterback of Super Bowl XX champion Chicago Bears (born in New Jersey) Sherrick McManis, NFL cornerback James McManus, professional poker player, author Marty McManus, MLB infielder 1920–34 Tom McManus, linebacker, Jacksonville Jaguars 1995–99 William Edward McManus, Roman Catholic bishop Sherman McMaster, Wild West outlaw and lawman Neysa McMein, illustrator and painter Ernie McMillan, offensive tackle for St. Louis Cardinals 1961–74 Bob McMillen, player and coach, Arena Football League Jim McMillen, guard for 1923 Illinois national champions, Chicago Bears Rolla C. McMillen, lawyer, U.S. Representative 1944–51 Donovan McNabb, 6-time Pro Bowl quarterback for Philadelphia Eagles, Washington Redskins, TV commentator Jerel McNeal, all-time leading scorer for Marquette basketball Barbara McNair, singer, television personality and actress, Change of Habit, They Call Me Mister Tibbs! Andrew McNally, founder of Rand McNally company in 1868 (born in Northern Ireland) John McNaughton, film and TV director, Wild Things, Mad Dog and Glory, Homicide: Life on the Street Don McNeill, radio personality Marcus McNeill, offensive tackle for San Diego Chargers 2006–11 James McNerney, CEO of Boeing, 3M John McNulta, Civil War general, U.S. Representative William Slavens McNutt, screenwriter, Huckleberry Finn James McParland, Chicago-based Pinkerton's detective, infiltrated Molly Maguires (born in Ireland) Jimmy McPartland, big-band cornet player Ryan McPartlin, actor, Chuck, Living With Fran Samuel McRoberts, U.S. Attorney under Andrew Jackson, U.S. Senator Margaret McWade, actress, Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Doug McWeeny, MLB pitcher 1921–30 Md–Mh George J. Mecherle, founder of State Farm Insurance David Meckler (born 1987), ice hockey player Joseph Medill, publisher, Mayor of Chicago 1871–73 (born in Canada) Chris Medina, singer-songwriter, American Idol contestant Mark Medoff, playwright, screenwriter, Children of a Lesser God Patrick Meek, speed skater Bill Mehlhorn, golfer, 1924 Western Open champion, 3rd in U.S. Open Garry Meier, radio personality Merrill C. Meigs, pilot, newspaper executive, Meigs Field named for him Leo Melamed, CEO of Chicago Mercantile Exchange Gene Melchiorre, basketball player, 1951 top NBA draft pick, banned for point-shaving scandal Ski Melillo, MLB infielder 1926–37 Chuck Mellor, winner of 1925 Boston Marathon Rich Melman, restaurateur Lester Melrose, music producer Walter Melrose, music producer Bill Melton, MLB third baseman, sportscaster (born in Mississippi) Rachel Melvin, actress, Dumb and Dumber To Rashaan Melvin, NFL cornerback John Willis Menard, first African-American elected to U.S. Congress, 1858 Pierre Menard, fur trader, Illinois' first lieutenant governor (born in Canada) Carol Mendelsohn, TV executive, CSI and CSI:NY Rashard Mendenhall, running back for Illinois and Super Bowl XLIII champion Pittsburgh Steelers Alex Meneses, actress, model, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Everybody Loves Raymond Sid Mercer, sportswriter Joanna Merlin, casting director, actress Charles Edward Merriam, political scientist, professor (born in Iowa) Doris Merrick, actress, The Big Noise, The Counterfeiters Ahmad Merritt, NFL wide receiver 2000–08 Aries Merritt, hurdler, 2012 London Olympics gold medalist Bus Mertes, football coach, Kansas State, Drake Robert Meschbach, soccer player Laurie Metcalf, Emmy-winning actress, Roseanne, The Conners, JFK, Internal Affairs, Toy Story, Getting On Ralph Metcalfe, sprinter, 100-meter silver medalist at 1936 Summer Olympics; politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Bert Metzger, football player Dick Meyer, journalist, CBS News, BBC America and NPR Fred Meyer, chairman of Republican Party of Texas 1988–94 Joey Meyer, head basketball coach at DePaul 1984–97 John Meyer, pro football player and coach Ray Meyer, Basketball Hall of Fame coach for DePaul Russ Meyer, MLB pitcher 1946–59 Seth Meyers, comedian, actor, and television personality Mezz Mezzrow, jazz musician Mi–Mn Patrick Michaels, climatologist, senior fellow at Cato Institute M. Alfred Michaelson, banker, U.S. Representative (born in Norway) Robert H. Michel, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative for 38 years, House Minority Leader 1981–95 Lucia Mida, golfer Ray Middleton, actor, Hurricane Smith, Lady for a Night, 1776 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, modernist architect (born in Prussia) Richard W. Mies, admiral, head of U.S. Strategic Command 1998–2001 George Mikan, Hall of Fame basketball center, DePaul and 5-time NBA champion Minneapolis Lakers Stan Mikita, 22-year player for Chicago Blackhawks, member of Hockey Hall of Fame (born in Canada) Abner Mikva, judge, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative, White House Counsel to President Bill Clinton Darius Miles, forward for four NBA teams Penelope Milford, Oscar-nominated actress, Coming Home Bob Miller, pitched in MLB at 17 Bob Miller, broadcaster in Hockey Hall of Fame Jack Miller, 12-year U.S. Senator of Iowa Jesse Miller, musician Otis L. Miller, MLB infielder 1927–32 Patrick Miller (born 1992), American basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Red Miller, head coach of Denver Broncos 1977–80 Ron Miller, songwriter, "For Once in My Life" Steve Miller, track coach, athletic director, Nike executive, PBA director Terry Miller, NFL linebacker 1970–74 Ward Miller, MLB outfielder 1909–17 James Millhollin, character actor Wally Millies, MLB catcher 1934–41 Robert Andrews Millikan, experimental physicist and Nobel laureate Isaac Lawrence Milliken, blacksmith, alderman, Mayor of Chicago 1854–55 (born in Maine) Donna Mills, actress, Knots Landing, Play Misty for Me Douglas R. Mills, basketball player, coach and athletic director for University of Illinois Phoebe Mills, gymnast, 1988 Olympic bronze medalist Sherrill Milnes, opera singer Bob Miner, co-founder of Oracle Corporation Steve Miner, film and TV director Vincente Minnelli, Oscar-winning film director, An American in Paris, Gigi, The Band Wagon, Lust for Life, The Bad and the Beautiful, Father of the Bride, Some Came Running Minnie Miñoso, batted for White Sox in 1950s–1980s (born in Cuba) Martha Minow, dean of Harvard Law School Bob Mionske, attorney, Olympic and professional bicycle racer Chad Mirkin, Professor, Northwestern University Pat Misch, MLB pitcher 2006–11 Jacquelyn Mitchard, author, The Deep End of the Ocean Joan Mitchell, artist John Mitchell, labor leader John Francis Mitchell, President & COO of Motorola 1980–1995 Johnny Mitchell, NFL tight end 1992–96 Kel Mitchell, comedian and actor Nicole Mitchell, flautist (born in New York) Roscoe Mitchell, jazz saxophonist Matt Mitrione, mixed martial artist Mo–Mt Tony Moeaki, NFL tight end Joe Moeller, MLB pitcher and scout Doug Moench, comic book writer, Batman D. W. Moffett, actor, Switched at Birth, For Your Love, Friday Night Lights Nazr Mohammed, center for eight NBA teams Kid Mohler, baseball player, Pacific Coast League Hall of Fame John Moisant, early 20th-century aviator Bo Molenda, NFL player and coach Jim Molinari, basketball head coach at Western Illinois, Bradley, Northern Illinois and Minnesota David Molk, center for Philadelphia Eagles Jeff Monken, football coach, Army Harriet Monroe, poet Meredith Monroe, actress, Dawson's Creek, Criminal Minds Zach Monroe, pitcher for 1958 World Series champion Yankees Eric Monte, creator of TV series Good Times Karen Montgomery, actress, producer Dwight L. Moody, evangelical minister, publisher, established Moody Bible Institute (born in Massachusetts) William Vaughn Moody, dramatist and poet (born in Indiana) Thomas Mooney, imprisoned labor leader Allen F. Moore, U.S. Representative 1921–25 Annabelle Moore, dancer, silent film actress Charles R. Moore, actor Christina Moore, actress, Hawthorne, Hyperion Bay, Hot Properties Clayton Moore, actor, The Lone Ranger Dayton Moore, baseball executive (born in Kansas) D. J. Moore, NFL defensive back 2009–14 Dolores Moore, pro baseball player Eleanor Moore, pro baseball player Graham Moore, Oscar-winning screenwriter, The Imitation Game Irving J. Moore, television director Jesse Hale Moore, Civil War general, U.S. Representative John Moore, NHL defenseman John Moore, lieutenant governor 1842–46, Mexican–American War officer (born in England) Margo Moore, actress, fashion model Richard Moore, cinematographer, co-creator of Panavision Stephen Moore, economic writer, policy analyst Tim Moore, actor and comedian, Amos 'n' Andy Emery Moorehead, tight end for Super Bowl XX champion Chicago Bears Dick Moores, cartoonist Pablo Morales, swimmer, 1984 and 1992 Olympic golds, Nebraska coach Bugs Moran, gangster, rival of Al Capone Jackie Moran, actor, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Buck Rogers Jim Moran, automobile mogul, philanthropist Lee Moran, actor, film director, screenwriter Polly Moran, actress, Caught Short, Alice in Wonderland Terry Moran, correspondent for ABC News Tom Morello, guitarist for Rage Against the Machine Anna Morgan, drama teacher (born in New York) Cindy Morgan, actress, Caddyshack, Tron Ed Morgan, infielder for Cleveland Indians 1928–33 Helen Morgan, singer, portrayed in biopic The Helen Morgan Story Read Morgan, actor, The Deputy Trevor Morgan, actor, The Sixth Sense, Jurassic Park III, The Patriot Big Bill Morganfield, blues singer and guitarist George Moriarty, MLB player, manager and umpire Buckner Stith Morris, Mayor of Chicago 1838–39 (born in Kentucky) Johnny Morris, receiver for Chicago Bears, sportscaster (born in California) Lamorne Morris, actor, New Girl Max Morris, basketball and football All-American for Northwestern Allie Morrison, freestyle wrestler, 1928 Olympic gold medalist (born in Iowa) David Morrison, astrophysicist James L. D. Morrison, Mexican War officer, U.S. Representative 1856–57 Jennifer Morrison, actress, model, House, How I Met Your Mother, Star Trek, Once Upon a Time Karen Morrison-Comstock, 1974 Miss USA William Ralls Morrison, Civil War officer, U.S. Representative Byron Morrow, actor, Executive Suite Karen Morrow, singer William Morrow, screenwriter Lee Mortimer, journalist and author Amy Morton, actress, Up in the Air, Chicago P.D. Charles Morton, actor Jelly Roll Morton, jazz pianist (born in Louisiana) Joy Morton, founder of Morton Salt Company and Morton Arboretum Lorraine H. Morton, first African-American mayor of Evanston John Mosca, restaurateur in Louisiana Porter Moser, basketball coach, Illinois State, Loyola Mark Moses, actor, Desperate Housewives, Grand, Mad Men Senta Moses, actress, General Hospital, Running the Halls, Home Alone Peter Moskos, assistant professor at John Jay College of Criminal Justice Stewart Moss, actor, writer, and director Burton C. Mossman, cattleman and lawman Johnny Mostil, outfielder for White Sox, 2-time AL stolen-base leader Willard Motley, columnist and author Ben Roy Mottelson, physicist, 1975 Nobel Prize Markos Moulitsas, founder of liberal blog Daily Kos, columnist Samuel W. Moulton, lawyer, U.S. Representative (born in Massachusetts) Anson Mount, actor, Hell on Wheels, Non-Stop Edgar Ansel Mowrer, foreign correspondent and author Paul Scott Mowrer, war correspondent and editor John Moyer, lineman for arena football's Chicago Rush Mr. T, actor, Rocky III, The A-Team Mu–Mz Jerry Muckensturm, linebacker for Chicago Bears 1976–83 Jessie Mueller, singer and actress, Tony Award winner Earl Muetterties, inorganic chemist Jabir Herbert Muhammad, Nation of Islam official, manager of Muhammad Ali Gavin Muir, actor John Mulaney, stand-up comedian Mark Mulder, pitcher for Oakland Athletics and St. Louis Cardinals Clarence E. Mulford, creator of Hopalong Cassidy David Mulford, U.S. Ambassador to India 2004–09 Martin Mull, actor, Fernwood 2 Night, Mr. Mom, Clue, Serial, Roseanne, Dads Vern Mullen, NFL halfback 1923–27 Bill Mulliken, swimming gold medalist, 1960 Olympics George Mundelein, cardinal and Archbishop of Chicago (born in New York) Madman Muntz, car-stereo pioneer Edgar Munzel, baseball writer Ira Murchison, sprinter, 1956 Summer Olympics relay gold Ben Murphy, actor, Alias Smith and Jones, Winds of War (born in Arkansas) Charles Murphy, owner of Chicago Cubs 1906–13 David Lee Murphy, country music artist Dick Murphy, mayor of San Diego 2000–05 John Murphy, swimmer, gold medalist at 1972 Summer Olympics John Benjamin Murphy, surgeon and innovator (born in Wisconsin) Kelly Murphy, volleyball player Thomas Joseph Murphy, archbishop of Seattle, Washington 1990–97 Bill Murray, comedian and Oscar-nominated actor, Saturday Night Live, the Ghostbusters movies, Stripes, Tootsie, Caddyshack, Groundhog Day, Scrooged, Lost in Translation, St. Vincent Brian Doyle-Murray, actor, voice artist, Saturday Night Live, Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, The Razor's Edge, Wayne's World, Cabin Boy, The Middle Elizabeth Murray, artist Joel Murray, actor, Dharma & Greg, Love & War, Grand, Mad Men John Murray, music teacher, founder of Naperville, Illinois Brent Musburger, sportscaster, 1960s Chicago sportswriter (born in Oregon) John Musker, animation director, Aladdin, Hercules, The Princess and the Frog George Musso, Hall of Fame lineman for Chicago Bears Max Mutchnick, TV producer, creator of Will & Grace Riccardo Muti, symphony conductor (born in Italy) Mike Myers, MLB pitcher 1995–2007 Don Myrick, saxophonist for Earth, Wind & Fire, Phil Collins N Na–Nn John Naber, swimmer, winner of five Olympic medals Bill Nack, author and journalist Steven R. 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Neiman, co-founder of Neiman Marcus Bernie Neis, MLB player 1920–27 Baby Face Nelson, bank robber and murderer in the 1930s Battling Nelson, boxer, lightweight champion 1905–06 (born in Denmark) John Nelson, swimmer, 1964 and 1968 Olympic medalist Karl Nelson, lineman for Super Bowl XXI champion New York Giants Michael J. Nelson, comedian and writer, Mystery Science Theater 3000 Wayne Nelson, musician from classic rock's Little River Band Eliot Ness, treasury agent, chief investigator of Prohibition Bureau, subject of film and TV series The Untouchables Dawn Clark Netsch, state senator, comptroller, gubernatorial candidate Lois Nettleton, 1948 Miss Illinois, Emmy-winning actress, The Twilight Zone, Come Fly with Me, Period of Adjustment, Butterfly Jerry Neudecker, baseball umpire Harry Neumann, cinematographer Allan Nevins, historian and 1933 Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer Arthur S. Nevins, U.S. Army general, friend of Dwight Eisenhower Walter C. Newberry, Civil War officer, Chicago postmaster, U.S. Representative (born in New York) New Colony Six, rock band from Chicago Francis K. Newcomer, general, Panama Canal Zone governor 1948–52 Bob Newhart, Emmy and Grammy-winning comedian, actor, The Bob Newhart Show, Newhart, Catch-22, In & Out, The Librarian, Elf Joe Newton, cross country coach, 28 state championships Alberta Nichols, songwriter Marisol Nichols, actress, Riverdale, Resurrection Blvd., 24, Blind Justice Mike Nichols, Oscar and Tony-winning film and stage director, alumnus of University of Chicago and Second City (born in Russia) Nichelle Nichols, actress, Star Trek Danell Nicholson, heavyweight boxer Seth Barnes Nicholson, astronomer Carl Nicks, NBA player 1980–83 John George Nicolay, secretary to Abe Lincoln (born in Germany) Arthur Nielsen, founder of Nielsen Company, television ratings Rick Nielsen, musician, Cheap Trick Audrey Niffenegger, author, The Time Traveler's Wife Alexa Nikolas, actress, Zoey 101, Hidden Hills Rob Ninkovich, linebacker and defensive end for New England Patriots Ray Nitschke, Hall of Fame linebacker for Green Bay Packers, five-time NFL champion Frank Nitti, gangster, associate of Al Capone (born in Italy) Jack Nitzsche, Oscar-winning songwriter, "Up Where We Belong" Agnes Nixon, creator of All My Children Ogonna Nnamani, volleyball player, two-time Olympian No–Nz Natalia Nogulich, actress, Star Trek: The Next Generation Christopher Nolan, director, Batman Begins, The Dark Knight (born in England) Jonathan Nolan, screenwriter, The Dark Knight Rises, Interstellar (born in England) George Nolfi, screenwriter, The Bourne Ultimatum, Ocean's Twelve Ken Nordine, voice-over artist (born in Iowa) Nelson Norgren, four-sport athlete, 34-year University of Chicago coach Ken Norman, player for three NBA teams Bruce Norris, owner of NHL's Detroit Red Wings 1952–82 James D. Norris, chairman of Chicago Blackhawks, member of Hockey Hall of Fame James E. Norris, miller, part-owner of Chicago Stadium and NHL teams (born in Canada) Frank Norris, novelist Lou North, MLB pitcher 1913–24 Cliff Norton, actor Ken Norton, heavyweight boxer and actor, Mandingo Ken Norton Jr., NFL linebacker and coach Red Norvo, xylophone and vibraphone musician Kim Novak, Golden Globe-winning actress, Vertigo, Picnic, Pal Joey, Bell, Book and Candle, Kiss Me, Stupid Larry Novak, musical director at Mister Kelly's Robert Novak, syndicated columnist, TV personality, author, conservative political commentator Steve Novak, forward for Oklahoma City Thunder Jay Novello, actor Brent Novoselsky, tight end for Minnesota Vikings 1988–94 Christopher Nowinski, author, former WWE professional wrestler Ted Nugent, rock musician Mike Nussbaum, actor, Men in Black, Things Change Russell Nype, Broadway actor and Tony Award winner David Nyvall, theologian, first president of North Park University (born in Sweden) O Oa–Ok Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States; former US Senator from Illinois (2004–2008) (born in Hawaii) Michelle Obama, First Lady of the United States, wife of Barack Obama Dean O'Banion, organized crime figure Ken Oberkfell, MLB infielder 1977–92 Arch Oboler, playwright, radio personality, film director Ed O'Bradovich, defensive end for 1963 NFL champion Chicago Bears Hugh O'Brian, actor, The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, Ten Little Indians, Come Fly With Me, The Shootist Chris O'Brien, pro football pioneer, owner of Chicago Cardinals George M. 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O'Connor, actor, Color of Night, The Mummy, There Will Be Blood Leslie O'Connor, baseball executive Tim O'Connor, actor, Peyton Place, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century Tommy O'Connor, gangster (born in Ireland) Anita O'Day, singer Hank O'Day, Baseball Hall of Fame umpire Rasmea Odeh, convicted of immigration fraud, for concealing her arrest, conviction, and imprisonment for fatal terrorist bombing Bill Odenkirk, comedy writer, actor, producer, Mr. Show, The Simpsons Bob Odenkirk, actor, comedian, writer, director, Better Call Saul, Breaking Bad, Nebraska, Mr. Show, Fargo Chris O'Donnell, actor, NCIS: Los Angeles, Scent of a Woman, Batman Forever, Batman & Robin Jake Odorizzi, pitcher for Minnesota Twins Matt O'Dwyer, NFL offensive lineman 1995–2004 Joe Oeschger, MLB pitcher 1915–24 Bob O'Farrell, catcher for three MLB teams, 1926 MVP and World Series champion, manager Nick Offerman, actor, comedian, Parks and Recreation, The Lego Movie, We're the Millers, Fargo William Butler Ogden, politician (Democrat), businessman, first Mayor of Chicago (born in New York) Joseph Ogle, Revolutionary War soldier, established state's first Methodist church (born in Maryland) Richard James Oglesby, politician (Republican), Civil War officer, U.S. Senator, 3-time Governor of Illinois (born in Kentucky) Richard B. Ogilvie, Governor of Illinois 1969–73 Gail O'Grady, actress, American Dreams, NYPD Blue, Hellcats David Ogrin, pro golfer Barratt O'Hara, lieutenant governor, U.S. Representative 1949–69 Janice O'Hara, pro baseball player Edward J. O'Hare, lawyer, associate of Al Capone, father of war hero Butch O'Hare (for whom O'Hare Airport was named) Michael O'Hare, actor, best known from Babylon 5 Don Ohl, 5-time All-Star for three NBA teams Don Ohlmeyer, Emmy and Peabody Award-winning television producer, Monday Night Football, Saturday Night Live Jahlil Okafor, basketball player for Duke and Philadelphia 76ers, third pick of 2015 NBA draft Georgia O'Keeffe, artist, Art Institute of Chicago student (born in Wisconsin) Ol–Oz Douglas R. Oberhelman, CEO of Caterpillar Inc. Ed Olczyk, player for six NHL teams, coach, TV commentator Claes Oldenburg, sculptor Brian Oldfield, shot putter Jawann Oldham, center for eight NBA teams Catherine O'Leary, said to be indirectly responsible for Great Chicago Fire Charley O'Leary, oldest MLB player (58) ever to bat Matt O'Leary, actor John M. Olin, owner of 1974 Kentucky Derby winner Cannonade Ken Olin, actor, director, producer, Thirtysomething, Brothers & Sisters Gene Oliver, catcher for five MLB teams Guy Oliver, silent-film actor King Oliver, jazz musician (born in Louisiana) Gertrude Olmstead, silent-film actress James Olson, actor, The Andromeda Strain, Rachel, Rachel, Ragtime Francis O'Neill, Chicago chief of police 1901–05 (born in Ireland) Kyle Onstott, author, Mandingo Jerry Orbach, film, TV and Tony-winning stage actor, Law & Order, Prince of the City, Dirty Dancing, Beauty and the Beast Dick Orkin, radio personality Suze Orman, author, financial advisor, television commentator Red Ormsby, Major League Baseball umpire 1923–41 Carey Orr, cartoonist David Orr, alderman, Cook County clerk, briefly Mayor of Chicago Johnny Orr, basketball coach, University of Michigan and Iowa State Warren H. Orr, judge (born in Missouri) Zak Orth, actor, Revolution Kid Ory, musician and bandleader (born in Louisiana) Harold Osborn, athlete, gold medalist in decathlon and high jump at 1924 Summer Olympics Dan Osinski, MLB pitcher 1962–70 Wally Osterkorn, pro basketball player Fritz Ostermueller, MLB pitcher 1934–48 Johnny Ostrowski, MLB player for Cubs and White Sox Jim O'Toole, MLB pitcher 1958–67 Dave Otto, MLB player, sportscaster Diana Oughton, student activist, member of The Weathermen Antoine Ouilmette, early settler, Wilmette named for him (born in Canada) Michael Ovitz, co-founder of Creative Artists Agency, president of Walt Disney Company 1995–97 Ruth Bryan Owen, first female in Florida elected to U.S. Congress; ambassador to Denmark and Iceland Brick Owens, MLB umpire 1908–37 (born in Wisconsin) Joseph W. Ozbourn, decorated World War II soldier Marite Ozers, 1963 Miss USA (born in Latvia) P Pa–Pd Geraldine Page, Oscar-winning actress, The Trip to Bountiful, Hondo, Sweet Bird of Youth (born in Missouri) Harlan Page, two-sport star for University of Chicago, head coach of Butler basketball, Indiana football Kimberly Page, professional wrestling personality Jean Paige, silent-film actress Eleazar A. Paine, lawyer, controversial Civil War officer (born in Ohio) Norman C. Paine, football coach, Baylor, Arkansas and Iowa State Curtis Painter, NFL quarterback 2009–14 Ho-Sung Pak, actor, martial artist, action choreographer Max Palevsky, philanthropist, computer technology pioneer William S. Paley, broadcasting pioneer, chief executive of CBS Donn Pall, MLB pitcher 1988–98 Ashley Palmer, actress, singer, Paranormal Activity Bee Palmer, singer, "Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone" Bertha Palmer, philanthropist (born in Kentucky) Betsy Palmer, actress and TV personality, Mister Roberts, The Tin Star, I've Got a Secret, Friday the 13th (born in Indiana) John M. 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Candace Parker, two-time NCAA champion, two-time Olympic gold medalist, forward for Los Angeles Sparks Eric Parker, wide receiver for San Diego Chargers 2002–07 Francis W. Parker, education reformer (born in New Hampshire) Jabari Parker, forward for Milwaukee Bucks, second player selected in the 2014 NBA draft Salty Parker, MLB player, coach, manager Sonny Parker, guard for Golden State Warriors 1976–82 Wes Parker, first baseman for Los Angeles Dodgers 1964–72 Larry Parks, Oscar-nominated actor, The Jolson Story, Down to Earth, Jolson Sings Again, The Swordsman Ben Parr, journalist, author, venture capitalist Vernon Parrington, historian, 1928 Pulitzer Prize Terell Parks (born 1991), professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Albert Parsons, editor, anarchist executed after Haymarket affair (born in Alabama) Claude V. Parsons, educator, U.S. Representative 1930–41 Louella Parsons, syndicated newspaper columnist Lucy Parsons, anarchist and labor organizer (born in Texas) Cecil A. Partee, president of state senate (born in Arkansas) Ed Paschke, artist Tony Pashos, NFL offensive tackle 2003–13 Ravi Patel, actor, Grandfathered Don Patinkin (1922–1995)), Israeli-American economist, and President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Mandy Patinkin, actor and singer, The Princess Bride, Dick Tracy, Ragtime, Yentl, Chicago Hope, Homeland Sheldon Patinkin, theater director for Columbia College, Second City Danica Patrick, auto racing driver, best finish of any woman in history of Daytona 500 and Indianapolis 500 (born in Wisconsin) David Patrick, Olympic hurdler Deval Patrick, governor of Massachusetts 2007–15 Laurdine Patrick, saxophonist Leonard Patrick, organized crime figure (born in England) Stan Patrick, pro basketball player Alexandra Patsavas, TV/film music supervisor, Grey's Anatomy, Supernatural, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire Alicia Patterson, editor and publisher, founder of Newsday Cissy Patterson, editor and publisher, countess Don Patterson, producer, animator, director, The Smurfs, Dumbo, Pinocchio, Fantasia Joseph Medill Patterson, editor, publisher, New York Daily News founder Pat Patterson, MLB player, New York Giants 1921 Marty Pattin, pitcher for five MLB teams Spencer Patton, relief pitcher for Cubs Art Paul, graphic artist for Playboy 1953–83; designer of bunny logo Josh Paul, catcher for four MLB teams Gene Paulette, MLB infielder 1914–20 Henry Paulson, financier, 2006–09 U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Pawnee Bill, Wild West showman John Paxson, three-time NBA champion, team executive for Chicago Bulls (born in Ohio) Melanie Paxson, actress Tom Paxton, folk musician and singer-songwriter Ethel L. 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Peattie, journalist and naturalist (born in Michigan) John Mason Peck, Baptist minister and author (born in Connecticut) Ferdinand Peck, philanthropist, financier of Auditorium Building, Chicago George Peek, economist Westbrook Pegler, journalist, 1941 Pulitzer Prize (born in Minnesota) Chris Pelekoudas, MLB umpire Rob Pelinka, general manager of Los Angeles Lakers, player for three Final Four basketball teams Clara Peller, commercial actress Michael Peña, actor, World Trade Center, Crash, Shooter, End of Watch, American Hustle, The Martian D. A. Pennebaker, documentary filmmaker, Dont Look Back, The War Room, Unlocking the Cage Jack Perconte, infielder for four MLB teams Chuck Percy, president of Bell & Howell Corporation, U.S. Senator (Republican) of Illinois for 20 years (born in Florida) George Periolat, silent-film actor Marlin Perkins, host of television's Wild Kingdom, 18-year director of Lincoln Park Zoo (born in Missouri) Walter Perkins, drummer Edythe Perlick, pro baseball player Bill Perry, cartoonist Felton Perry, actor, Magnum Force, RoboCop Jeff Perry, actor, Nash Bridges, Grey's Anatomy, Scandal Rudy Perz, advertising executive, creator of Pillsbury Doughboy Jim Peterik, singer-songwriter with bands The Ides of March and Survivor, co-wrote "Eye of the Tiger" Elizabeth Peters, mystery novelist Joan Peters, journalist and author Ted Petersen, offensive lineman for two-time Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers William Petersen, actor, Gil Grissom on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Manhunter, To Live and Die in L.A., The Rat Pack Dan Peterson, pro basketball coach Drew Peterson, police officer, convicted murderer Fritz Peterson, pitcher for New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians Pehr August Peterson, Rockford, Illinois industrialist and philanthropist Peter George Peterson, CEO of Lehman Bros., Bell & Howell, 1972–73 U.S. Secretary of Commerce (born in Nebraska) Bernice Petkere, songwriter Robert Petkoff, stage actor (born in California) Lloyd Pettit, hockey sportscaster George Petty, pinup artist (born in Louisiana) Dave Peyton, songwriter and musician Jeff Pfeffer, MLB pitcher 1911–24 Wally Pfister, Oscar-winning cinematographer Father Michael Pfleger, controversial Roman Catholic priest Lee Pfund, pitcher for Brooklyn Dodgers Randy Pfund, head coach for Los Angeles Lakers 1992–94, general manager for Miami Heat Ph–Pn Liz Phair, singer and songwriter (born in Connecticut) Roger Phegley, guard for five NBA teams Art Phelan, MLB player for Cincinnati Reds and Chicago Cubs Mary Philbin, silent-film actress, Phantom of the Opera Andy Phillip, Hall of Fame basketball player for Illinois Busy Philipps, actress, Dawson's Creek, Freaks and Geeks, ER Emo Philips, entertainer and comedian Irna Phillips, creator of Guiding Light and As the World Turns John Calhoun Phillips, Governor of Arizona 1929–31 Kyra Phillips, television journalist Wally Phillips, radio personality (born in Ohio) William Phipps, actor, Cinderella (born in Indiana) Brian Piccolo, running back for Chicago Bears, subject of Brian's Song (born in Massachusetts) Bob Pickens, Olympic wrestler and Bears offensive lineman Ollie Pickering, first batter in MLB American League history William Pickering, 19th-century governor of Washington (born in England) Pat Pieper, public-address announcer at Wrigley Field for 59 years Billy Pierce, pitcher, scout, broadcaster for Chicago White Sox, 7-time All-Star (born in Michigan) George Pierce, MLB player 1912–17 Walter M. 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Plew, aviation pioneer Pete Ploszek, actor, Teen Wolf, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles films Ed Plumb, composer for Disney films, Fantasia, Bambi Po–Pz John Podesta, White House Chief of Staff under Bill Clinton Amy Poehler, comedian, actress, Second City, Saturday Night Live, Parks and Recreation (born in Massachusetts) Angelo Poffo, professional wrestler D. A. Points, professional golfer Ben Pollack, big-band era bandleader Fritz Pollard, first African-American head coach in NFL and Pro Football Hall of Famer Dan Ponce, radio-TV journalist, singer with Straight No Chaser Phil Ponce, Chicago television personality Irving Kane Pond, architect (born in Michigan) Cappie Pondexter, pro basketball player, 2007 MVP of WNBA Finals (born in California) Ernest Poole, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist William Frederick Poole, first Chicago Public Library librarian, designed Newberry Library (born in Massachusetts) Carmelita Pope, actress Nathaniel Pope, politician and advocate of statehood (born in Kentucky) John Porter, U.S. Representative 1980–2001 H.V. Porter, coach, coined term "March Madness" Kevin Porter, guard for three NBA teams, 4-time league assist leader Glenn Poshard, U.S. Representative, Southern Illinois University president Michael Posner, attorney, human rights advocate, Assistant Secretary of State under Barack Obama C. W. Post, breakfast cereal mogul Marjorie Merriweather Post, founder of General Foods Philip S. Post, Civil War general, U.S. Representative (born in New York) Lou Pote, MLB pitcher 1999–2004 Nels Potter, pitcher for six MLB teams Leah Poulos-Mueller, speed skater, 1976 and 1980 Olympic medalist Jack Powell, MLB pitcher, won 245 games John Wesley Powell, explorer, Civil War officer, Illinois Wesleyan professor (born in New York) Maud Powell, violinist Paul Powell, controversial politician Jenny Powers, actress and 2000 Miss Illinois John A. "Shorty" Powers, NASA official, voice of Mercury Control A. 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Pyle, sports promoter Mike Pyle, center for Chicago Bears 1961–69 (born in Iowa) Q Mike Quade, coach and manager for Chicago Cubs John Qualen, actor, Casablanca, The Grapes of Wrath, The Searchers William Quarter, first Bishop of Chicago (born in Ireland) Joel Quenneville, coach of 3-time NHL champion Chicago Blackhawks (born in Canada) Jeff Query, wide receiver for Green Bay Packers and Cincinnati Bengals Smiley Quick, pro golfer Allie Quigley, pro basketball player Mike Quigley, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Elaine Quijano, television journalist Frank Quilici, player, coach and manager for Minnesota Twins Peter Quillin, middleweight boxer Jack Quinlan, sportscaster Maeve Quinlan, tennis player and actress, The Bold and the Beautiful, South of Nowhere Michael R. Quinlan, chairman of Loyola and McDonald's Aidan Quinn, actor, Legends of the Fall, Benny and Joon, Michael Collins, Avalon, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Elementary Declan Quinn, cinematographer Jeff Quinn, football coach Louis Quinn, actor, 77 Sunset Strip Pat Quinn, politician (Democrat), attorney, state treasurer, Governor of Illinois 2009–14 Adolfo "Shabba Doo" Quiñones, actor, dancer, choreographer R Ra–Rd Charles Radbourn, Hall of Fame baseball pitcher (born in New York) Doug Rader, infielder, manager of Texas Rangers, Chicago White Sox, California Angels Phil Radford, environmental leader, Greenpeace executive director Bill Radovich, football player and actor Sondra Radvanovsky, opera soprano Zoe Rae, silent-film actress Robert O. Ragland, film score composer Tom Railsback, politician (Republican), 8-term U.S. Representative Henry Thomas Rainey, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1903–34, Speaker of the House under FDR John W. Rainey, U.S. Representative 1918–23 Mamie Rallins, hurdler, coach, 2-time Olympian Buck Ram, songwriter, "Only You", "The Great Pretender" Sendhil Ramamurthy, actor, Heroes, Beauty & the Beast, Covert Affairs Harold Ramis, actor, director, writer SCTV, Ghostbusters, Caddyshack, Stripes, Groundhog Day, National Lampoon's Vacation Charles H. Ramsey, police commissioner of Philadelphia, 1998–2007 police chief of Washington, D.C. Edwin Ramsey, U.S. Army officer, guerrilla leader during the World War II Japanese occupation of the Philippines Lorene Ramsey, softball, basketball Hall of Famer (born in Missouri) Ray Ramsey, defensive back for Chicago Cardinals Bill Rancic, television personality, The Apprentice, Giuliana and Bill William Rand, founder of Skokie-based Rand McNally (born in Massachusetts) Martha Randall, swimmer, bronze medalist in 1964 Summer Olympics Rebel Randall, actress, radio personality Tony Randazzo, MLB umpire Betsy Randle, actress, Boy Meets World Brian Randle (born 1985), NBA coach and former Israeli Basketball Premier League player Antwaan Randle El, wide receiver for Super Bowl XL champion Pittsburgh Steelers Kerri Randles, actress Isabel Randolph, actress Thomas E. G. Ransom, Civil War general, Ransom, Illinois named for him (born in Vermont) Frederic Raphael, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Darling, Two for the Road Adam Rapp, novelist, playwright, screenwriter, musician, film director Anthony Rapp, actor, singer, A Beautiful Mind, Rent, Dazed and Confused, Road Trip Wayne Rasmussen, defensive back for Detroit Lions 1964–72 John Ratcliffe, Republican Congressman from Texas George Ratkovicz, pro basketball player Heather Rattray, actress, As the World Turns, Guiding Light Green Berry Raum, brigadier general, chief of Internal Revenue Service 1876–83 Bruce Rauner, Governor of Illinois John Aaron Rawlins, Civil War officer, U.S. Secretary of War Lou Rawls, soul, jazz and blues singer and actor, winner of three Grammy Awards Charles Ray, actor, producer, director Hugh Ray, football official, Pro Football Hall of Fame James Earl Ray, carried out April 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Joie Ray, 3-time Olympian, runner in Track Hall of Fame Lyman Beecher Ray, lieutenant governor 1889–93 (born in Vermont) Gene Rayburn, television personality, Match Game Benjamin Wright Raymond, third Mayor of Chicago (born in New York) Bugs Raymond, MLB pitcher 1904–11 Robin Raymond, actress, There's No Business Like Show Business Ray Rayner, Chicago television personality (born in New York) Re–Rh Jack Reagan, father of President Ronald Reagan Nancy Reagan, actress, 1981–89 First Lady of the United States (born in New York) Neil Reagan, radio-TV executive, older brother of Ronald Reagan Nelle Wilson Reagan, mother of Ronald Reagan Ronald Reagan, actor, politician (Republican), Governor of California and 40th President of the United States (born in Tampico, Illinois) Billy Reay, won 516 games as Chicago Blackhawks coach (born in Canada) Eugene Record, singer, The Chi-Lites William Reddick, businessman, philanthropist, politician Jheri Redding, hair care entrepreneur Quinn Redeker, actor, screenwriter, The Young and the Restless, Days of Our Lives, Dan Raven, The Deer Hunter Courtney Reed, actress Dizzy Reed, musician, Guns N' Roses James F. Reed, organizer of Donner Party (born in Ireland) Jeff Reed, MLB catcher 1984–2000 Jimmy Reed, guitarist in Blues Hall of Fame (born in Mississippi) John Shedd Reed, president of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Robert Reed, actor, Mike Brady on The Brady Bunch Rondi Reed, stage actress, singer and performer Tommy Rees, quarterback for Notre Dame 2010–13 George Reeves, actor, Superman (born in Iowa) Tim Regan, pro soccer player Henry Regnery, publisher, founder of Regnery Publishing Wally Rehg, MLB player 1912–19 Kathy Reichs, crime writer, forensic anthropologist, academic Charlotte Thompson Reid, singer, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative 1963–71 Frank R. Reid, attorney in court-martial of General Billy Mitchell, U.S. Representative 1923–35 Joe Reiff, basketball All-American for Northwestern John Reilly, actor, Passions, Sunset Beach, Iron Man John C. Reilly, actor, Talladega Nights, Step Brothers, Chicago, Gangs of New York, The Perfect Storm, Wreck-It Ralph Ed Reimers, television announcer Johan Reinhard, explorer Bill Reinhardt, musician and bandleader Haley Reinhart, singer, American Idol Jerry Reinsdorf, owner of Chicago White Sox and Chicago Bulls (born in New York) Todd Reirden, NHL player and coach Bryan Rekar, pitcher for three MLB teams Pat Renella, actor, Bullitt Marcus Reno, Civil War officer, served with Gen. Custer in Battle of the Little Bighorn Nancy Reno, beach volleyball player Pug Rentner, College Football Hall of Fame player for Northwestern REO Speedwagon, rock band from Champaign Ken Retzer, MLB catcher 1961–64 Paul Reuschel, pitcher for Chicago Cubs 1975–79 Rick Reuschel, pitcher for five Major League teams, 3-time All-Star Katherine Reutter, speed skater, 2011 world champion, medalist in 2010 Vancouver Olympics Frank Reynolds, Chicago and ABC newscaster (born in Indiana) John Reynolds, judge, U.S. Representative, Governor of Illinois 1830–34 (born in Pennsylvania) Marcellas Reynolds, actor, fashion stylist, entertainment reporter, TV host Virginia Richmond Reynolds, artist Wellington J. Reynolds, artist La Julia Rhea, opera singer John Rheinecker, pitcher for Texas Rangers 2006–07 Shonda Rhimes, television producer, creator, Scandal, Grey's Anatomy Betty Jane Rhodes, singer, actress, Sweater Girl, The Fleet's In Jennifer Rhodes, actress, Charmed, Heathers Ri–Rn Paul Ricca, mobster with Chicago Outfit John Blake Rice, actor, producer, Mayor of Chicago 1865–69 (born in Maryland) Craig Rice, mystery novelist and screenwriter Simeon Rice, defensive lineman for Super Bowl XXXVII champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers Wallace Rice, poet, writer, designer of Flag of Chicago (born in Canada) Bob Richards, pole vaulter, gold medalist 1952 Helsinki Olympics and 1956 Melbourne Olympics Carol Richards, singer, radio and television performer Denise Richards, actress, The World Is Not Enough, Denise Richards: It's Complicated Lee Richardson, actor, Prizzi's Honor, Prince of the City Quentin Richardson, player for five NBA teams Salli Richardson, actress, Eureka, Gargoyles, Family Law Sy Richardson, actor, Pushing Daisies William Alexander Richardson, governor of Nebraska territory, U.S. Senator of Illinois (born in Kentucky) Lionel Richie, multiple Grammy Award-winning singer (born in Alabama) Julius B. Richmond, U.S. Surgeon General 1977–81 Steve Richmond, defenseman for four NHL teams Andy Richter, actor, comedian, Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Madagascar films & cartoons Joyce Ricketts, pro baseball player Laura Ricketts, lawyer, co-owner of Chicago Cubs (born in Nebraska) Tom Ricketts, banker, owner and chairman of Cubs (born in Nebraska) Todd Ricketts, businessman, co-owner of Cubs (born in Nebraska) Hyman G. Rickover, admiral, attended Marshall High School in Chicago (born in Poland) Lucille Ricksen, silent film actress John Ridgely, actor, The Big Sleep, Destination Tokyo John Riegger, golfer Marty Riessen, tennis player, US Open, French Open, Wimbledon doubles and mixed doubles champion Dorothy Comiskey Rigney, owner of Chicago White Sox 1956–58 Johnny Rigney, White Sox pitcher and general manager Boots Riley, rapper, producer Ida Morey Riley, founder of Columbia College Chicago Jack Riley, Northwestern player in College Football Hall of Fame, silver medalist 1932 Olympic wrestling Patrick William Riordan, archbishop of San Francisco 1884–1914 (born in Canada) Minnie Riperton, singer, "Lovin' You", mother of Maya Rudolph Wally Ris, swimmer, two-time NCAA champion, two 1948 Olympic golds Rise Against, rock band from Chicago Bill Risley, pitcher for three MLB teams Doc Rivers, NBA point guard, head coach of Los Angeles Clippers Mike Rizzo, general manager of Washington Nationals Rick Rizzs, baseball broadcaster Ro–Rt Tanner Roark, pitcher for Washington Nationals Jason Robards, Oscar-winning actor, A Thousand Clowns, All the President's Men, Julia, Once Upon a Time in the West, Parenthood Jason Robards Sr., actor (born in Michigan) Kevin Roberson, MLB outfielder 1993–96 Gale Robbins, singer, model and actress, Calamity Jane, The Barkleys of Broadway, Three Little Words Leona Roberts, actress, Gone With the Wind Robin Roberts, Hall of Fame starting pitcher primarily for Philadelphia Phillies, won 286 games Sue Roberts, golfer Nan C. Robertson, journalist, 1983 Pulitzer Prize Angela Robinson, director, screenwriter, producer, True Blood, The L Word, Hung Arthur B. Robinson, biochemist, politician Betty Robinson, sprinter, gold medalist at 1928 and 1936 Olympics Craig Robinson, actor, stand-up comedian, The Office, Last Comic Standing, Hot Tub Time Machine, This Is the End Craig Robinson, basketball coach, brother of Michelle Obama Flynn Robinson, guard for four NBA teams Frank M. Robinson, author John McCracken Robinson, lawyer, U.S. Senator of Illinois 1830–41 (born in Kentucky) Kelsey Robinson, indoor volleyball player Marian Shields Robinson, mother-in-law of President Barack Obama Will Robinson, basketball coach for Illinois State, first African-American head coach at Division I school (born in North Carolina) Bill Robinzine, DePaul and pro basketball player Mason Rocca, Princeton and pro basketball player James Roche, CEO and chairman of General Motors 1965–71 John A. Roche, president of elevated railway, Mayor of Chicago 1887–89 (born in New York) Sharon Percy Rockefeller, former first lady of West Virginia, Washington, D.C. television executive Knute Rockne, College Football Hall of Fame head coach for Notre Dame Fighting Irish (born in Norway) George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of American Nazi Party Robert Rockwell, actor, Our Miss Brooks, The Man from Blackhawk, Lassie, The Red Menace Leo Rodak, boxer Steve Rodby, musician William A. Rodenberg, 10-term U.S. Representative Mark Rodenhauser, NFL center 1987–99 Jimmy Rodgers, coach, Minnesota Timberwolves, Boston Celtics Dorothy Howell Rodham, mother of Hillary Clinton Hugh Rodham, lawyer, brother of Hillary Clinton Freddy Rodríguez, actor, Six Feet Under, Ugly Betty, Planet Terror Francisco Rodriguez, boxer (born in Mexico) Gina Rodriguez, actress, Jane the Virgin, The Bold and the Beautiful Richard Roeper, columnist, film critic, co-host of At the Movies Billy Rogell, MLB infielder 1925–40 Annette Rogers, sprinter, relay gold medalist, 1932 and 1936 Olympics Carl Rogers, prominent psychologist Desiree Rogers, CEO of Johnson Publishing (born in Louisiana) Jimmy Rogers, blues musician (born in Mississippi) John W. Rogers Jr., founder of Ariel Capital, head of Barack Obama inauguration committee Michael S. Rogers, admiral, director of National Security Agency Len Rohde, lineman for San Francisco 49ers 1960–74 Mark Romanek, Grammy-winning music video and film director, One Hour Photo, Never Let Me Go Christina Romer, chair of the Council of Economic Advisers under President Barack Obama Miles Park Romney, builder, Mormon leader, great-grandfather of Mitt Romney Tony Romo, quarterback, Eastern Illinois and Dallas Cowboys (born in California) Michael Rooker, actor, Cliffhanger, Days of Thunder, Guardians of the Galaxy (born in Alabama) John E. Rooney, CEO of U.S. Cellular Sean Rooney, volleyball player, NCAA champion at Pepperdine, gold medalist at 2008 Beijing Olympics John Root, architect Adam Rosales, MLB infielder Derrick Rose, guard for New York Knicks, first player selected in 2008 NBA draft, 2008–09 NBA Rookie of the Year Fred Rose, songwriter, Country Music Hall of Fame (born in Indiana) Helen Rose, Oscar-winning costume designer Roger Rose, actor, voice actor, former VH1 VJ, Monsters and Mysteries in America, The Tick, Quack Pack, Happy Feet Timothy M. Rose, actor, puppeteer, Return of the Jedi, The Dark Crystal Wesley Rose, music producer Johnny Roselli, organized crime figure (born in Italy) Jacky Rosen, U.S. Senator from Nevada Clarke Rosenberg (born 1993), American-Israeli basketball player Milt Rosenberg, professor, radio host Tom Rosenberg, film producer, Million Dollar Baby, The Hurricane, Runaway Bride, Underworld series Frank Rosenthal, organized crime figure Julius Rosenwald, philanthropist, president of Sears, Roebuck & Company, founder of Museum of Science and Industry Lessing J. Rosenwald, president of Sears Peter Roskam, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative Arthur Ross, Oscar-nominated screenwriter, Brubaker, The Great Race Barney Ross, boxing world champion (born in New York) Charlotte Ross, actress, NYPD Blue, Beggars and Choosers Leonard Fulton Ross, Civil War general Lewis W. Ross, lawyer, Mexican–American War officer, U.S. Representative (born in New York) Ossian M. Ross, farmer, War of 1812 officer, founder of Lewistown and Havana (born in New York) Ricco Ross, actor, Westbeach Dan Rostenkowski, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1959–95, chairman of House Ways and Means Committee Marv Rotblatt, pitcher for Chicago White Sox 1949–52 Matt Roth, NFL defensive end 2005–11 Veronica Roth, author of Divergent series (born in New York) Claude Rothgeb, football coach for Colorado State, Rice Larry Rothschild, pitching coach for New York Yankees John L. Rotz, Hall of Fame jockey Tom Rouen, punter for six NFL teams Pleasant Rowland, founder of American Girl Cynthia Rowley, fashion designer Rosey Rowswell, baseball broadcaster Bill Roy, U.S. Representative in Kansas 1971–75 Willy Roy, player and coach, Soccer Hall of Fame (born in Germany) Stan Royer, infielder for St. Louis Cardinals 1961–64 Mike Royko, Pulitzer Prize-winning newspaper columnist Andrew Rozdilsky Jr., ballpark mascot Andy the Clown Ru–Rz Aaron Ruben, television producer and director, The Andy Griffith Show Jack Ruby, killer of Lee Harvey Oswald J. Craig Ruby, basketball coach, Illinois 1922–36 (born in Iowa) Dave Rudabaugh, Wild West outlaw Ken Rudolph, catcher for four MLB teams Kirk Rueter, pitcher for San Francisco Giants 1996–2005 Rudy Ruettiger, motivational speaker, Notre Dame football player, Rudy Red Ruffing, Hall of Fame pitcher for New York Yankees Sarah Ruhl, playwright Irene Ruhnke, pro baseball player Joe Ruklick, Northwestern and NBA player Julian Sidney Rumsey, shipping mogul, Mayor of Chicago 1861–62 (born in New York) Donald Rumsfeld, politician (Republican), Secretary of Defense, White House Chief of Staff, U.S. Representative Bobby Rush, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative Otis Rush, blues musician William A. Rusher, lawyer, columnist, publisher of National Review from 1957 to 1988 Marion Rushing, 4-sport athlete for Southern Illinois, NFL linebacker Cazzie Russell, member of College Basketball Hall of Fame, player for 1970 NBA champion New York Knicks Chuck Russell, director, The Mask, Eraser Gail Russell, actress, The Uninvited, Angel and the Badman, Wake of the Red Witch Lewis Russell, actor, The Lost Weekend Lillian Russell, early 20th-century singer and actress (born in Iowa) Mary Doria Russell, novelist Pee Wee Russell, jazz clarinetist Marty Russo, U.S. Representative 1975–93 William Russo, jazz musician and composer Edward B. Rust Jr., CEO of State Farm insurance Joe Rutgens, defensive tackle for Washington Redskins 1961–69 Ann Rutledge, friend of Abraham Lincoln (born in Kentucky) Dan Ryan Jr., businessman, president of Cook County Board of Commissioners George Ryan, Governor of Illinois 1999–2003 Jack Ryan, banker, teacher, Senate candidate vs. Barack Obama Jeri Ryan, actress, Star Trek: Voyager, Boston Public, 1989 Miss Illinois Rex Ryan, head coach for NFL's New York Jets, Buffalo Bills Rob Ryan, defensive coordinator for four NFL tams Robert Ryan, actor, The Wild Bunch, The Dirty Dozen, The Set-Up, Crossfire, Bad Day at Black Rock, The Longest Day Shawn Ryan, television producer and writer, The Shield, The Unit, Angel Gary Rydstrom, film sound designer, seven-time Academy Award winner Frank Rydzewski, pro and Notre Dame lineman Michael Rye, radio and voice actor Jules Rykovich, co-MVP of 1947 Rose Bowl for Illinois (born in Croatia) Bob Ryland, tennis player and coach Herbert Ryman, animator, helped design Disneyland Lou Rymkus, NFL tackle, coach for Houston Oilers Miro Rys, professional soccer player (born in Czechoslovakia) Marc Rzepczynski, MLB relief pitcher S Sa–Sb Lou Saban, head coach of NFL's Buffalo Bills, Denver Broncos and New England Patriots Adolph J. Sabath, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative 1907–52 (born in Czechoslovakia) Bret Saberhagen, pitcher for Kansas City Royals, 1985 Cy Young Award winner and World Series MVP Lenny Sachs, head coach of Loyola basketball 1923–42 Jonathan Sadowski, actor, Live Free or Die Hard, Young & Hungry Craig Sager, sportscaster Bernard Sahlins, founder of Second City comedy club Susan Saint James, Emmy-winning actress, McMillan & Wife, Kate & Allie, Outlaw Blues, Love at First Bite (born in California) Pat Sajak, television personality, host of Wheel of Fortune Sol Saks, screenwriter, creator of Bewitched (botn in New York) Sheri Salata, president of Oprah Winfrey Network (born in Georgia) Chic Sale, actor Virginia Sale, actress Edward S. Salomon, Civil War general, Chicago alderman, Governor of Washington 1870–72 (born in Denmark) Jerome Sally, NFL tackle 1982–88 Waldo Salt, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Midnight Cowboy, Serpico Carmen Salvino, bowler, charter member PBA Hall of Fame Jeff Salzenstein (born 1973), tennis player Tony Sam, stand-up comedian Bill Sampen, MLB pitcher 1990–94 Don Samuelson, Governor of Idaho 1967–71 Ulises Armand Sanabria, television pioneer Kiele Sanchez, actress, Married to the Kellys, Related, Lost Ryne Sandberg, Hall of Fame infielder for Chicago Cubs, manager of Philadelphia Phillies 2013–15 (born in Washington) Carl Sandburg, iconic Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and journalist Hugh Sanders, actor Scott Sanderson, MLB pitcher 1978–96 (born in Michigan) Tommy Sands, singer, actor, first husband of Nancy Sinatra Jenny Sanford, banker, first lady of South Carolina 2003–10 George E. Sangmeister, U.S. Representative, Will County district attorney Evelyn Sanguinetti, lieutenant governor (born in Florida) David Santee, figure skater, two-time Olympian Rick Santelli, editor for the CNBC Business News network Ron Santo, Hall of Fame third baseman for Cubs and White Sox, radio sportscaster (born in Washington) Horatio Sanz, comedian, Saturday Night Live Abe Saperstein, owner-coach, Harlem Globetrotters (born in England) Lewis Hastings Sarett, chemist and inventor Peter Sarsgaard, actor, An Education, Boys Don't Cry, Shattered Glass, Kinsey, Orphan, Blue Jasmine Louis Satterfield, musician with Earth, Wind & Fire Doris E. Saunders, librarian and professor Red Saunders, drummer (born in Tennessee) Warner Saunders, Chicago television newscaster Dan Savage, writer, creator of Savage Love Fred Savage, actor, director, The Wonder Years, The Princess Bride, Austin Powers in Goldmember Randy Savage, professional wrestler Ted Savage, outfielder for eight MLB teams Matt Savoie, Olympic figure skater Eugene Sawyer, Mayor of Chicago 1987–89 (born in Alabama) Ken Saydak, blues musician Gale Sayers, Hall of Fame running back for Chicago Bears, athletic director at Southern Illinois in 1970s (born in Kansas) Morgan Saylor, actress, Homeland George D. Sax, innovative banker Sc–Sg Joseph Scalise, organized crime figure J. Young Scammon, early Chicago settler, banker (born in Maine) Richard Schaal, actor, first husband of Valerie Harper Wendy Schaal, actress, American Dad!, It's a Living, Fantasy Island George Schaefer, TV and stage director Germany Schaefer, MLB infielder 1901–18 Johnny Schaive, infielder for Washington Senators 1958–63 Jan Schakowsky, politician (Democrat), U.S. Representative since 1999 Ray Schalk, Hall of Fame catcher for Chicago White Sox Dan Schatzeder, pitcher for nine MLB teams Molly Schaus, 2-time Olympic hockey silver medalist (born in New Jersey) Paul Scheuring, writer-director, Prison Break Sharm Scheuerman, basketball player and head coach, Iowa Jon Scheyer, basketball player and assistant coach, Duke Claire Schillace, pro baseball player Phyllis Schlafly, conservative activist, author Fred Schmidt, 1964 Olympic swimming gold medalist Harv Schmidt, basketball player and coach at Illinois Karl Patterson Schmidt, herpetologist, zoology curator at Chicago Natural History Museum Lanny D. Schmidt, chemist, inventor, author, professor Aaron Schock, U.S. Representative, resigned from office 2015 (born in Minnesota) Red Schoendienst, Hall of Fame second baseman for St. Louis Cardinals and Milwaukee Braves Russ Schoene, pro basketball player Dana Schoenfield, swimmer, 1972 Olympic silver medalist Admiral Schofield, small forward for the Washington Wizards (born in England) Dick Schofield, infielder for California Angels and Toronto Blue Jays Ducky Schofield, infielder for several Major League teams Michael Schofield, lineman for Denver Broncos O'Brien Schofield, NFL linebacker (born in South Carolina) John Schommer, basketball Hall of Famer, University of Chicago Jessy Schram, actress, Falling Skies, Last Resort Avery Schreiber, actor and comedian Dorothy Schroeder, pro baseball player Leonard W. Schuetz, U.S. Representative 1931–44 (born in Germany) Fred Schulte, MLB outfielder 1927–37 Bill Schulz, panelist, producer, Fox's Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld Don Schulze, MLB pitcher 1983–89 Joe Schultz, MLB player and manager William Schutz, psychologist Fred Schmidt, swimmer, gold and bronze medalist in 1964 Summer Olympics, Navy SEAL Tony Schumacher, drag racer, 7-time NHRA champ Joseph Schwantner, composer Jim Schwantz, NFL linebacker 1992–98 Ed Schwartz, radio personality Frederick Schwatka, U.S. Army lieutenant, noted explorer of northern Canada and Alaska Gloria Schweigerdt, professional baseball player Rusty Schwimmer, actress, Twister, The Perfect Storm Ignaz Schwinn, founder of bicycle company (born in Germany) Thomas N. Scortia, novel adapted as The Towering Inferno Bud Scott, jazz musician (born in Louisiana) Rick Scott, Governor of Florida Stefanie Scott, actress, singer, A.N.T. Farm, Wreck-It Ralph Stuart Scott, ESPN sportscaster Walter Dill Scott, psychologist, president of Northwestern 1920–39 Gil Scott-Heron, jazz musician, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award Nancy Scranton, golfer Edward Willis Scripps, newspaper publisher, founder of E.W. Scripps Company Ellen Browning Scripps, journalist and philanthropist (born in England) James E. Scripps, newspaper publisher (born in England) Al Sears, saxophonist Richard Warren Sears, businessman, co-founder of Sears, Roebuck and Company (born in Minnesota) Amy Sedaris, actress and comedian, Strangers with Candy E.C. Segar, creator of Popeye Harry Gordon Selfridge, department store pioneer, founder of Selfridges (born in Wisconsin) Rose Buckingham Selfridge, Chicago heiress Kevin Seitzer, All-Star third baseman, Atlanta Braves hitting coach William Nicholas Selig, motion picture pioneer David Seltzer, director and screenwriter, Punchline, Shining Through, Bird on a Wire, The Omen James Semple, U.S. Senator 1843–47 (born in Kentucky) Tony Semple, NFL lineman 1994–2002 Bill Senn, NFL running back 1926–34 Mary Servoss, actress, In This Our Life Sh Shabbona, 19th-century Native American leader Shadows of Knight, rock band from Mt. Prospect Dirk Shafer, actor and Playgirl model Tom Shales, Pulitzer Prize-winning TV critic John Shalikashvili, U.S. Army general, Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Ashton C. Shallenberger, Governor of Nebraska 1909–11, six-term U.S. Representative Janet Shamlian, NBC news correspondent Mike Shanahan, head coach of NFL's Los Angeles Raiders, Denver Broncos, Washington Redskins Garry Shandling, comedian and actor, The Larry Sanders Show Howie Shanks, MLB outfielder 1912–25 Michael Shannon, actor, Boardwalk Empire, Take Shelter, Revolutionary Road, Man of Steel (born in Kentucky) Samuel H. Shapiro, lieutenant governor and 1968–69 Governor of Illinois Shannon Sharpe, NFL tight end 1990–2003, three-time Super Bowl champion, Pro Football Hall of Fame, TV analyst Sterling Sharpe, wide receiver, College Football Hall of Fame, Green Bay Packers 1988–94, TV analyst Frank Shaughnessy, college football player and coach, pro baseball player and executive Bernard Shaw, television journalist for CNN Guy L. Shaw, U.S. Representative 1921–25 Howard Van Doren Shaw, architect Stan Shaw, actor, The Boys in Company C, The Great Santini, Daylight, Snake Eyes, Harlem Nights William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker from 1952 to 1987 Larry Shay, songwriter, "When You're Smiling" John T. Shayne, milliner Aaron Shea, NFL tight end 2000–06 John G. Shedd, president of Marshall Field & Company, philanthropist, founder of Shedd Aquarium (born in New Hampshire) Vincent Sheean, war correspondent and author Arthur Sheekman, screenwriter, Duck Soup, Some Came Running Earl Sheely, 1920s first baseman for White Sox Fulton J. Sheen, Roman Catholic Archbishop and television personality Bernard J. Sheil, Roman Catholic Archbishop, founder of CYO Edward Sheldon, playwright Sidney Sheldon, author, screenwriter, producer, I Dream of Jeannie, Hart to Hart, Annie Get Your Gun, The Other Side of Midnight Derek Shelton, hitting coach for Tampa Bay Rays Sam Shepard, actor, director, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright, Fool for Love, The Right Stuff, The Pelican Brief, Baby Boom, The Notebook Jean Shepherd, radio personality, writer and narrator of A Christmas Story Sherri Shepherd, comedian, actress, co-host of The View Jack Sheridan, MLB umpire 1890–1914 Philip Sheridan, Civil War general, led Great Chicago Fire reconstruction, ran Washington Park Race Track (born in New York) Allan Sherman, comedy writer, song parodist Alson Sherman, fire chief, Mayor of Chicago 1844–45 (born in Vermont) Francis Cornwall Sherman, 3-term Mayor of Chicago (born in Connecticut) Francis Trowbridge Sherman, Civil War general (born in Connecticut) Gene Sherman, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Lawrence Yates Sherman, lieutenant governor, U.S. Senator (born in Ohio) Brian Sherwin, art critic, curator, writer Brad Sherwood, comedian, Whose Line Is It Anyway? James Shields, Irish-born senator of Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri Ren Shields, songwriter, "In the Good Old Summer Time" John Shimkus, politician (Republican), U.S. Representative since 1997 Katherine Shindle, actress and 1998 Miss America Kiernan Shipka, actress, Sally Draper on Mad Men George E. Shipley, U.S. Representative 1959–79 William L. Shirer, war correspondent, historian Bernie Shively, All-American guard for Illinois, coach and athletic director at Kentucky Twila Shively, pro baseball player William Shockley (1910–1989), Nobel Prize-winning physicist, co-inventor of the transistor Vaughn Shoemaker, cartoonist Lee Sholem, film director, The Redhead from Wyoming, Tarzan and the Slave Girl, Superman and the Mole Men Bobby Short, cabaret singer, pianist and recording artist Ed Short, executive with Chicago White Sox 1950–70 Luke Short, novelist Rick Short, MLB player and scout Brian Shouse, MLB pitcher 1993–2009 Bobby Shriver, activist, writer and California politician Maria Shriver, television journalist, author, 2003–11 first lady of California David Shulkin, U.S. Secretary of Veterans Affairs Richard B. Shull, actor, The Fortune, Unfaithfully Yours George P. Shultz, U.S. Secretary of Labor 1969–70, Treasury 1972–74, Secretary of State 1982–89, Chicago professor (born in New York) Iman Shumpert, guard for Cleveland Cavaliers John Shurna, Northwestern basketball all-time leading scorer Si–Sk Billy Sianis, founder of Billy Goat Tavern (born in Greece) Drew Sidora, actress, That's So Raven Thomas Siebel, technology executive, philanthropist Don Siegel, film director, Dirty Harry, Charley Varrick, The Shootist, Invasion of the Body Snatchers, Coogan's Bluff Jeremy Siegel, professor of finance at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania Casey Siemaszko, actor, Breaking In, Of Mice and Men, NYPD Blue, Back to the Future parts 1 and 2 Nina Siemaszko, actress, The West Wing, The American President, License to Drive, Sinatra, Mystery Woman Eric Sievers, tight end for San Diego Chargers 1981–90 Jack Sikma, 7-time NBA All-Star center for Seattle SuperSonics Paul Sills, original director of The Second City Joe Silver, actor, You Light Up My Life, Deathtrap Nate Silver, quarterback of first Notre Dame undefeated team, 1903 Shel Silverstein, cartoonist, screenwriter, author of children's books Ken Silvestri, MLB catcher and coach Bobby Simmons, guard for five NBA teams Jade Simmons, concert pianist, 2000 Miss America runner-up Liesel Pritzker Simmons, actress, heiress Marty Simmons, basketball coach, Evansville University Tony Simmons, NFL wide receiver 1998–2002 Bryan W. Simon, film and stage director, Along for the Ride, I'm No Dummy, Jay Johnson: The Two & Only!, Stage Two Theatre Company Paul Simon, politician (Democrat), U.S. Senator 1985–97, presidential candidate (born in Oregon) Roger Simon, journalist, columnist for Politico Scott Simon, program host for National Public Radio Sheila Simon, law professor, Illinois lieutenant governor S. Sylvan Simon, film director and producer, I Love Trouble, The Fuller Brush Man, Born Yesterday Carole Simpson, radio and TV journalist Diane Simpson-Bundy, two-time Olympian in rhythmic gymnastics Edna Oakes Simpson, U.S. Representative 1959–61, widow of Sid Simpson Sid Simpson, transportation executive, U.S. Representative 1943–58 Will Simpson, Olympic gold medalist in equestrian Mike Singletary, Hall of Fame linebacker for Chicago Bears (born in Texas) James Singleton, power forward for the Guangdong Southern Tigers Gary Sinise, Golden Globe and Emmy Award-winning actor, director, musician, CSI: NY, Forrest Gump, Apollo 13 Charlie Siringo, Chicago-based Pinkerton's detective (born in Texas) Bob Sirott, radio and TV personality Joseph J. Sisco, CIA officer and diplomat Gene Siskel, film critic, co-host of Siskel & Ebert George Skakel, industrialist, father of Ethel Kennedy William V. Skall, Oscar-winning cinematographer Bob Skelton, swimmer, 1924 Olympic gold medalist Roe Skidmore, 1-for-1 for Cubs in lone MLB at-bat Jeffrey Skilling, former president of Enron, convicted of multiple federal felony charges Tom Skilling, meteorologist for WGN News Cornelia Otis Skinner, actress and author Frank Skinner, Oscar-nominated composer Jane Skinner, TV journalist, wife of NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell Samuel K. Skinner, U.S. Secretary of Transportation and White House Chief of Staff for President George H. W. Bush Lou Skizas, MLB outfielder 1956–59 Tony Skoronski, jockey Bill "Moose" Skowron, MLB first baseman, five World Series championships with New York Yankees Victor Skrebneski, photographer Sl–Sn Jack Slade, gunfighter, Pony Express rider Duke Slater, NFL tackle and College Football Hall of Famer John Slater, physicist James M. Slattery, U.S. Senate appointee Martha Sleeper, actress Grace Slick, lead singer of Jefferson Airplane, Jefferson Starship, composer of "White Rabbit" Blake Sloan, NHL winger 1999–2004 Jerry Sloan, NBA All-Star player and coach for Chicago Bulls, coach of Utah Jazz, member of Hall of Fame Jeff Sluman, pro golfer (born in New York) Albion W. Small, sociologist and university professor (born in Maine) Len Small, state treasurer and 1921–29 Governor of Illinois Mike Small, pro golfer and coach The Smashing Pumpkins, rock band from Chicago Anne Smedinghoff, diplomat killed in Afghanistan Ralph C. Smedley, founder of Toastmasters International Adrian Smith, architect of Chicago's Trump Tower and Dubai's Burj Khalifa (world's tallest building) Al Smith, basketball player in ABA 1971–75 Al Smith, MLB pitcher 1934–45 Art Smith, actor, In a Lonely Place, Ride the Pink Horse, Body and Soul Frank L. Smith, U.S. Representative 1919–21 Giles Alexander Smith, Civil War general, politician (born in New York) H. Allen Smith, journalist and humorist, Rhubarb Hal Smith, catcher for 1960 World Series champion Pittsburgh Pirates Hamilton O. Smith, microbiologist, 1978 Nobel Prize (born in New York) Harry Smith, television news journalist Henry Justin Smith, editor of Chicago Daily News Jack Smith, MLB outfielder 1915–29 Jim Smith, wide receiver, won two Super Bowls with Pittsburgh Steelers John C. Smith, Civil War general, politician (born in Pennsylvania) John E. Smith, Civil War general, jeweler (born in Switzerland) Joseph Smith, founder of Latter Day Saint movement (born in Vermont) Kellita Smith, actress and model, The Bernie Mac Show Lenzelle Smith Jr. (born 1991), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Lonnie Smith, MLB outfielder, three-time World Series champion Lyall Smith, sports editor and executive Patti Smith, singer, songwriter and poet, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Pinetop Smith, jazz pianist (born in Alabama) Ralph Tyler Smith, completed U.S. Senate term of Everett Dirksen Ron Smith, defensive back for five NFL teams Sally Smith, mayor of Juneau, Alaska 2000–03 Sandra Smith, reporter for Fox Business Network Sidney Smith, cartoonist Tangela Smith, player for WNBA's San Antonio Silver Stars Theophilus W. Smith, law partner of Aaron Burr, impeached Illinois Supreme Court justice (born in New York) Wendell Smith, sportswriter (born in Michigan) Jake Smolinski, outfielder for Oakland A's Henry Snapp, U.S. Representative 1871–73 (born in New York) Howard M. Snapp, U.S. Representative 1903–11 (born in New York) Phoebe Snetsinger, bird watcher Brian Snitker, manager for the Atlanta Braves Carrie Snodgress, Oscar-nominated actress, Diary of a Mad Housewife, The Fury, Murphy's Law, Pale Rider Esther Snyder, co-founder of In-N-Out Burger Jimmy Snyder, auto racer, runner-up in 1939 Indianapolis 500 Martin Snyder, gangster, husband of Ruth Etting Ted Snyder, songwriter, "Who's Sorry Now?" So–Ss Carol Sobieski, screenwriter, Annie, Fried Green Tomatoes, Casey's Shadow, Sarah, Plain and Tall Ron Sobie, basketball player for DePaul, New York Knicks Susan Solomon, chemist, MIT professor, Nobel Prize winner Joey Soloway, TV and film writer, director Georg Solti, conductor of Chicago Symphony Orchestra 1969–91 (born in Hungary) Rafael Sorkin, physicist Sammy Sosa, outfielder for White Sox and Cubs from 1989 to 2004 (born in Dominican Republic) David Soul, actor, Starsky and Hutch, Here Come the Brides, The Yellow Rose; singer, "Don't Give Up on Us" Olan Soule, actor Soulja Boy, rapper Eddie South, jazz violinist (born in Missouri) Pete Souza, official White House photographer for Presidents Reagan and Obama (born in Massachusetts) Judy Sowinski, skater in Roller Derby Brock Spack, football coach, Illinois State Vince Spadea, tennis player Horatio Spafford, lawyer, hymn composer (born in New York) Albert Spalding, athlete, co-founder of Spalding sporting goods John Spalding, Roman Catholic Bishop and co-founder of The Catholic University of America William A.J. Sparks, U.S. Representative 1875–83 (born in Indiana) Graham Spanier, president of Penn State University (born in South Africa) Muggsy Spanier, jazz musician Otis Spann, pianist in Blues Hall of Fame (born in Mississippi) Jeff Speakman, martial artist, actor, The Perfect Weapon Richard Speck, mass murderer Dave Spector, Japan television personality Jonathan Spector, soccer player for Birmingham City F.C. Mac Speedie, wide receiver for Cleveland Browns 1946–52, head coach for Denver Broncos 1964–66 Donald Spero, physicist, Olympic rower Lawrence Sperry, aviation pioneer August Spies, convicted anarchist of Haymarket affair (born in Germany) Ed Spiezio, infielder for St. Louis Cardinals and San Diego Padres Scott Spiezio, infielder for four Major League teams; 2002, 2006 World Series champion Anthony Spilotro, mobster and enforcer for Chicago Outfit Alfred Henry Spink, founder of The Sporting News (born in Canada) Scipio Spinks, MLB pitcher 1969–73 Jim Spivey, middle-distance runner, three-time Olympian Paul Splittorff, pitcher for Kansas City Royals 1970–84 (born in Indiana) Erik Spoelstra, head coach for two-time NBA champion Miami Heat Viola Spolin, drama and improv teacher George Kirke Spoor, film industry pioneer Jerry Springer, Chicago-based TV personality (born in England) William L. Springer, U.S. Representative 1951–73 William M. Springer, U.S. Representative 1875–95 (born in Indiana) June Squibb, Oscar-nominated actress, Nebraska, About Schmidt Sta–Std Dewayne Staats, sportscaster (born in Missouri) Brian Stack, comedy writer Eddie Stack, MLB pitcher 1910–14 Marv Staehle, infielder for Chicago White Sox 1964–67 Jimmy Stafford, lead guitarist for Train Michelle Stafford, actress, The Young and the Restless Amos Alonzo Stagg, College Hall of Fame football coach and athlete, creator of the lateral pass and helmet Amos Alonzo Stagg Jr., college football player and coach Paul Stagg, college football player and coach Jake Stahl, MLB player and manager, 1912 World Series Larry Stahl, outfielder for four MLB teams Michael Stahl-David, actor, The Black Donnellys, Cloverfield A.E. Staley, food mogul, founder of football's Decatur Staleys (who became Chicago Bears) Harry Staley, MLB pitcher 1888–95 Kevin Stallings, basketball head coach for Vanderbilt Dino Stamatopoulos, comedy writer, actor, producer Lee Stange, pitcher for four MLB teams Don Stanhouse, pitcher for four MLB teams Pete Stanicek, MLB player Steve Stanicek, MLB player Aileen Stanley, early 20th-century singer Dolph Stanley, basketball coach Florence Stanley, actress, Fiddler on the Roof, Fish Louise Stanley, actress, Sky Bandits, Yukon Flight Walter Stanley, NFL wide receiver The Staple Singers, gospel group, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award Mavis Staples, gospel singer Tim Stapleton, NHL center 2008–12 Ellen Gates Starr, social reformer and co-founder of Hull House Vincent Starrett, early 20th-century journalist Todd Stashwick, actor, The Riches Harry Statham, college basketball coach Jigger Statz, MLB outfielder 1919–28 Ste–Stn Jack Steadman, president, general manager of NFL's Kansas City Chiefs Steamboat Willie, Dixieland jazz musician Myrtle Stedman, singer and actress Claude Steele, provost at Columbia, University of California Dan Steele, two-time Olympian in bobsled, NCAA champion hurdler Shelby Steele, columnist, documentary filmmaker, author of White Guilt Miriam Steever, pro tennis player Walter Steffen, All-American quarterback, University of Chicago Cindy Stein, women's basketball coach, Missouri and Southern Illinois James R. Stein, TV writer and producer, America 2-Night, Fernwood 2 Night, Son of the Beach Jill Stein, physician, activist, Green Party politician Eric Steinbach, NFL offensive lineman 2003–12 Jack Steinberger, physicist, Nobel Prize winner Ruth Ann Steinhagen, shot ballplayer Eddie Waitkus, inspired The Natural John Henry Stelle, lieutenant governor 1937–40, briefly Governor of Illinois Rick Stelmaszek, catcher and bullpen coach for Minnesota Twins Dutch Sternaman, football player, co-owner of Decatur Staleys (who became Chicago Bears) Joey Sternaman, 1920s pro football quarterback Marilee Stepan, swimmer, 1952 Olympic bronze medalist Donald Stephens, 13-term mayor of Rosemont, Illinois Michael Stephens, pro soccer player Benjamin Stephenson, militia commander, politician, writer of state constitution (born in Pennsylvania) John Allen Sterling, U.S. Representative 1903–18 Thomas Sterling, Springfield attorney, U.S. Senator of South Dakota 1913–25 (born in Ohio) Lee Stern, six-decade member of Chicago Board of Trade, founder-president of Chicago Sting pro soccer Dodie Stevens, singer, "Pink Shoe Laces" Fisher Stevens, actor, producer, director, Early Edition, Key West, Short Circuit, Stand Up Guys John Paul Stevens, attorney, Supreme Court Justice 1975–2010, third-longest tenure in court's history Adlai Stevenson I, Illinois congressman, U.S. postmaster general, 23rd Vice President of the United States 1893–97 (born in Kentucky) Adlai Stevenson II, attorney, politician (Democrat) Governor of Illinois, Ambassador to the United Nations, presidential candidate in 1952 and 1956 (born in California) Adlai Stevenson III, politician (Democrat), congressman and U.S. Senator from Illinois 1970–81 Lewis Stevenson, Illinois secretary of state 1914–17, father of Adlai Stevenson II McLean Stevenson, actor, M*A*S*H, Hello, Larry, The Doris Day Show William Stevenson, Olympic gold medalist, college president, ambassador Helen J. Stewart, pioneer, postmaster of Las Vegas James B. Stewart, journalist, 1988 Pulitzer Prize Levi Stewart, Mormon pioneer, associate of Brigham Young Lynn D. Stewart, lineman for Illinois in 1964 Rose Bowl, co-founder of Hooters restaurants David Ogden Stiers, actor, orchestral conductor; M*A*S*H, The Dead Zone, Doc Hollywood, Better Off Dead Isaiah Stillman, militia commander, Black Hawk War (born in Massachusetts) Darryl Stingley, NFL receiver, left quadriplegic by injury Howard St. John, actor, Born Yesterday, Li'l Abner, One, Two, Three Sto–Stz Barbara Stock, actress, Spenser: For Hire Frederick Stock, 37-year director of Chicago Symphony Orchestra (born in Germany) Milt Stock, MLB third baseman 1913–26 James Stockdale, one of U.S. Navy's most highly decorated officers, 1992 vice-presidential candidate Dejan Stojanović, poet, writer, essayist (born in Serbia) Johnny Stompanato, gangster, killed by daughter of Lana Turner Cynthia Stone, actress, wife of Jack Lemmon Dean Stone, pitcher for six MLB teams Melville E. Stone, publisher, founder of Chicago Daily News, manager of Associated Press Steve Stone, pitcher and broadcaster, Cubs and White Sox (born in Ohio) W. Clement Stone, philanthropist, self-help author Steve Stonebreaker, NFL linebacker 1962–68 Bill Stoneman, pitcher for Montreal Expos, general manager of Los Angeles Angels Wilbur F. Storey, journalist (born in Vermont) Hannah Storm, ESPN sportscaster Lauren Storm, actress, Flight 29 Down John Stossel, consumer reporter, investigative journalist, author Jean Stothert, mayor of Omaha, Nebraska Shirley Stovroff, pro baseball player Otto Stowe, NFL wide receiver 1971–74 Michael Stoyanov, actor, TV comedy writer, Blossom Win Stracke, folk musician Hank Stram, Pro Football Hall of Fame coach of Kansas City Chiefs William Stratton, Governor of Illinois 1953–61 Michael W. Straus, editor, director of U.S. reclamation under Harry Truman The Brothers Strause, directing duo, special effects artists Kevin Streelman, pro golfer Tai Streets, Michigan football and basketball player, San Francisco 49ers wide receiver Steve Stricker, pro golfer, University of Illinois player (born in Wisconsin) Lee Strobel, Christian apologetic author John Stroger, president of Cook County Commissioners 1994–2006 Cal Strong, Olympic water polo medalist Cecily Strong, comedian, Saturday Night Live Barbara Stuart, television actress John Stuart, CEO of Quaker Oats John T. Stuart, law partner of Abe Lincoln, U.S. Representative (born in Kentucky) R. Douglas Stuart, U.S. ambassador to Canada R. Douglas Stuart Jr., executive of Quaker Oats, ambassador to Norway Andy Studebaker, NFL linebacker Mary Lou Studnicka, player in All-American Girls Baseball League James J. Stukel, university president Patrick Stump, lead singer of band Fall Out Boy John Sturges, Oscar-nominated film director, The Magnificent Seven, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, The Great Escape Preston Sturges, director and Oscar-winning screenwriter, The Lady Eve, Sullivan's Travels, The Miracle of Morgan's Creek Su–Sz Todd Sucherman, drummer for Styx Bill Sudakis, infielder for six Major League teams Harry Sukman, Oscar-winning composer Billy Sullivan Jr., MLB catcher 1931–47 Gerry Sullivan, offensive lineman for Cleveland Browns 1974–81 Joe Sullivan, MLB pitcher 1935–41 Louis Sullivan, architect (born in Massachusetts) McKey Sullivan, fashion model, winner of America’s Next Top Model Cycle 11 Mike Sullivan, NFL lineman and coach Hope Summers, actress, The Andy Griffith Show Billy Sunday, ballplayer and evangelist (born in Iowa) Jim Sundberg, MLB catcher 1974–89, six Gold Glove Awards Don Sundquist, Governor of Tennessee 1995–2003 Daniel Sunjata, actor, Rescue Me, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, The Devil Wears Prada Tom Sunkel, MLB pitcher 1937–44 Evar Swanson, MLB outfielder 1929–34 Gloria Swanson, Oscar-nominated, Golden Globe-winning actress, Sunset Boulevard, The Trespasser, Airport 1975 Gladys Swarthout, opera singer (born in Missouri) Aaron Swartz, computer programmer, writer Ed Sweeney, MLB catcher 1908–1919 Blanche Sweet, actress, Anna Christie Lynn Sweet, Washington bureau chief, Chicago Sun-Times Nancy Swider-Peltz, speed skater, four-time Olympian George Bell Swift, two-term Mayor of Chicago (born in Ohio) Gustavus Franklin Swift, meat-packing entrepreneur, founder of Swift & Co. (born in Massachusetts) Emerson Swinford, musician Bob Swisher, running back for Chicago Bears 1938–41 Ann Swisshelm, 2014 Olympian in curling Carl Switzer, actor, "Alfalfa" in Our Gang comedies Ken Swofford, actor, Ellery Queen, Murder, She Wrote Keith Szarabajka, actor, The Dark Knight, We Were Soldiers Stan Szukala, pro basketball player T Ta–Tg Lorado Taft, sculptor Joe Tait, sportscaster for Cleveland Cavaliers Carlos Talbott, U.S. Air Force general Maria Tallchief, ballerina, Chicago Lyric Opera director (born in Oklahoma) Jill Talley, actress, Little Miss Sunshine, The Boondocks, Mr. Show Shel Talmy, 1960s record producer, songwriter, arranger Tampa Red, musician in Blues Hall of Fame (born in Georgia) Daniel M. Tani, astronaut (born in Pennsylvania) Bazy Tankersley, horse breeder and publisher Antwon Tanner, actor, One Tree Hill John Riley Tanner, Governor of Illinois 1897–1901 (born in Indiana) Joseph R. Tanner, astronaut Dorothea Tanning, artist Lawrence Tanter, public address announcer, Los Angeles Lakers El Tappe, catcher and coach for Chicago Cubs Bill Tate, MVP of 1952 Rose Bowl, head coach at Wake Forest Larenz Tate, actor, Dead Presidents, Menace II Society, Why Do Fools Fall in Love, Ray, The Postman Mark Tatge, journalist Mike Tauchman (born 1990), outfielder for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball Norman Taurog, director of Martin and Lewis, Elvis Presley films Bert Leston Taylor, librettist and columnist (born in Massachusetts) Billy Taylor, basketball coach, Lehigh and Ball State Eddie Taylor, guitarist in Blues Hall of Fame (born in Mississippi) Edmund Dick Taylor, coal miner, politician, "Father of the Greenback" (born in Virginia) George A. Taylor, World War II general, led Omaha Beach landing Hawk Taylor, catcher for four MLB teams Joan Taylor, actress, 20 Million Miles to Earth, War Paint, The Rifleman Josh Taylor, actor, Days of Our Lives June Taylor, choreographer, The Jackie Gleason Show Koko Taylor, singer (born in Tennessee) Lili Taylor, actress, Six Feet Under, I Shot Andy Warhol, Mystic Pizza, Ransom, The Conjuring Robert Lewis Taylor, author, 1959 Pulitzer Prize Samuel A. Taylor, screenwriter, Sabrina, Vertigo Margaret Taylor-Burroughs, artist, museum founder, parks commissioner (born in Louisiana) Edwin Way Teale, naturalist and Pulitzer Prize-winning writer Gus Tebell, football coach, NC State, Virginia Barbara Ann Teer, founder of National Black Theatre Len Teeuws, lineman for NFL's Rams and Cardinals Rick Telander, sportswriter for Sports Illustrated and Chicago Sun-Times Andy Tennant, actor, writer, film director, Hitch, Sweet Home Alabama, The Bounty Hunter Judy Tenuta, comedian Studs Terkel, historian, journalist, Pulitzer Prize-winning author and actor, Eight Men Out Ernie Terrell, heavyweight contender, Chicago boxing promoter (born in Mississippi) Felisha Terrell, actress, Days of Our Lives Jean Terrell, singer with The Supremes Frank Teschemacher, jazz musician (born in Missouri) Tim Tetrick, harness racing driver, won 2012 Hambletonian Stakes Th–Tn John Thain, CEO of Merrill Lynch, New York Stock Exchange Tom Thayer, offensive lineman and radio commentator for Chicago Bears Lynne Thigpen, actress, Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego?, All My Children, The Paper, The District Roy Thinnes, actor, The Invaders, The Long, Hot Summer, Airport 1975, The Hindenburg, Falcon Crest Napoleon B. Thistlewood, Cairo politician (born in Delaware) Josh Thole, catcher for Toronto Blue Jays Bill Thomas, costume designer, 10 Oscar nominations Deon Thomas, American-Israeli basketball player Frank Thomas, Hall of Fame first baseman, DH for Chicago White Sox (born in Georgia) Frazier Thomas, Chicago television personality (born in Indiana) Isiah Thomas, Hall of Fame basketball player, coach, executive; NCAA champion Indiana, NBA champion Detroit Pistons Jesse B. Thomas, one of state's first U.S. Senators (born in Virginia) Lee Thomas, MLB player and executive Pierre Thomas, running back for the Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints Pinch Thomas, MLB catcher 1912–21 Robert R. Thomas, justice on state Supreme Court since 2000, placekicker for Notre Dame and Chicago Bears (born in New York) Theodore Thomas, violinist, conductor and founder of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (born in Germany) Jim Thome, MLB first baseman, DH 1991–2012, five-time All-Star Don Thompson, president of McDonald's 2012–15 Fountain L. Thompson, U.S. Senator of North Dakota James R. Thompson, politician (Republican), U.S. Attorney and four-term Governor of Illinois Jeri Kehn Thompson, political commentator, wife of Sen. Fred Thompson (born in Nebraska) Junior Thompson, MLB pitcher 1939–47 Marshall Thompson, actor, Dial 1119, Crashout, My Six Convicts, To Hell and Back, It!, First Man into Space Patricia Thompson, television and documentary producer William Hale Thompson, politician (Republican), two-term Mayor of Chicago (born in Massachusetts) James Thomson, developmental biologist Brad Thor, thriller novelist Skip Thoren, basketball center for Illinois 1962–65 Don Thorp, defensive lineman, 1983 Big Ten MVP Noble Threewitt, horse racing trainer Richard Threlkeld, television journalist (born in Iowa) Paul Tibbets, pilot of the Enola Gay, U.S. Air Force general Eunice Tietjens, foreign correspondent Pamela Tiffin, actress, One, Two, Three, The Pleasure Seekers, Harper, State Fair, Viva Max! (born in Oklahoma) Charles Tillman, cornerback for Chicago Bears, Carolina Panthers Burr Tillstrom, puppeteer, creator of Kukla, Fran and Ollie Tom Timmermann, MLB pitcher 1969–74 Joe Tinker, Hall of Fame shortstop for Chicago Cubs (born in Kansas) To–Tq John Tobias, creator of Mortal Kombat video game James Tobin, economist, 1981 Nobel Prize Albert Tocco, organized crime figure Beverly Todd, actress, Lean on Me, The Bucket List Jonathan Toews, three-time Stanley Cup champion with Chicago Blackhawks (born in Canada) JP Tokoto (born 1993), basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Gregg Toland, cinematographer, Citizen Kane Scott Tolzien, quarterback for Green Bay Packers David Tom, actor, The Young and the Restless, All My Children Lauren Tom, actress and voice artist, King of the Hill, The Joy Luck Club, Futurama, W.I.T.C.H. Nicholle Tom, actress, The Nanny, The Minor Accomplishments of Jackie Woodman, Her Only Child Clyde Tombaugh, astronomer, discoverer of dwarf planet Pluto Mike Tomczak, quarterback for four NFL teams Darlene Tompkins, actress, Beyond the Time Barrier, Blue Hawaii Mario Tonelli, football player, survivor of Bataan Death March Judy Baar Topinka, politician (Republican), comptroller, state treasurer Mel Tormé, singer, composer, actor, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, co-wrote "The Christmas Song" Jorge Torres, NCAA cross-country champion Johnny Torrio, organized crime figure (born in Italy) Audrey Totter, actress, The Postman Always Rings Twice, The Set-Up, High Wall, Tension, Lady in the Lake Cy Touff, trumpeter Roger Touhy, organized crime figure Tom Towles, actor Andre Townsend, starter in two Super Bowls for Denver Broncos Robert Townsend, actor and director, The Parent 'Hood, The Five Heartbeats, Hollywood Shuffle Taylor Townsend, tennis player Giorgio Tozzi, opera singer Tr–Tz Al Trace, songwriter and bandleader George Trafton, Hall of Fame center for Chicago Bears Jane Trahey, advertising executive Mary Ellen Trainor, actress, Roswell, Parker Lewis Can't Lose, the Lethal Weapon films Rick Tramonto, restaurateur June Travis, actress, Circus Girl, The Case of the Black Cat Sam Travis, MLB infielder Sam Treiman, theoretical physicist Les Tremayne, radio personality (born in England) Ken Trickey, college basketball coach (born in Missouri) Roswell Tripp, football player for Yale Dick Triptow, pro basketball player and coach Lennie Tristano, jazz pianist Walter Trohan, journalist Harry Trotsek, Hall of Fame thoroughbred trainer Bill Trotter, MLB pitcher 1937–44 Charlie Trotter, restaurateur Bobbi Trout, aviatrix Jim True-Frost, actor, The Wire Walter E. Truemper, pilot, World War II Medal of Honor recipient Frankie Trumbauer, jazz saxophonist Lyman Trumbull, politician (Democrat, Republican), Illinois Supreme Court Justice, U.S. Senator, author of Thirteenth Amendment (born in Connecticut) Bob Trumpy, tight end for Cincinnati Bengals, sportscaster Dennis Tufano, singer for The Buckinghams Robin Tunney, actress, The Mentalist, Prison Break, The Craft, Hollywoodland, Vertical Limit William Tuohy, Pulitzer-winning foreign correspondent Barbara Turf, CEO of Crate & Barrel Bob Turley, Cy Young-winning pitcher, primarily with New York Yankees Bulldog Turner, Hall of Fame player for Chicago Bears (born in Texas) Evan Turner, guard for Boston Celtics Ike and Tina Turner, musical duo, began in East St. Louis Jonathan Baldwin Turner, scholar, botanist, advocate of land grant universities (born in Massachusetts) Keena Turner, linebacker for San Francisco 49ers, four-time Super Bowl champion Michael Turner, NFL running back 2004–12 Stansfield Turner, admiral and CIA director Scott Turow, author and lawyer, Presumed Innocent Bill Tuttle, MLB outfielder 1952–63 Jeff Tweedy, musician with Wilco Twista, rapper R. Emmett Tyrrell Jr., founder, editor of The American Spectator U Peter Ueberroth, president of U.S. Olympic Committee, commissioner of Major League Baseball Ted Uhlaender, outfielder for Minnesota Twins and Cleveland Indians Tyler Ulis, basketball player for Phoenix Suns (born in Michigan) Chuck Ulrich, lineman for Illinois 1952 Rose Bowl championship team and NFL's Chicago Cardinals Jim Umbricht, pitcher for Houston Colt .45s Kay Unger, fashion designer Tim Unroe, MLB first baseman 1995–2000 Paul Unruh, 1950 All-America basketball player for Bradley Al Unser, MLB catcher 1942–45 Del Unser, outfielder for six MLB teams Phil Upchurch, jazz and R&B guitarist and bassist Dawn Upshaw, Grammy-winning soprano Calla Urbanski, pairs skater, two-time U.S. champion Kraig Urbik, offensive lineman for Buffalo Bills Brian Urlacher, 13-year linebacker for Chicago Bears, 8-time Pro Bowl selection (born in Washington) Frank Urson, silent-film director, Chicago Garrick Utley, television journalist V Richard B. Vail, World War I officer, U.S. Representative Jerry Vainisi, general manager of Chicago Bears 1983–86 Jim Valek, football player, coach for Illinois Darnell Valentine, NBA guard 1981–91 Elmer Valentine, founder of Whisky a Go Go and The Roxy Theatre Vincent Valentine, defensive tackle for New England Patriots Virginia Valli, silent movie actress Egbert Van Alstyne, songwriter, "In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree" John S. Van Bergen, architect Al Van Camp, MLB first baseman, outfielder 1928–32 Danitra Vance, actress, Saturday Night Live cast member Gene Vance, basketball player, athletic director for Illinois Art Van Damme, accordionist (born in Michigan) Christian Vande Velde, professional cyclist James Oliver Van de Velde, second Bishop of Chicago (born in Belgium) Shaun Vandiver, basketball player and coach Carl Clinton Van Doren, author, 1939 Pulitzer Prize for biography Mark Van Doren, professor, 1940 Pulitzer Prize for poetry Wendelin Van Draanen, author of Sammy Keyes children's novels Dick Van Dyke, actor, The Dick Van Dyke Show, Diagnosis: Murder, Bye Bye Birdie, Mary Poppins (born in Missouri) Jerry Van Dyke, actor, comedian, Coach, The Courtship of Eddie's Father, My Mother the Car Brian Van Holt, actor, Cougar Town, John from Cincinnati Phillip Edward Van Lear, actor, Prison Break Norm Van Lier, player and broadcaster for Chicago Bulls (born in Ohio) Homer Van Meter, bank robber (born in Indiana) Sander Vanocur, television news journalist John M. Van Osdel, architect (born in Maryland) Melvin Van Peebles, director, screenwriter, actor, composer Jim Van Pelt, CFL quarterback Todd Van Poppel, MLB pitcher 1991–2004 Samuel Van Sant, Governor of Minnesota 1901–05 Virginia Van Upp, writer, producer, Cover Girl, Gilda Virginia Van Wie, golfer, 3-time U.S. Women's Amateur champion Fred VanVleet, NBA point guard Bruce Vaughan, golfer, winner of British Senior Open Chico Vaughn, Southern Illinois and pro basketball player Clarence Vaughn, NFL defensive back 1987–92 Govoner Vaughn, basketball player Hippo Vaughn, pitcher for Cubs 1913–21 (born in Texas) Vince Vaughn, actor, The Lost World: Jurassic Park, Wedding Crashers, Fred Claus, Psycho, The Break-Up Eddie Vedder, lead vocalist for Pearl Jam Bill Veeck, owner of Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, St. Louis Browns, member of Hall of Fame William Veeck Sr., sportswriter, president of Chicago Cubs Nadine Velazquez, actress and model, My Name Is Earl, Flight Rachel Veltri, actress and model Robin Ventura, third baseman, manager for Chicago White Sox (born in California) Rick Venturi, head football coach for Northwestern, defensive coordinator for four NFL teams Mark Venturini, actor Emil Verban, infielder for Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals Jim Verraros, singer, Season 1 of American Idol Dick Versace, basketball coach, Bradley and Indiana Pacers (born in North Carolina) Izabela Vidovic, actress, singer, The Fosters, About a Boy Vince Vieluf, actor, Love, Inc., Rat Race Marjorie Vincent, news broadcaster and 1991 Miss America Jory Vinikour, harpsichordist and conductor Steve Vinovich, actor Craig Virgin, distance runner, 3-time Olympian, winner of 9 Big Ten track titles and NCAA cross country John Vivyan, actor, Mr. Lucky Virgil W. Vogel, film and TV director Rich Vogler, auto racer, five Indianapolis 500s Deborah Voigt, opera singer Mark Voigt, NASCAR driver Bob Voigts, Northwestern football player and coach Harry Volkman, 45-year Chicago television weather forecaster Pete Vonachen, Minor League Baseball executive Kevin Von Erich, professional wrestler Edward Vrdolyak, politician, Chicago alderman 1971–87, convicted of fraud George Vukovich, MLB outfielder 1980–85 Charles W. Vursell, sheriff of Marion County, Illinois, U.S. Representative 1943–59 W Waa–Wam The Wachowskis, filmmakers, the Matrix trilogy Charles H. Wacker, city planner, director of Chicago World's Fair Dwyane Wade, basketball player for Chicago Bulls, 3-time NBA champion with Miami Heat Robert Wadlow, tallest man in U.S. E. S. Wadsworth, merchant, railroad president (born in Connecticut) Arthur L. Wagner, U.S. Army general Audrey Wagner, pro baseball player Gary Wagner, pitcher for Philadelphia Phillies 1965–69 Mike Wagner, defensive back for Pittsburgh Steelers, won 4 Super Bowls Susan Wagner, financial executive, co-founder of BlackRock Ken Wahl, actor, Wiseguy, The Wanderers, Fort Apache, the Bronx Becky Wahlstrom, actress, Joan of Arcadia Jerry Wainwright, basketball coach of DePaul 2005–10 Frank Wainright, tight end for four NFL teams Dick Wakefield, MLB outfielder 1941–52 Tim Walberg, U.S. Representative of Michigan Eliot Wald, TV and film comedy writer Frank Waldman, screenwriter, The Party, Return of the Pink Panther Tom Waldman, screenwriter, High Time, Inspector Clouseau Jim Walewander, MLB infielder 1987–93 Charles Rudolph Walgreen, founder of Walgreens Albertina Walker, gospel singer Antoine Walker, forward for five NBA teams Bill Walker, MLB pitcher 1927–36 Chet Walker, forward for Bradley and Chicago Bulls (born in Michigan) Clint Walker, actor, Cheyenne, The Dirty Dozen, Yellowstone Kelly, None but the Brave, The Night of the Grizzly Dan Walker, Governor of Illinois 1973–77 (born in D.C.) Darrell Walker, player for five NBA teams Derrick Walker, tight end for three NFL teams George W. Walker, auto designer, original Ford Thunderbird June Walker, actress Mysterious Walker, three-sport athlete, coach for University of Chicago (born in Nebraska) Nella Walker, actress Amy Wallace, author (born in California) Chris Wallace, television journalist, Fox News Channel David Foster Wallace, author (born in New York) Henry Cantwell Wallace, U.S. Secretary of Agriculture 1921–24 Irving Wallace, author and screenwriter Jean Wallace, actress, Jigsaw, The Big Combo Martin R. M. Wallace, Union general in Civil War (born in Ohio) Mike Wallace, Chicago radio-TV personality and CBS News journalist (born in Massachusetts) Stan Wallace, defensive back for Chicago Bears 1954–59 W.H.L. Wallace, Union general in Civil War (born in Ohio) Stephen Wallem, actor, Nurse Jackie Hal Wallis, film producer, Casablanca, The Maltese Falcon, Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Blue Hawaii, True Grit Joe Wallis, MLB outfielder 1975–79 Laurie Walquist, quarterback for Chicago Bears 1924–31 Ed Walsh, pitcher and manager for Chicago White Sox, member of Hall of Fame (born in Pennsylvania) Frank Walsh, pro golfer, 1932 PGA Championship runner-up Matt Walsh, actor, Upright Citizens Brigade, Veep Kevin Walter, NFL wide receiver 2003–13 Melora Walters, actress, Cold Mountain, Boogie Nights, Magnolia Lloyd Walton, guard for Milwaukee Bucks 1976–80 Wan–Waz Sam Wanamaker, film director and actor, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, Superman IV, Guilty by Suspicion Carl Wanderer, World War I hero, convicted murderer Rudolf Wanderone, billiards' "Minnesota Fats" (born in New York) Betty Wanless, baseball player Aaron Montgomery Ward, retail businessman, creator of mail order catalog (born in New Jersey) Arch Ward, journalist, creator of baseball All-Star Game and boxing's Golden Gloves Wilbur Ware, jazz bassist Marsha Warfield, actress, Night Court Cy Warmoth, MLB player 1916–23 Mark Warner, politician (Democrat), governor and U.S. senator of Virginia (born in Indiana) Vespasian Warner, Civil War soldier, U.S. Representative Elihu B. Washburne, U.S. Secretary of State under Ulysses S. Grant (born in Maine) Hempstead Washburne, Mayor of Chicago 1891–93 Dinah Washington, singer, 1993 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Alabama) Harold Washington, first African-American Mayor of Chicago Mark Washington, NFL defensive back 1970–79 Stan Wasiak, managed 4,844 minor-league baseball games Ted Wass, actor, Soap, Blossom, Oh, God! You Devil, Sheena, Curse of the Pink Panther Muddy Waters, blues musician and songwriter, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (born in Mississippi) Maurine Dallas Watkins, Chicago reporter who wrote stage play Chicago (born in Kentucky) Jody Watley, singer, songwriter, and record producer Betty Jane Watson, singer and actress Bobby Watson, actor Deek Watson, original member of singing group The Ink Spots Elmo Scott Watson, journalist and professor, authority on American West James Watson, molecular biologist, geneticist, zoologist, co-discoverer of structure of DNA, winner of the Nobel Prize Minor Watson, actor, Boys Town, The Jackie Robinson Story William Watson, actor, Lawman, Chato's Land May Theilgaard Watts, naturalist and writer Bobby Wawak, auto racer Ruby Wax, comedian, TV personality, Absolutely Fabulous, Girls on Top Carol Wayne, actress, television personality, Heartbreakers Nina Wayne, actress, Luv Wb–Wg Frank Wead, aviator and Oscar-nominated screenwriter Betty, Jean and Joanne Weaver, sisters in All-American Girls Professional Baseball League Buck Weaver, third baseman for 1917 World Series champion White Sox and 1919 "Black Sox" (born in Pennsylvania) Jason Weaver, actor, Smart Guy, Thea Bill Webb, coach, executive with White Sox Richard Webb, actor, Out of the Past, Distant Drums Wellington Webb, mayor of Denver, Colorado 1991–2003 Jon Weber, jazz musician, NPR host Pete Weber, hockey broadcaster Mary Webster, actress Stokely Webster, impressionist painter Tracy Webster, basketball coach Reinhold Weege, comedy writer, creator of TV series Night Court Charles Weeghman, businessman, built Wrigley Field, owned Chicago Cubs (born in Indiana) D. A. Weibring, professional golfer Tim Weigel, Chicago television broadcaster Joseph "Yellow Kid" Weil, notorious con artist Bob Weiland, pitcher for five MLB teams Jane Weiller, golfer Alvin M. Weinberg, nuclear physicist Lawrence Weingarten, Oscar-winning film producer Robbie Weinhardt, pitcher for Detroit Tigers Phil Weintraub, MLB player, had 11-RBI game in 1944 Hymie Weiss, mobster, rival of Al Capone (born in Poland) Lois Weisberg, created Chicago Blues Festival and Taste of Chicago Burton Weisbrod, economist who pioneered the theory of option value Mark Weisbrot, economist, columnist Mark Weiser, chief scientist at Xerox PARC Bob Weiskopf, TV writer, I Love Lucy Michael T. Weiss, actor, The Pretender, The Legend of Tarzan Robbie Weiss, 1988 NCAA tennis champion Johnny Weissmuller, athlete and actor, 5-time Olympic swim gold medalist, star of Tarzan films (born in Hungary) Raquel Welch, actress, One Million Years B.C., Fantastic Voyage, Bandolero!, The Last of Sheila, Myra Breckinridge Jerry Weller, U.S. Representative 1995–2009 Judson Welliver, presidential speechwriter Jon Wellner, actor, Henry Andrews on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Junior Wells, blues musician (born in Tennessee) Randy Wells, pitcher for Chicago Cubs 2008–12 Marty Wendell, football player for Notre Dame Joe Wendryhoski, NFL guard 1964–68 George Wendt, actor, Norm Peterson on television series Cheers John Wentworth, politician (Democrat), U.S. Congressman, Mayor of Chicago and newspaper editor (born in New Hampshire) Pete Wentz, bass player of Fall Out Boy Dennis Werth, player for New York Yankees 1979–81 Jayson Werth, outfielder for Washington Nationals Paul Wertico, drummer with Pat Metheny Group Dallas West, billiards player Kanye West, multiple Grammy Award-winning rap musician, songwriter, producer, entrepreneur, fashion designer, and actor; husband of reality TV star Kim Kardashian Matthew West, Christian musician Roy Owen West, U.S. Secretary of the Interior 1928–29 Helen Westerman, baseball player Thomas D. Westfall, mayor of El Paso, Texas 1978–82 Edward Weston, photographer Haskell Wexler, Oscar-winning cinematographer, producer, director Jerrold Wexler, financier Wh Loren E. Wheeler, mayor of Springfield, U.S. Representative John Whistler, first commandant of Fort Dearborn (born in Ireland) Betty White, Emmy-winning actress and comedian, The Golden Girls, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Proposal, Hot in Cleveland Deacon White, baseball Hall of Famer (born in New York) Frank White, 8th governor of North Dakota, 1921–28 U.S. Secretary of Treasury Isaac White, 19th-century militia officer (born in Virginia) Jesse White, politician, Illinois Secretary of State John H. White, Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer Maurice White, musician, founder of Earth, Wind & Fire Michole Briana White, actress Stephanie White, basketball player and coach Verdine White, musician, original member of Earth, Wind & Fire Wendy White, opera singer Willye White, track-and-field athlete, five-time Olympian Jerome Whitehead, center-forward for Marquette, six NBA teams John C. Whitehead, banker, civil servant, chairman of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation Steven Whitehurst, author, poet, educator Larry Whiteside, sportswriter, 2008 Spink Award winner Samuel Whiteside, soldier and 19th-century member of U.S. General Assembly (born in North Carolina) Richard A. Whiting, composer, "On the Good Ship Lollipop", "Hooray for Hollywood" Wi Al Wickland, MLB outfielder 1913–19 Richard Widmark, Oscar-nominated actor, Judgment at Nuremberg, The Alamo, Kiss of Death, Night and the City, How the West Was Won, Murder on the Orient Express Scott Wike, U.S. Representative, assistant treasury secretary to Grover Cleveland (born in Pennsylvania) Michael Wilbon, sports columnist, TV commentator, co-host of ESPN's Pardon the Interruption Wilco, rock band from Chicago Lee and Lyn Wilde, actresses, Twice Blessed, Campus Honeymoon Tim Wilkerson, drag racer Jeff Wilkins, center for Utah Jazz 1980–86 Steve Wilkos, television personality, The Jerry Springer Show, The Steve Wilkos Show Bob Will, outfielder for Cubs 1957–63 George Will, conservative Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist, journalist, ABC news analyst, author Frances E. Willard, suffragist, head of temperance union, Northwestern dean of women (born in New York) Frank Willard, cartoonist, creator of Moon Mullins Walt Willey, actor, All My Children Aaron Williams, forward for 10 NBA teams Billy Williams, 15-year outfielder for Cubs, member of Hall of Fame (born in Alabama) Brandon Williams, NFL tight end Cynda Williams, actress, Mo' Better Blues, One False Move Dick Anthony Williams, actor, Homefront, The Mack, Dog Day Afternoon Frank Williams, guard for New York Knicks and Chicago Bulls Jason Williams, linebacker for five NFL teams Jesse Williams, actor, Grey's Anatomy, Lee Daniels' The Butler Joe Williams, jazz and blues singer, Count Basie Orchestra (born in Georgia) Joe Williams, collegiate and freestyle wrestler, 3-time NCAA champion Kenny Williams, outfielder, executive for Chicago White Sox (born in California) Kyle Williams, wide receiver for Denver Broncos Mayo Williams, football player and music producer Michelle Williams, R&B singer-songwriter, member of Destiny's Child, actress Robin Williams, comedian and Oscar-winning actor, Good Will Hunting, Good Morning, Vietnam, Mrs. Doubtfire, Dead Poets Society, Night at the Museum, Mork & Mindy, Aladdin Rip Williams, MLB player 1911–18 Ron Williams, CEO and chairman of Aetna Inc. 2006–11 Tex Williams, western swing musician William E. Williams, 3-term U.S. Representative Richard S. Williamson, diplomat in George W. Bush administration Sonny Boy Williamson, blues harmonica musician (born in Tennessee) Dave Willock, actor, What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? Dave Wills, baseball broadcaster for Tampa Bay Rays Art Wilson, MLB catcher 1908–21 Ben Wilson, murdered high school basketball star Bobby Wilson, NFL tackle 1991–94 Dan Wilson, MLB catcher 1992–2005, Seattle Mariners Hall of Fame Dooley Wilson, singer, "Sam" in Casablanca (born in Texas) Gahan Wilson, cartoonist George Wilson, NFL player and coach George Wilson, NBA center, played in two NCAA title games (born in Mississippi) Gretchen Wilson, country music singer Hack Wilson, Hall of Fame outfielder for Cubs, record-breaking 191-RBI season (born in Pennsylvania) James H. Wilson, Civil War general Kenneth L. Wilson, president of United States Olympic Committee 1953–65, Big Ten commissioner 1945–61 Martez Wilson, linebacker for three NFL teams Parke Wilson, MLB catcher of 19th century Pete Wilson, politician, mayor of San Diego 1971–83, U.S. Senator 1983–91, Governor of California 1991–99 Richard G. Wilson, soldier, Medal of Honor winner Thomas E. Wilson, founder of Wilson Sporting Goods (born in Canada) Whip Wilson, actor in western films William Warfield Wilson, 4-term U.S. Representative Frank Wilton, football coach, Miami University 1932–41 Hal Wiltse, MLB pitcher 1926–31 Dorothy Wind, baseball player William G. Windrich, Medal of Honor recipient from Korean War Henry Haven Windsor, editor, founder of Popular Mechanics Oprah Winfrey, iconic television host, actress, producer and media magnate (born in Mississippi) Tommy Wingels, wing for NHL's San Jose Sharks Clare Winger, science-fiction writer Daniel Winkler, relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Roy Winsor, soap opera creator, Search for Tomorrow Frank Winters, basketball coach Nobby Wirkowski, CFL quarterback Arthur Wirtz, owned Chicago Stadium, Chicago Blackhawks, Chicago Bulls, Detroit Red Wings Bill Wirtz, 41-year president of Chicago Blackhawks Rocky Wirtz, owner of Chicago Blackhawks W. Willard Wirtz, U.S. Secretary of Labor under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Lindsay Wisdom-Hylton, WNBA player 2009–12 Al, Alvin and Whitey Wistert, members of College Football Hall of Fame John Wittenborn, NFL kicker 1958–68 Tom Wittum, NFL punter 1973–77 Samuel Witwer, actor, Davis Bloome on Smallville Wj–Wz Rick Wohlhuter, runner, 1976 Olympic bronze medalist in 800 meters Gary K. Wolf, author of novel adapted into Who Framed Roger Rabbit Hillary Wolf, actress, judo player, Home Alone, Home Alone 2 Raymond Wolf, football coach for North Carolina, Florida and Tulane Ross Wolf, MLB pitcher 2008–13 Garrett Wolfe, running back for Northern Illinois and Chicago Bears Ian Wolfe, actor, Bedlam, Julius Caesar Roger Wolff, MLB pitcher 1941–46 Violet Bidwill Wolfner, owner of NFL's Chicago and St. Louis Cardinals 1947–62 Benson Wood, Civil War officer, U.S. Representative (born in Pennsylvania) Corinne Wood, first female lieutenant governor of Illinois Elizabeth Wood, director of Chicago Housing Authority 1937–54 (born in Japan) James N. Wood, director of Art Institute of Chicago 1979–2004 John Wood, Governor of Illinois 1860–61, founder of Quincy, Illinois (born in New York) Kerry Wood, 10-year pitcher for Cubs (born in Texas) Mike Woodard, MLB infielder 1985–88 Cliff Woodbury, auto racer, 3rd in 1926 Indy 500 Jim Woods, MLB infielder 1957–61 Ray Woods, first basketball All-American for Illinois 1915–17 Abe Woodson, NFL cornerback 1958–66 (born in Mississippi) Bob Woodward, journalist for Washington Post, instrumental in Watergate scandal, co-author of All the President's Men Neil Woodward, Naval officer, NASA astronaut James Hutchinson Woodworth, U.S. Representative, Mayor of Chicago 1848–50 (born in New York) John Maynard Woodworth, first U.S. Surgeon General (born in New York) Collett E. Woolman, co-founder of Delta Air Lines Ralph Works, MLB pitcher 1909–13 Stephen T. Worland, economist Robert Wrenn, tennis player, one of Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders Amy Wright, actress, The Accidental Tourist, The Scarlet Letter Eric C. Wright, defensive back, four-time Super Bowl champion with San Francisco 49ers Eugene Wright, bassist with Dave Brubeck Quartet Frank Lloyd Wright, iconic architect, designer, writer and educator (born in Wisconsin) Jeremiah Wright, retired pastor of Trinity United Church of Christ (born in Pennsylvania) Joseph C. Wright, Oscar-winning art director Julian Wright, pro basketball player Margie Wright, softball Hall of Famer Michael Wright, pro basketball player Randy Wright, quarterback for Green Bay Packers 1984–88 Warren Wright Sr., owner of horse racing's Calumet Farm (born in Ohio) P.K. Wrigley, chewing gum mogul, Chicago Cubs owner 1932–77 William Wrigley Jr., founder of Wrigley Company, majority owner of Cubs 1918–32 (born in Pennsylvania) William Wrigley III, CEO of Wrigley Co., sold Cubs to Tribune Company Jim Wulff, defensive back, 1956 Rose Bowl champion Michigan State Vic Wunderle, archer, 2000 Olympic silver medalist Alex Wurman, film and TV composer Addie L. Wyatt, civil rights activist (born in Mississippi) John Wyatt, pitcher for five MLB teams Brooke Wyckoff, player for three WNBA teams Victoria Wyndham, actress, Another World Renaldo Wynn, player for four NFL teams Marvell Wynne, MLB outfielder 1983–90 Johnny Wyrostek, MLB outfielder 1942–54 Y Rick Yager, cartoonist Kevin Yagher, special effects technician Jimmy Yancey, jazz musician Ron Yary, Hall of Fame offensive tackle, primarily with Minnesota Vikings Richard Yates Sr., politician (Republican), U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, Governor of Illinois 1861–65 (born in Kentucky) Richard Yates Jr., politician (Republican), attorney, U.S. Representative, Governor of Illinois 1901–05 Sidney R. Yates, politician (Democrat), 49-year U.S. Representative Leland B. Yeager, economist, expert on monetary policy and international trade Charles Yerkes, financier, mass-transit developer (born in Pennsylvania) Mary Agnes Yerkes, painter Philip Yordan, Oscar-winning screenwriter, Detective Story, Johnny Guitar, The Harder They Fall John J. York, actor, General Hospital, Werewolf Bruce A. Young, actor, The Sentinel, Blink, The Color of Money Bryant Young, defensive lineman for Super Bowl XXIX champion San Francisco 49ers Buddy Young, NFL running back and College Football Hall of Famer Chic Young, creator of comic strip Blondie Clara Kimball Young, actress Donald Young, professional tennis player Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of Chicago schools 1909–1915 (born in New York) Ernie Young, outfielder for five MLB teams, minor-league manager, 2000 Olympic gold medalist Frank A. Young, sportswriter for Chicago Defender James Young, musician with Styx John Young, jazz pianist Larry Young, MLB umpire Richard M. Young, judge, U.S. Senator 1837–43 Robert Young, actor, Father Knows Best, Marcus Welby, M.D., Crossfire, Northwest Passage, Western Union Roger Young, writer, director, Lassiter, The Squeeze Victor Young, Oscar-winning composer, arranger, violinist, conductor; wrote "When I Fall in Love", "Around the World" Zora Young, blues singer (born in Mississippi) Robin Yount, Hall of Fame player for Milwaukee Brewers Linda Yu, television newscaster (born in China) Jay Yuenger, musician with White Zombie Rich Yunkus, basketball player Timi Yuro, singer, "Hurt" Kateryna Yushchenko, former First Lady of Ukraine Z Florian ZaBach, musician and television personality Courtney Zablocki, luge, fourth place at 2006 Turin Olympics Jacob Zachar, actor, Greek James Zagel, judge, novelist Paula Zahn, journalist, TV personality, On the Case with Paula Zahn (born in Nebraska) Timothy Zahn, science-fiction author Naureen Zaim, model, actress, artist Katalin Zamiar, martial artist, sportswriter, actress Robin Zander, musician with Cheap Trick (born in Wisconsin) Billy Zane, producer, director and actor, Titanic, The Phantom, Dead Calm, Only You, Sniper, Tombstone Charles S. Zane, judge, associate of Abe Lincoln (born in New Jersey) Lisa Zane, actress, L.A. Law, Biker Mice from Mars, Roar John Zaremba, actor, I Led Three Lives, The Time Tunnel, Ben Casey Agnes Zawadzki, figure skater, 2010 U.S. junior champion Jed Zayner, professional soccer player Tom Zbikowski, defensive back for Notre Dame and Baltimore Ravens Larry Zbyszko, pro wrestler Robert Z'Dar, actor, producer Joe Zdeb, outfielder for Kansas City Royals 1977–79 Kara Zediker, actress Stephen A. Zeff, accounting historian John D. Zeglis, president of AT&T Alfred Zeisler, film director Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler, pianist (born in Austria) Zeke Zekley, cartoonist Pam Zekman, Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative journalist Sarah Zelenka, world champion rower, 4th at 2012 Olympics Sam Zell, real estate entrepreneur, Tribune Company chairman Bob Zeman, pro football player and coach Robert Zemeckis, film director, Forrest Gump, Cast Away, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, the Back to the Future films Colleen Zenk, actress, As the World Turns Warren Zevon, rock musician, singer-songwriter, "Werewolves of London" Jeff Zgonina, defensive lineman for seven NFL teams Howard Zieff, film and TV commercial director, The Main Event, Private Benjamin, My Girl Florenz Ziegfeld, Broadway impresario, creator of Ziegfeld Follies Alma Ziegler, pro baseball player Brad Ziegler, pro baseball player (born in Kansas) Zach Ziemek, Olympic decathlete Benny Zientara, MLB infielder 1941–48 Lester Ziffren, screenwriter Mike Zimmer, head coach of Minnesota Vikings Frederick Hinde Zimmerman, banker and land owner Jacob Zimmerman, editor, politician (born in Pennsylvania) Mary Zimmerman, Tony Award-winning director (born in Nebraska) Mary Beth Zimmerman, golfer, 4-time Women's U.S. Amateur champion Bob Zimny, lineman for 1947 NFL champion Chicago Cardinals Bud Zipfel, first baseman for Washington Senators Patricia Zipprodt, costume designer Adrian Zmed, actor, TV personality, T. J. Hooker, Grease 2 Ben Zobrist, second baseman for the Chicago Cubs, 2-time World Series champion Robert Zoellick, president of World Bank 2007–12 Rick Zombo, hockey player for Detroit Red Wings, St. Louis Blues Chris Zorich, lineman for Notre Dame and Chicago Bears Louis Zorich, actor, musician, Mad About You, Brooklyn Bridge Anthony E. Zuiker, creator of CSI Jim Zulevic, actor, comedian, radio host, TV writer Robert Zuppke, football coach for University of Illinois 1913–41, College Football Hall of Fame (born in Germany) Jack Zuta, organized crime figure Edward Zwick, film director, Glory, The Last Samurai, Legends of the Fall, Love & Other Drugs, Defiance Tony Zych, Major League Baseball pitcher 0-9 Montana of 300, rapper See also List of Illinois suffragists Lists of Americans References Sources

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%2024%20characters

List of 24 characters

The following is a list of characters in the American serial drama television series 24, 24: Live Another Day, and 24: Legacy by season and event. The list first names the actor, followed by the character. Some characters have their own pages; see the box below. The show consists of an ensemble cast. A total of 47 actors have been credited as a part of the starring cast, over the course of eight seasons, one television film, one miniseries, and one spin-off series, international remakes notwithstanding. These are Kiefer Sutherland, Leslie Hope, Sarah Clarke, Elisha Cuthbert, Dennis Haysbert, Sarah Wynter, Xander Berkeley, Penny Johnson Jerald, Carlos Bernard, Reiko Aylesworth, James Badge Dale, Kim Raver, Alberta Watson, William Devane, Lana Parrilla, Roger Cross, Mary Lynn Rajskub, Gregory Itzin, James Morrison, Louis Lombardi, Jean Smart, D. B. Woodside, Peter MacNicol, Jayne Atkinson, Carlo Rota, Eric Balfour, Marisol Nichols, Regina King, Cherry Jones, Annie Wersching, Colm Feore, Bob Gunton, Jeffrey Nordling, Rhys Coiro, Janeane Garofalo, Anil Kapoor, Mykelti Williamson, Katee Sackhoff, Chris Diamantopoulos, John Boyd, Freddie Prinze, Jr., Yvonne Strahovski, Tate Donovan, Gbenga Akinnagbe, Giles Matthey, Michael Wincott, Benjamin Bratt, Corey Hawkins, Miranda Otto, Anna Diop, Teddy Sears, Ashley Thomas, Dan Bucatinsky, Coral Peña, Charlie Hofheimer, Sheila Vand, Raphael Acloque, Gerald McRaney, and Jimmy Smits. Overview Main cast = Main cast (credited) = Recurring cast (4+) = Guest cast (1-3) Recurring and guest cast The following recurring guest stars appeared in at least five episodes or were distinguished in the guest star credits. Key: = Recurring Key: = Special Guest 24: Season 1 The Bauers Kiefer Sutherland – Jack Bauer Leslie Hope – Teri Bauer Elisha Cuthbert – Kim Bauer CTU / Division Sarah Clarke – Nina Myers Carlos Bernard – Tony Almeida Karina Arroyave – Jamey Farrell Eric Balfour – Milo Pressman Michael O'Neill – Richard Walsh Scott Denny – Scott Baylor Xander Berkeley – George Mason Tamara Tunie – Alberta Green Paul Schulze – Ryan Chappelle Kevin Ramsey – Ted Paulson Kirk Baltz – Teddy Hanlin Sam Ayers – Jeff Breeher Palmer's family and staff Dennis Haysbert – David Palmer Penny Johnson Jerald – Sherry Palmer Megalyn Echikunwoke – Nicole Palmer Vicellous Reon Shannon – Keith Palmer Jude Ciccolella – Mike Novick Tanya Wright – Patty Brooks Kara Zediker – Elizabeth Nash Zach Grenier – Carl Webb Glenn Morshower – Aaron Pierce Greg Hartigan – Secret Service Agent Berkin Jesse D. Goins – Secret Service Agent Alan Hayes Michael Bryan French – Secret Service Agent Frank Simes Other associates of Palmer Devika Parikh – Maureen Kingsley John Prosky – George Ferragamo Ivar Brogger – Frank Ames First assassination plot Michael Massee — Ira Gaines Daniel Bess — Rick Allen Matthew Carey — Dan Mounts Richard Burgi — Kevin Carroll Rudolf Martin — Jonathan Matijevich Mia Kirshner — Mandy Silas Weir Mitchell – Eli Stram John Hawkes — Greg Penticoff Kim Murphy — Bridgit Al Leong — Neill Choi Jesse Corti — Charles McLemore Drazen's family and associates Dennis Hopper — Victor Drazen Željko Ivanek — Andre Drazen Misha Collins — Alexis Drazen Henri Lubatti — Jovan Myovic Currie Graham — Ted Cofell Rick's friends outside the plot Edoardo Ballerini — Frank Allard Navi Rawat — Melanie Miscellaneous Wade Andrew Williams — Robert Ellis Jacqui Maxwell — Janet York Lou Diamond Phillips — Mark DeSalvo Kathleen Wilhoite — Lauren Proctor Pauley Perrette — Tanya Jason Matthew Smith — Chris Rudolf Martin — Martin Belkin Keram Malicki-Sánchez — Larry Rogow John Cothran, Jr. — Srgt. Kiley David Barrera — Officer Phillips Tony Perez — Srgt. Douglas Newman Kim Miyori — Dr. Susan Y. Collier Judith Scott — Dr. Rose M. Kent 24: Season 2 CTU / Division Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer Xander Berkeley — George Mason Carlos Bernard — Tony Almeida Reiko Aylesworth — Michelle Dessler Paul Schulze — Ryan Chappelle Randle Mell — Brad Hammond (CTU Division Supervisor) Sara Gilbert — Paula Schaeffer Lourdes Benedicto — Carrie Turner Donnie Keshawarz — Yusuf Auda Daniel Dae Kim — Tom Baker John Eddins — Agent Richards Donzaleigh Abernathy — Barbara Maccabee Michael Cudlitz — Rick Phillips Palmer's family and administration Dennis Haysbert — President David Palmer Penny Johnson Jerald — Sherry Palmer Vicellous Reon Shannon — Keith Palmer Jude Ciccolella — Mike Novick Glenn Morshower — Aaron Pierce Timothy Carhart — Eric Rayburn Harris Yulin — Roger Stanton Michelle Forbes — Lynne Kresge Alan Dale — Vice President James Prescott Steven Culp — Ted Simmons John Rubinstein — Alex (Secretary of State) Robert Pine — Secretary of Agriculture Dean Norris — General Bowden Terry Bozeman — Richard Armus Tamlyn Tomita — Jenny Dodge (Press Secretary) Richard Holden — General Stone Greg Hartigan — Secret Service Agent Berkin Kim's Story Elisha Cuthbert — Kim Bauer Billy Burke — Gary Matheson Tracy Middendorf — Carla Matheson Skye McCole Bartusiak — Megan Matheson Kevin Dillon — Lonnie McRae Innis Casey — Miguel Michael McGrady — Officer Raymond Brown Miguel Perez — Ranger Mike Kramer Victor Rivers — Officer Amis Jamison Jones — Deputy Nirman Sterling Macer, Jr. — Deputy Raynes Susan Gibney — Anna Lombardo Boyar — Ramon Garcia Brent Sexton — Frank Davies Foreign diplomats Alexander Zale — Ambassador Shareef Christopher Maher — Deputy Prime Minister Barghouti Nicholas Guilak — Farhad Salim The Warners and the Naiyeers John Terry — Bob Warner Sarah Wynter — Kate Warner Laura Harris — Marie Warner Phillip Rhys — Reza Naiyeer Yareli Arizmendi — Karima Naiyeer Shaun Duke — Hasan Naiyeer Traitors involved in terrorist plot Sarah Clarke — Nina Myers Gregg Henry — Jonathan Wallace Wald's crew Jon Gries — Joseph Wald Douglas O'Keeffe — Eddie Grant Gregory Sporleder — Dave Jimmi Simpson — Chris Ali's family and Second Wave Francesco Quinn — Syed Ali Anthony Azizi — Mamud Rasheed Faheen Shaheen Vaaz — Syed Ali's wife Ike Bram — Fareed Ali Raja Jean Fenske — Asad Ali Aki Avni — Mohsen Maz Jobrani — Marko Khatami Marc Casabani — Omar Fred Toma — Basheer Peter Kingsley Group Tobin Bell — Peter Kingsley Thomas Kretschmann — Max Eugene Robert Glazer — Alexander Trepkos Mia Kirshner — Mandy Nina Landey — Eve Rick D. Wasserman — Alex Hewitt Peter Outerbridge — Ronnie Stark Brian Goodman — Raymond O'Hara Jeff Wincott — Davis Mark Ivanir — Trask Miscellaneous federal agents, police, and medical personnel Scott Allan Campbell — Dr. Porter (Field medic at warehouse, diagnoses George Mason) Sal Landi — Sgt. Arroyo (LAPD officer at warehouse) Christopher Murray — FBI Agent Dockerty (Agent at airfield) Miscellaneous characters Antonio David Lyons — Cam Strocker (Telephone Repairman taken hostage) Peter Gregory — Dr. Spire (Doctor at medical center) Bernard White — Al-Fulani (Imam) Justin Louis — Danny Dessler (Michelle Dessler's brother) Jeff Wincott – Davis (kidnaps and tortures Jack) Eric Christian Olsen — John Mason (George Mason's son) Jim Abele — Ralph Burton (Private Investigator who helps Kate Warner) Al Sapienza — Paul Koplin (Ralph Burton's boss) Michael Holden — Ron Wieland (Journalist; Held by the President) Michael Mantell — Steve Hillenburg (CIA Operative who aides Sherry Palmer) Michael James Reed — Foreman (Foreman for a construction crew that Marie Warner talks to) Nick Offerman — Marcus (Captures Kate Warner and assaulted Yusuf Auda) Raymond Cruz — Rouse (Captures Kate Warner and assaulted Yusuf Auda) Maurice Compte — Cole (Captures Kate Warner and assaulted Yusuf Auda) Carmen Argenziano — General Gratz 24: Season 3 CTU / Division Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer Elisha Cuthbert — Kim Bauer Carlos Bernard — Tony Almeida Reiko Aylesworth — Michelle Dessler James Badge Dale — Chase Edmunds Jesse Borrego — Gael Ortega Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian Zachary Quinto — Adam Kaufman Paul Schulze — Ryan Chappelle Randle Mell — Brad Hammond Daniel Dae Kim — Tom Baker Butch Klein — Darren Richards Jenette Goldstein — Rae Plachecki Carrie Kim — Jade Paik David Herman — Dalton Furrelle Ed Wasser — Jason Carasone Tony Wayne — Robin Powers Neal Matarazzo — D.J. Graves Palmer's family and administration and associates Dennis Haysbert — David Palmer (President of the United States) Penny Johnson Jerald — Sherry Palmer(David's ex-wife) Glenn Morshower — Aaron Pierce (The head of Palmer's Secret Service detail) D. B. Woodside — Wayne Palmer(David Palmer's Brother; Chief of Staff) Wendy Crewson — Anne Packard (Palmer's personal doctor; Palmer's girlfriend) Jamie McShane — Gerry Whitehorn (Palmer's press chief) Albert Hall — Alan Milliken (Major contributor to Palmer's campaign/Ally of his Presidency) Gina Torres — Julia Milliken (Wife of Alan Milliken) Alan Dale — Jim Prescott (Vice President of the United States) Conor O'Farrell — Ted Packard (Anne's ex-husband) Michael Cavanaugh — Joseph O'Laughlin (Secretary of Homeland Security) Greg Hartigan — Secret Service Agent Berkin Richard Holden — General Stone Saunders' family and crew Paul Blackthorne — Stephen Saunders (Former soldier and MI6 agent; turned into terrorist; main villain) Greg Ellis — Michael Amador (Seller of biological weapon) Lothaire Bluteau — Marcus Alvers (arms dealer; sold the Cordilla Virus; assumed to have a past with Nina Myers) Salvator Xuereb — Arthur Rabens (one of Stephen Saunders' couriers, has biological weapon in L.A.) Alexandra Lydon — Jane Saunders (Daughter of Stephen Saunders) Joe D'Angerio — Osterlind (Saunders' assistant) Gabrielle Fitzpatrick — Diana White (lover of Steven Saunders; help fund Saunders' operation) Salazar family and associates Joaquim de Almeida — Ramon Salazar (Narco-terrorist; Head of the Salazar family) Vincent Laresca — Hector Salazar (Ramon's brother; Head of family in Ramon's absence) Vanessa Ferlito — Claudia Hernandez (Girlfriend of Hector) Josh Cruz — Oriol (Claudia's father) Julian Rodriguez — Sergio (Claudia's brother) Lorry Goldman — Douglas Shaye (Ramon's lawyer) Gino Montesinos — Eduardo (Henchman) Eduardo Garcia — Emilio (Henchman) Gonzalo Menendez — Pablo (Henchman) David Labiosa — David Goldman Singer family and associates Riley Smith — Kyle Singer (First time "drug dealer") Ted Marcoux — Sam Singer (Kyle's unemployed father) Lucinda Jenney — Helen Singer (Kyle's mother) Agnes Bruckner — Linda (Kyle's girlfriend) Kett Turton — Tim (Kyle's best friend) Darin Cooper — Don (the Singer family's landlord) National Health Services Andrea Thompson — Dr. Nicole Duncan Christina Chang — Dr. Sunny Macer Miscellaneous police / Feds / Medical Paul Vincent O’Connor — Police Chief Hendrix Tony Todd — Detective Michael Norris (interrogates Julia Milliken) Simon Templeman — Trevor Tomlinson (Agent in MI6 office in LA; killed in gunship attack) Maria del Mar — Rachel Forrester Kevin Chapman — Kevin Mitchell Chandler Plaza Hotel staff and guests Doug Savant — Craig Phillips (Head of Hotel security) Paris Tanaka — Maya Sue Jin Song — Annalie Kim Scott Klace — Danny Brigid Brannagh — Kathy McCartney Miscellaneous characters Sarah Wynter — Kate Warner (Ex-girlfriend of Jack Bauer) Sarah Clarke — Nina Myers (Terrorist; Former CTU agent) Geoff Pierson — John Keeler (Republican Presidential Candidate) Mark Rolston — Bruce Foxton (professional evidence retriever) Carlos Gómez — Luis Annicon (Prison Supervisor; one of Jack's companions in the one year operation that brought down Ramon Salazar) Kamala Lopez-Dawson — Theresa Ortega (Gael's wife) JF Pryor — Zack Porter (Drug-dealer) Jack Kehler — Kevin Kelly Matt Salinger — Mark Kanar Rick Garcia — Rick Garcia Patrick Fabian — William Cole Jenni Blong — Susan Cole 24: Season 4 Department of Defense / Heller's family Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer (Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense) William Devane — James Heller(United States Secretary of Defense) Logan Marshall-Green — Richard Heller (James Heller's son) Kim Raver — Audrey Raines(James Heller's daughter; Jack Bauer's girlfriend; Senior Policy Assistant to Heller) James Frain — Paul Raines (Audrey's estranged husband) David Newsom — Scott Borman (Heller's aide) CTU / Division Carlos Bernard — Tony Almeida Reiko Aylesworth — Michelle Dessler Alberta Watson — Erin Driscoll Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian James Morrison — Bill Buchanan Roger Cross — Curtis Manning Lana Parrilla — Sarah Gavin Louis Lombardi — Edgar Stiles Aisha Tyler — Marianne Taylor Robert Cicchini — Howard Bern Cameron Bancroft — Lee Castle Shawn Doyle — Ronnie Lobell Thomas Vincent Kelly — Marc Besson Butch Klein — Eric Richards Naomi Kirkpatrick — Meredith Atterson Brandon Barash — Brandon Shannon Becker — Allison Nichols Michael Bofshever — Dr. Mark Kaylis Gwendoline Yeo — Melissa Raab Alicia Coppola — Azara Nasir Terrorist group Arnold Vosloo — Habib Marwan Nestor Serrano — Navi Araz Shohreh Aghdashloo — Dina Araz Jonathan Ahdout — Behrooz Araz Ned Vaughn — Mitch Anderson Tony Plana — Omar Mia Kirshner — Mandy Anil Kumar — Kalil Hasan Adam Alexi-Malle — Joseph Fayed Dagmara Dominczyk — Nicole John Thaddeus — Joseph "Joe" Prado Keith Szarabajka — Robert Morrison Kris Iyer — Sabir Ardakani Faran Tahir — Tomas Sherek Matt Gallini — Abdul Mahnesh Kiran Rao — Hikmat Palpatine Keeler's family and administration Geoff Pierson — President John Keeler Chris Olivero — Kevin Keeler Gregory Itzin — Vice-President Charles Logan Jude Ciccolella — Mike Novick John Allen Nelson — Logan's Chief of Security Walt Cummings Glenn Morshower — Secret Service Agent Aaron Pierce Dennis Haysbert — former President David Palmer J. Patrick McCormack — Robert Franklin Patrick Kilpatrick — Secret Service Agent Dale Spalding Matt Salinger — Mark Kanar McLennan-Forster storyline Robertson Dean — Henry Powell Bill Smitrovich — Gene McLennan Richard Marcus — Forbes Albie Selznick — John Reiss Tomas Arana — Dave Conlon Amin Nazemzadeh — Naji Omid Abtahi — Safa Christopher B. Duncan — Specter Chinese Consulate Tzi Ma — Cheng Zhi Peter Chin — Lee Jong François Chau — Koo Yin Ping Wu — Su Ming Miscellaneous characters Lukas Haas — Andrew Paige Leighton Meester — Debbie Pendleton Angela Goethals — Maya Driscoll Roxanne Day — Jen Slater T. J. Thyne — Jason Girard Claudette Mink — Kelly Girard Evan Handler — David Weiss Tim Kelleher — Greg Merfield (Secret Service Agent) Lina Patel — Nabilla Al-Jamil Phyllis Lyons — Karen Pendleton Michael Benyaer — Naseem Hector Luis Bustamante — Dr. Martinez Rick Garcia — Rick Garcia 24: Season 5 Bauer's family and associates Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer Elisha Cuthbert — Kim Bauer Kim Raver — Audrey Raines C. Thomas Howell — Barry Landes Jack's Inner Circle Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian (CTU agent) see also CTU / Division / Homeland Security Reiko Aylesworth — Michelle Dessler (former CTU Division Deputy Director; Tony's wife) Carlos Bernard — Tony Almeida (former CTU Director; Michelle's husband) CTU / Division / Homeland Security James Morrison — Bill Buchanan(CTU Director/ CTU Division Director) Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian (CTU agent) Carlo Rota — Morris O'Brian (Chloe O'Brian's ex-husband) Sean Astin — Lynn McGill (Division; takes over as CTU Director) Kim Raver — Audrey Raines (DOD liaison for CTU) Louis Lombardi — Edgar Stiles(CTU agent) Roger Cross — Curtis Manning (CTU agent; Head of Field Ops) Jayne Atkinson — Karen Hayes(Homeland Security official) Stephen Spinella — Miles Papazian (Hayes' assistant) Jonah Lotan — Spenser Wolff (CTU agent) Danielle Burgio — Carrie Bendis (CTU agent) Kate Mara — Shari Rothenberg (CTU agent) Martin A. Papazian — Rick Burke Thomas Vincent Kelly — Marc Besson Jenny Levine — Valerie Harris Peter Asle Holden — Harry Swinton (CTU security guard) Carl Edwards — Jim Hill (Homeland Security official) Josie Di Vincenzo — CTU Agent Mara Tyler David Joyner — CTU S.W.A.T Agent Jones Michael Roddy — CTU S.W.A.T Agent Smith Tony Wayne — Robin Powers Alex Castillo — CTU Guard Hugo Marci Michelle — CTU Agent Marcy Reynolds Thomas Howell — CTU Guard Henry Billy Chamberlain — CTU Agent Fitzpatrick John McCain — CTU staffer Sentox Nerve Gas Conspiracy Gregory Itzin — Charles Logan Paul McCrane — Graem Bauer Peter Weller — Christopher Henderson Geraint Wyn Davies — James Nathanson John Allen Nelson — Walt Cummings Jeff Kober — Conrad Haas Robert Rusler — Hank José Zúñiga — Joseph Malina Sky Soleil — John Stratton John Butox — Steve Miller Carl Gilliard — Ron Swanson Federal Government officials, employees and associates Gregory Itzin — Charles Logan (President) Jean Smart — Martha Logan (First Lady) Ray Wise — Hal Gardner (Vice President) John Allen Nelson — Walt Cummings (Chief of Staff) Jude Ciccolella — Mike Novick (Senior advisor) Glenn Morshower — Aaron Pierce (Secret Service) William Devane — James Heller (Secretary of Defense) Sandrine Holt — Evelyn Martin (Martha's personal aide) Alla Korot — Suzanne Cummings (Walt's wife) Anita Finlay — Wendy Brown (White House aide) Robb Reesman — Dr. Hill (Martha's personal doctor) Taylor Nichols — Burke David McDivitt — White House staffer Tracy Howe — Secret Service Agent Justin Adams Jason Grutter — Secret Service Agent Doug Masters Tim Mikulecky — Secret Service Agent Mark Wexler Palmer family Dennis Haysbert — David Palmer D. B. Woodside — Wayne Palmer Russian Federation Nick Jameson — Yuri Suvarov Kathleen Gati — Anya Suvarov Russian separatists and collaborators Julian Sands — Vladimir Bierko Mark Sheppard — Ivan Erwich David Dayan Fisher — Anton Beresch Alex Kuznetsov — Ostroff Stana Katic — Collette Stenger Patrick Bauchau — Jacob Rossler Timothy Omundson — Polokoff Marat Oyvetsky — Viktor Grigorin Taras Los — Chevensky Robert Maffia — Andrei Timothy V. Murphy — Schaeffer Yorgo Constantine — Mikhail People's Republic of China Tzi Ma — Cheng Zhi Miscellaneous Feds/Police/Medical John G. Connolly — Sgt. Mike McLaren Miscellaneous characters Connie Britton — Diane Huxley Brady Corbet — Derek Huxley Penny Balfour — Jenny McGill Henry Ian Cusick — Theo Stoller Matthew Boylan — Dwayne Thompkins Angela Sarafyan — Inessa Kovalevsky Skylar Roberge — Amy Martin JoBeth Williams — Miriam Henderson Pia Artesona — Joanna Tandy Channon Roe — Cal Andrew Hawkes — Scott Evans Tom Wright — Admiral Kirkland Jeremy Ray Valdez — Petty Officer Tim Rooney Eddie Mekka — Ned Rick Garcia — Rick Garcia 24: Season 6 Bauer's family and associates Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer James Cromwell — Phillip Bauer Paul McCrane — Graem Bauer Rena Sofer — Marilyn Bauer Evan Ellingson — Josh Bauer Kim Raver — Audrey Raines Mark Bramhall — Sam CTU / Division / District James Morrison — Bill Buchanan Marisol Nichols — Nadia Yassir Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian Carlo Rota — Morris O'Brian Roger Cross — Curtis Manning Eric Balfour — Milo Pressman Rick Schroder — Mike Doyle Martin A. Papazian — Rick Burke Spencer Garrett — Ben Kram (supervisor from Division) James C. Victor — Hal Turner (CTU Agent) Robb Weller — CTU Field Agent Brian Silverman — CTU Field Agent Lauten Richard Metcalfe — CTU Agent Stan Shavers Lex Cassar — CTU Agent Ryan Merik Tadros — CTU Agent Jamal J. R. Bourne — CTU Agent Connell Johnson Tony Wayne — Robin Powers Federal Government officials, employees and associates D. B. Woodside — Wayne Palmer (President of the United States) Peter MacNicol — Tom Lennox(President Palmer's Chief of Staff) Jayne Atkinson — Karen Hayes (National Security Advisor) Regina King — Sandra Palmer Powers Boothe — Noah Daniels (Vice-President of the United States) Chad Lowe — Reed Pollock (Deputy Chief of Staff) Kari Matchett — Lisa Miller Bob Gunton — Ethan Kanin (Secretary of Defense) Michael Shanks — Mark Bishop (Lobbyist) Michael Reilly Burke — Bruce Carson Jim Holmes — Arthur Welton Ray Laska — Kevin Graves (Attorney General) D. C. Douglas — Blake Simon (President Palmer's Advisor) Matt McKenzie — Agent Hollister (Secret Service Agent) Andrea Grano — Ellen Price (President Palmer's press secretary) Jolene Kim — Melinda (President Palmer's assistant) Jamison Jones — Dan (Head of Secret Service) William Bumiller — Agent Lowry (Secret Service Agent) Matt Battaglia — Agent Jennings (Secret Service Agent) Ajay Mehta — Middle Eastern Ambassador Peter Iannone — Homeland Security Official Kurt Hueig — Homeland Security Official Myra Mawk — Homeland Security Official People's Republic of China Tzi Ma — Cheng Zhi Ian Anthony Dale — Zhou Yong Russian/Islamic Terrorists Adoni Maropis — Abu Fayed Rade Šerbedžija — General Dmitri Gredenko David Hunt — Darren McCarthy Kal Penn — Ahmed Amar Shaun Majumder — Hasan Numair Missy Cryder — Rita Brady Sam Kanater — General Mohmar Habib Steven Schub — Samir Hussain Dylan Kenin — Victor Patrick Sabongui — Nasir Said Faraj — Halil Sammy Sheik — Masheer Adrian R'Mante — Omar Phillip's Conspirators/BXJ Technologies James Cromwell — Phillip Bauer Paul McCrane — Graem Bauer Maury Sterling — Kozelek Hacker Adrian Neil — Liddy Anacostia Detention Facility Scott William Winters — Agent Samuels Al Faris — Salim Haaz Sleiman — Heydar Russian Federation John Noble — Anatoly Markov Nick Jameson — Yuri Suvarov Kathleen Gati — Anya Suvarov Miscellaneous characters William Devane — James Heller Glenn Morshower — Aaron Pierce Gregory Itzin — Charles Logan Jean Smart — Martha Logan Alexander Siddig — Hamri Al-Assad Harry Lennix — Walid Al-Rezani Raphael Sbarge — Ray Wallace Megan Gallagher — Jillian Wallace Michael Angarano — Scott Wallace Chris Kramer — Stuart Pressman Pat Healy — Marcus Eric Bruskotter — Stan Nancy Cartwright — Jeannie Tyler Devon Gummersall — Mark Hauser Scott Michael Campbell — Brady Hauser 24: Redemption and Season 7 The following characters appeared in the television film 24: Redemption and the seventh season of the series. Bauer family and others Kiefer SutherlandJack Bauer Elisha CuthbertKim Bauer Paul WesleyStephen (Kim's husband) Claire GeareTeri (Kim's daughter) FBI Jeffrey NordlingLarry Moss (FBI Special Agent in Charge) Annie WerschingRenee Walker (FBI Special Agent) Janeane GarofaloJanis Gold (FBI Analyst) Rhys CoiroSean Hillinger (FBI Analyst) Ever CarradineErika (Computer Analyst) John BillingsleyMichael Latham (Security specialist) Federal government officials, employees and associates Powers BoothePresident Noah Daniels Cherry JonesAllison Taylor (President of the United States of America) Colm FeoreHenry Taylor (First Gentleman) Sprague GraydenOlivia Taylor (First Daughter) Eric LivelyRoger Taylor Cameron DaddoMitchell Hayworth (Vice President of the United States of America) Peter MacNicol as Tom Lennox Bob GuntonEthan Kanin (White House Chief of Staff) Isaach De BankoléPrime Minister Ule Motobo Glenn MorshowerAaron Pierce(Secret Service Agent) Warren KoleBrian Gedge (Secret Service Agent) Mark KielyEdward Vossler (Secret Service Agent) Frank John HughesTim Woods (Secretary of Homeland Security) Kurtwood SmithSenator Blaine Mayer Gil BellowsFrank Trammell (U.S. Embassy Official in Sengala) Ryan CutronaAdmiral John Smith Christina ChangDr. Sunny Macer Mark DerwinJoe Stevens (Secretary of State) Lesley FeraAngela Nelson (Press Secretary) Sean MichaelCharles Solenz "Underground" CTU Kiefer SutherlandJack Bauer Carlos BernardTony Almeida Mary Lynn RajskubChloe O'Brian James MorrisonBill Buchanan Carlo RotaMorris O'Brian Juma regime Tony ToddGeneral Benjamin Juma (Leader of Coup in Sangala) Hakeem Kae-KazimColonel Iké Dubaku Peter WingfieldDavid Emerson Arjay SmithLaurent Dubaku Mark AikenNichols Dameon ClarkeAlan Tanner Maximiliano HernándezDonnie Fox Nick ChinlundMasters Starkwood Jon VoightJonas Hodges Rory CochraneGreg Seaton Chris MulkeyDoug Knowles Michael RodrickStokes Gabriel CasseusRobert Galvez Sebastian RochéJohn Quinn Eyal PodellRyan Burnett (Senator Mayer's Advisor who is in league with Starkwood) Prion Variant cabal Will PattonAlan Wilson Amy Price-FrancisCara Bowden (operative disguised as Hodges' lawyer) Miscellaneous characters Robert CarlyleCarl Benton Tommy FlanaganGabriel Schector Kris LemcheChris Whitley Carly PopeSamantha Roth (Roger Taylor's Girlfriend) Tonya PinkinsAlama Motobo Andi ChapmanRosa Donoso Enuka OkumaMarika Donoso Omid AbtahiJibraan Al-Zarian Ravi KapoorMuhtadi Gohar Rafi GavronHamid Al-Zarian Siyabulela RambaWillie Don McManusBob Peluso Mary Page KellerSarah 24: Season 8 Bauer's family and associates Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer Elisha Cuthbert — Kim Bauer Annie Wersching — Renee Walker Paul Wesley — Stephen Claire Geare — Teri CTU NY Mykelti Williamson — Brian Hastings Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian Freddie Prinze Jr. — Cole Ortiz Katee Sackhoff — Dana Walsh John Boyd — Arlo Glass Julian Morris — Owen Matthew Yang King (as Matt Yang King) — King Jamie Martz — Nate Burke Justin Alston — Beck Federal Government officials, employees and associates Cherry Jones — President Allison Taylor Chris Diamantopoulos — Chief of Staff Rob Weiss Bob Gunton — Secretary of State Ethan Kanin Gregory Itzin — Former President Charles Logan Frank John Hughes — Tim Woods Reed Diamond — Jason Pillar Michael Gaston — General David Brucker Eriq La Salle — UN Secretary General Lesley Fera  — Angela Nelson Merle Dandridge — Kristen Smith Julie Claire — Eden Linley Michael Irby — Adrion Bishop Christina Cox — Molly O'Connor Kathryn Winslow — Ellen Kramer Chris McGarry — Frank Haynum Sarah Hollis  — Susan Islamic Republic of Kamistan Anil Kapoor — President Omar Hassan Necar Zadegan — Dalia Hassan Nazneen Contractor — Kayla Hassan Akbar Kurtha — Farhad Hassan T. J. Ramini — Tarin Faroush Mido Hamada — Samir Mehran Rami Malek — Marcos Al-Zacar Hrach Titizian — Nabeel Navid Negahban — Jamot Ethan Rains — Ali Rizwan Manji — Ahman Red Square Jürgen Prochnow — Sergei Bazhaev David Anders — Josef Bazhaev Gene Farber — Oleg Bazhaev Callum Keith Rennie — Vladimir Laitanan Doug Hutchison — Davros Jordan Marder — Dimitri Jon Sklaroff — Ziya Dakhilov Tony Curran — Lugo Elson Russian Federation Nick Jameson — President Yuri Suvarov Graham McTavish — Mikhail Novakovich Joel Bissonnette — Pavel Tokarev Miscellaneous characters Benito Martinez — Victor Aruz Clayne Crawford — Kevin Wade Jennifer Westfeldt — Meredith Reed Michael Filipowich — Nick Coughlin Mare Winningham — Elaine Al-Zacar Stephen Root — Bill Prady D. B. Sweeney — Mark Bledsoe Michael Madsen — Jim Ricker Joe Nieves — NYPD Officer James "Jim" Koernig Sandra Purpuro — Maggie Koernig Domenick Lombardozzi — NYPD Officer John Mazoni Johnny Wu — NYPD Officer Philip Lu Eli Goodman — Dr. Joel Levine Thomas Ryan — Gary Klausner Alex Carter — Nantz 24: Live Another Day Bauer and associates Kiefer Sutherland — Jack Bauer Branko Tomović — Belcheck CIA London Yvonne Strahovski — Kate Morgan Gbenga Akinnagbe — Erik Ritter Giles Matthey — Jordan Reed Benjamin Bratt — Steve Navarro Adam Sinclair — Gavin Leonard Christina Chong — Mariana Federal Government officials, employees and associates William Devane — President James Heller Tate Donovan — Chief of Staff Mark Boudreau Kim Raver — Audrey Boudreau Ross McCall — Ron Clark Colin Salmon — General Coburn John Boyega — First Lieutenant Chris Tanner Duncan Pow — Captain Greg Denovo United Kingdom officials, employees and associates Stephen Fry — Prime Minister Alastair Davies Miranda Raison — Caroline Fowlds James Puddephatt — Ken Open Cell Mary Lynn Rajskub — Chloe O'Brian Michael Wincott — Adrian Cross Joseph Millson — Derrick Yates Mandeep Dhillon — Chell Charles Furness — Pete Drone terrorist plot Michelle Fairley — Margot Al-Harazi Emily Berrington — Simone Al-Harazi Liam Garrigan — Ian Al-Harazi Sacha Dhawan — Naveed Shabazz Russian Federation Stanley Townsend — Anatol Stolnavich Miscellaneous characters Tzi Ma — Cheng Zhi Alex Lanipekun — James Harman Tamer Hassan — Aron Bashir/Basher List of U.S. presidents References Lists of action television characters 24 Lists of American crime television series characters Lists of American drama television series characters

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Los%20Angeles

Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles

The Archdiocese of Los Angeles (, ) is an ecclesiastical territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church (particularly the Roman Catholic or Latin Church) located in the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. The archdiocese’s cathedra is in Los Angeles, the archdiocese comprises the California counties of Los Angeles, Santa Barbara and Ventura. The cathedral is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, and its present archbishop is José Horacio Gómez Velasco. With approximately five million professing members, the Archdiocese of Los Angeles is numerically the single largest diocese in the United States. The Archbishop of Los Angeles also serves as metropolitan bishop of the suffragan dioceses within the Ecclesiastical Province of Los Angeles, which includes the dioceses of Fresno, Monterey, Orange, San Bernardino, and San Diego. Following the establishment of the Spanish missions in California, the diocese of the Two Californias was established on 1840, when the Los Angeles region was still part of Mexico. In 1848, Mexican California was ceded to the United States, and the U.S. portion of the diocese was renamed the Diocese of Monterey. The diocese was renamed the Diocese of Monterey-Los Angeles in 1859, and the episcopal see was moved to Los Angeles upon the completion of the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana in 1876. Los Angeles split from Monterey to become the Diocese of Los Angeles-San Diego in 1922. The diocese was split again in 1936 to create the Diocese of San Diego, and the Los Angeles see was elevated to an archdiocese. The archdiocese's present territory was established in 1976, when Orange County was split off to establish the Diocese of Orange. History With the papal bull Apostolicam sollicitudinem of 27 April 1840, Pope Gregory XVI set up a new episcopal see, to which he gave the name of Diocese of California (also interchangeably called "Diocese of Two Californias" or "Diocese of Both Californias"). He assigned to it a vast territory taken from that of the Diocese of Sonora, now the Archdiocese of Hermosillo in Mexico. It included Alta California, encompassing the present states of California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming, and the Baja California Territory, encompassing the modern Mexican states of Baja California and Baja California Sur. He set the episcopal residence at San Diego and made the diocese a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Mexico City. Francisco Garcia Diego y Moreno, OFM became the first bishop of the new diocese, with Mission Santa Barbara serving as its pro-cathedral. After ceding Alta California to the United States at the close of the Mexican–American War, the government of Mexico objected to a bishop based in the United States having jurisdiction over parishes in Mexican Baja California. The Holy See divided the diocese into American and Mexican sections. On 20 November 1849, with the episcopal residence moved to Monterey, a more central position for the new diocese, the American section became the Diocese of Monterey. The Royal Presidio Chapel in Monterey served as the pro-cathedral of the American diocese. In 1853, Pope Pius IX erected the Metropolitan Archdiocese of San Francisco, taking the territory that now constitutes Nevada, Utah, and much of northern California from the diocese and making the diocese a suffragan thereof. In 1859, the same pope renamed of the diocese to Diocese of Monterey-Los Angeles to recognize the growth of the city of Los Angeles. The bishop moved his principal residence to Los Angeles and used the Mission of Santa Barbara as a pro-cathedral until the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana opened in 1876. On June 1, 1922, Pope Pius XI renamed the diocese again, making it the Diocese of Los Angeles-San Diego, and simultaneously erected a new diocese, named the Diocese of Monterey-Fresno, in what had become northern portion of its territory after the erection of the Archdiocese of San Francisco. This changed the title of Bishop John Joseph Cantwell from Bishop of Monterey-Los Angeles to bishop Los Angeles-San Diego, which then comprised the counties of Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Barbara, and Ventura. On July 11, 1936, the same pope elevated and renamed the diocese as the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Los Angeles, with John Joseph Cantwell becoming the first archbishop of Los Angeles, concurrently erecting the Diocese of San Diego with the territory of Imperial, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San Diego Counties, and designated the new Diocese of San Diego and the Diocese of Monterey-Fresno as suffragan of the new metropolitan see. Pope Paul VI subsequently split each of the three dioceses of the Metropolitan Province of Los Angeles into two. On 6 October 1967, he suppressed the Diocese of Monterey-Fresno and erected the present Diocese of Fresno and the present Diocese of Monterey in California, splitting in the territory of the suppressed diocese between them making both new dioceses also suffragans of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Los Angeles. The inclusion of "in California" in the title of the latter of the new dioceses differentiates it from other dioceses with see cities that have the same name. On 24 March 1976, he erected Diocese of Orange, taking Orange County from the Archdiocese of Los Angeles and making the new diocese a suffragan of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Los Angeles. This action also established the present territory of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, consisting of Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and Ventura Counties. On 14 July 1978, he erected the Diocese of San Bernardino, taking San Bernardino and Riverside Counties from the Diocese of San Diego and making the new diocese also a suffragan of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Los Angeles. These actions established the present configuration of the Metropolitan Province of Los Angeles. Pastoral regions In 1986, Roger Mahony designated five geographical administrative pastoral regions, each led by an auxiliary bishop who functions as the region's episcopal vicar. The five regions are: Our Lady of the Angels, covering downtown and central Los Angeles west to Malibu, south to Los Angeles International Airport. The region has the cathedral, 78 parishes, 10 Catholic high schools, 5 Catholic hospitals, 1 cemetery, 3 parochial missions, 1 seminary, and no Spanish missions. The episcopal vicar is Bishop Edward William Clark. San Fernando, covering the San Fernando, Santa Clarita and Antelope Valleys and northeast Los Angeles. The region has 54 parishes, 12 Catholic high schools, 2 Catholic hospitals, 2 cemeteries, 7 parochial missions, 1 active duty military chapel installation, and 1 Spanish mission. Gómez appointed Alejandro D. Aclan as episcopal vicar for the San Fernando pastoral region in 2019. San Gabriel, covering East Los Angeles through the San Gabriel Valley and the Pomona Valley. The region has 66 parishes, 13 Catholic high schools, 3 Catholic hospitals, 4 cemeteries, 2 parochial missions and 1 Spanish mission. Gómez appointed David G. O'Connell as episcopal vicar for the San Gabriel pastoral region in 2015. San Pedro, covering Long Beach and southern Los Angeles County. The region has 67 parishes, 9 Catholic high schools, 6 Catholic hospitals, 1 cemetery, 1 active duty military chapel installation, and 1 parochial mission. Gómez appointed Marc V. Trudeau as episcopal vicar for this region in 2018. Santa Barbara, covering Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties. The region has 37 parishes, 6 Catholic high schools, 3 Catholic hospitals, 4 cemeteries, 3 active duty military chapel installations, 6 parochial missions and 4 Spanish missions. Gómez appointed Robert E. Barron as episcopal vicar for the Santa Barbara pastoral region in 2015. Clergy sexual abuse settlements On July 16, 2007, Cardinal Roger Mahony and the archdiocese reached a record-breaking settlement with 508 alleged victims of sexual abuse by priests. The settlement was worth $660 million, with an average of $1.3 million for each plaintiff. Mahony described the abuse as a "terrible sin and crime", after a series of trials into sex abuse claims since the 1940s were to begin. The agreement settled all outstanding civil lawsuits against the archdiocese and dwarfs the $157 million settlement paid by the Archdiocese of Boston since Massachusetts law places a legal dollar cap on how much money a non-profit group can be required to pay. In 2014 the diocese agreed to pay $13 million to settle a final group of 17 sex abuse lawsuits, including eleven that involved "a visiting Mexican priest who fled prosecution and remains a fugitive more than 25 years later". The settlement followed a court order forcing the Archdiocese to release files which showed that it had shielded accused priests, for example by ordering church officials not to turn over a list of altar boys to police who were investigating. From May to December 2019, the Archdiocese of Los Angeles provided numerous documents to California State Attorney Xavier Becerra in preparation for a series of pending lawsuits which are expected to be filed after a new California law which will temporarily remove the statute of limitations. The new law went into effect on January 1, 2020. The Archdiocese of Los Angeles is one of six Catholic dioceses throughout the state of California which is expected to be subpoenaed during the upcoming lawsuits. In January 2020, it was reported that the Archdiocese of Los Angeles settled a sexual abuse case against a former Archdiocese priest for $1.9 million. Archbishop The archdiocese is led by the archbishop, who governs from the mother church, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels. The cathedral was dedicated on September 2, 2002, and replaced the former Cathedral of Saint Vibiana, damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The Archbishop of Los Angeles is the metropolitan of the Province of Los Angeles of the Catholic Church. Its suffragans are the dioceses of Fresno, Monterey in California, Orange in California, San Bernardino, and San Diego. Metropolitan archbishops historically wielded great administrative powers over the suffragan dioceses. Today, such power is only ceremonial and kept as a tradition. The Most Reverend José H. Gómez is the current archbishop of Los Angeles, having automatically succeeded his predecessor, Cardinal Roger Mahony, who served for 25 years, upon the latter's retirement which took effect on March 1, 2011. Previously, Gómez served as Coadjutor Archbishop of Los Angeles since his appointment by Pope Benedict XVI on April 6, 2010. He previously served as Archbishop of San Antonio from 2004 to 2010, and as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Denver from 2001 to 2004. He is an ordained priest of Opus Dei. Archbishop Gómez is assisted by the current auxiliary bishops: Edward W. Clark, David O'Connell, Robert Barron, Marc Vincent Trudeau, and Alejandro D. Aclan. In addition, Joseph Martin Sartoris and Gerald Eugene Wilkerson are retired auxiliary bishops still living and residing within the archdiocese. Gordon Bennett, S.J., Bishop Emeritus of Mandeville, Jamaica, also resides within the archdiocese, as the Peter Faber, S.J., Fellow in Pastoral Theology and Ignatian Spirituality at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles. Bishops Bishop of California (Two Californias, Both Californias) Francisco Garcia Diego y Moreno (1840–1846) Bishop of Monterey Joseph Alemany (1850–1853), appointed Archbishop of San Francisco Bishops of Monterey-Los Angeles Thaddeus Amat y Brusi (1853–1878) Francisco Mora y Borrell (1878–1896; coadjutor bishop 1873-1878) George Thomas Montgomery (1896–1902; coadjutor bishop 1894-1896), appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of San Francisco but died before succession to that see Thomas James Conaty (1903–1915) John Joseph Cantwell (1917–1922), title changed with title of diocese Bishop of Los Angeles-San Diego John Joseph Cantwell (1922–1936), elevated to Archbishop of Los Angeles Archbishops of Los Angeles John Joseph Cantwell (1936–1947) James Francis McIntyre (1948–1970) Timothy Manning (1970–1985) Roger Mahony (1985–2011) José Horacio Gómez (2011–present; coadjutor archbishop 2010-2011) Current auxiliary bishops of Los Angeles David G. O'Connell (2015–present) - Episcopal Vicar for San Gabriel Pastoral Region Robert Barron (2015–present) - Santa Barbara Pastoral Region Marc Vincent Trudeau (2018–present) - San Pedro Pastoral Region Alejandro D. Aclan (2019–present) - San Fernando Pastoral Region Former auxiliary bishops of Los Angeles Joseph Thomas McGucken (1941–1955), appointed Bishop of Sacramento and later Archbishop of San Francisco Timothy Manning (1946–1967), appointed Bishop of Fresno and later Coadjutor Archbishop and Archbishop of Los Angeles(see above); created Cardinal in 1973 Alden John Bell (1956–1962), appointed Bishop of Sacramento John J. Ward (1963–1996) Joseph Patrick Dougherty (1969–1970) William Robert Johnson (1971–1976), appointed Bishop of Orange Juan Alfredo Arzube (1971–1993) Thaddeus Anthony Shubsda (1976–1982), appointed Bishop of Monterey in California Manuel Duran Moreno (1976–1982), appointed Coadjutor Bishop and later Bishop of Tucson Donald William Montrose (1983–1985), appointed Bishop of Stockton William Levada (1983–1986), appointed Archbishop of Portland in Oregon and later Archbishop of San Francisco and Prefect of Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (elevated to Cardinal in 2006) Carl Anthony Fisher (1986–1993) Armando Xavier Ochoa (1986–1996), appointed Bishop of El Paso and later Bishop of Fresno George Patrick Ziemann (1986–1992), appointed Bishop of Santa Rose in California Sylvester Donovan Ryan (1990–1992), appointed Bishop of Monterey in California Stephen Blaire (1990–1999), appointed Bishop of Stockton Thomas John Curry (1994–2018) Joseph Martin Sartoris (1994–2002) Gabino Zavala (1994–2012) Gerald Eugene Wilkerson (1997–2015) Edward W. Clark (2001–2022) Oscar Azarcon Solis (2003–2017), appointed Bishop of Salt Lake City Alexander Salazar (2004–2018) Joseph Vincent Brennan (2015–2019), appointed Bishop of Fresno Other priests of the diocese who became bishops Note: Years in parentheses indicate the time of service as a priest of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles (or predecessor diocese), prior to appointment to the episcopacy. Robert Emmet Lucey (1922–1934), appointed Bishop of Amarillo and later Archbishop of San Antonio John Thomas Steinbock (1963–1984), appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Orange and later Bishop of Fresno Justin F. Rigali (1961–1985), appointed President of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy and later Secretary of the Congregation for Bishops and the College of Cardinals, Archbishop of Saint Louis, and Archbishop of Philadelphia (elevated to Cardinal in 2003) Michael Patrick Driscoll (1965–1989), appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Orange and later Bishop of Boise George Hugh Niederauer (1962–1994), appointed Bishop of Salt Lake City and Archbishop of San Francisco Dennis Patrick O'Neil (1966–2001), appointed Auxiliary Bishop of San Bernardino Schools There are 5 colleges and over 50 high schools within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles. Many churches have affiliated primary schools as well. Events Religious education congress The archdiocese's office of religious education produces the Los Angeles Religious Education Congress, the largest annual event of its kind in the United States, with an attendance of approximately 38,000. Annual Marian procession and Mass The archdiocese has entrusted the annual celebration of the Votive Mass in honor of Our Lady of the Angels to the Queen of Angels Foundation, a lay association of the Catholic Church founded by Mark Anchor Albert, dedicated to promoting devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Each year since 2011, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels has hosted a Votive Mass in honor of Our Lady, Queen of Angels. The Mass follows a Marian procession which originates from the historic Queen of Angels parish, which is part of the Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, and culminates at the cathedral. Since 2011 the Queen of Angels Foundation has sponsored the annual Marian processions, Votive Masses, and fiestas in commemoration of Los Angeles' birthday and the feast of Our Lady of the Angels. Archbishop Gomez has been the homilist and principal celebrant of the annual Mass since 2012. Future Marian processions and Masses will coincide with the City of Los Angeles' official birthday celebrations on the last Saturday of August. Holy days of obligation As directed by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops' Committee on the Liturgy and the Ecclesiastical Province of Los Angeles, the archdiocese annually observes four holy days of obligation. The Catholic Church currently recognizes 10 holy days, established in the 1917 Code of Canon Law. However, the USCCB has reduced that number to 6 for Latin Church dioceses in the United States. , no provinces in the United States celebrate the solemnities of Epiphany (which transfers to the Sunday after January 1), Corpus Christi (which transfers to the Sunday after Trinity Sunday), Saint Joseph, or the Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles as holy days of obligation. The Metropolitan Province of Los Angeles, which includes the L.A. Archdiocese, further modified the list, and , celebrates four holy days of obligation on the days prescribed by canon law. The solemnity of the Ascension is transferred from Thursday of the sixth week of Easter to the seventh Sunday of Easter. The province has abrogated the obligation to attend Mass on the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God. Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, August 15 Exception: If August 15 falls on a Saturday or Monday, there is no obligation to attend Mass. All Saints, November 1 Exception: If November 1 falls on a Saturday or Monday, there is no obligation to attend Mass. Immaculate Conception, December 8 Exception: If December 8 falls on a Sunday, the solemnity is transferred to the following Monday and there is no obligation to attend Mass. Nativity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, December 25 Administrative handbook The Archdiocese of Los Angeles, being one of the most diverse dioceses in the world, strives for all of their employees to live and work in accord with Catholic social teaching and servant leadership. "The dignity of the human person, the call to community and participation, rights and responsibilities, dignity of work and the rights of workers, and solidarity, are intrinsic to servant leadership." In an attempt to provide better service and to increase transparency the Archdiocese of Los Angeles is the only archdiocese that has a completely updated and searchable administrative handbook available online. Province of Los Angeles See: List of the Catholic bishops of the United States See also Catholic Church by country Catholic Church hierarchy List of churches in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles List of schools in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles List of the Catholic bishops of the United States List of the Catholic cathedrals of the United States List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States Queen of Angels Foundation References Further reading Caspary, Anita Marie. Witness to integrity: The crisis of the Immaculate Heart Community of California (Liturgical Press, 2003). Davis, Mike. City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (1990, 2006) pp 323–72 on the Irish archbishops and their conflict with Latinos. Donovan, John T. "The 1960s Los Angeles Seminary Crisis." Catholic Historical Review 102.1 (2016): 69-96. summary DuBay, William H. The Priest and the Cardinal: Race and Rebellion in 1960s Los Angeles (CreateSpace, 2016). Lothrop, Gloria Ricci. "A Remarkable Legacy: The Story of Secondary Schools in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles." Catholic Historical Review 88.4 (2002): 809-810. Real, James. "Immaculate Heart of Hollywood." Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 3.3 (1971): 48-53. Steidl, Jason. "The Unlikely Conversion of Father Juan Romero: Chicano Activism and Suburban Los Angeles Catholicism." US Catholic Historian 37.4 (2019): 29-52. Weber, Francis J. His Eminence of Los Angeles: James Francis Cardinal McIntyre (Mission Hills, Calif.: Saint Francis Historical Society, 1997). Primary sources Sister Mary Rose Cunningham, C.S.C., ed. Calendar of Documents and Related Historical Materials in the Archival Center, Archdiocese of Los Angeles, for the Most Reverend J. Francis A. McIntyre, Volume One: 1948-1960 and Volume Two: 1961-1970 (1995) External links Archdiocese of Los Angeles Official Site Los Angeles Religious Education Congress Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels Cathedrals of California Queen of Angels Foundation 2014 Grand Marian Procession & Mass Christianity in Los Angeles Organizations based in Los Angeles Organizations based in Los Angeles County, California Los Angeles Los Angeles 1840 in Alta California 1840 establishments in Alta California 1840 establishments in Mexico Religious organizations established in 1840 Los Angeles

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Le%20Prince

Louis Le Prince

Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince (28 August 1841 – 16 September 1897) was a French artist and the inventor of an early motion-picture camera, possibly the first person to shoot a moving picture sequence using a single lens camera and a strip of (paper) film. He has been credited as "Father of Cinematography", but his work did not influence the commercial development of cinema—owing at least in part to the great secrecy surrounding it. A Frenchman who also worked in the United Kingdom and the United States, Le Prince's motion-picture experiments culminated in 1888 in Leeds, England. In October of that year, he filmed moving-picture sequences of family members in Roundhay Garden and his son playing the accordion, using his single-lens camera and Eastman's paper negative film. At some point in the following eighteen months he also made a film of Leeds Bridge. This work may have been slightly in advance of the inventions of contemporaneous moving-picture pioneers, such as the British inventors William Friese-Greene and Wordsworth Donisthorpe, and was years in advance of that of Auguste and Louis Lumière and William Kennedy Dickson (who did the moving image work for Thomas Edison). Le Prince was never able to perform a planned public demonstration of his camera in the US because he mysteriously vanished; he was last known to be boarding a train on 16 September 1890. Multiple conspiracy theories have emerged about the reason for his disappearance, including: a murder set up by Edison, secret homosexuality, disappearance in order to start a new life, and a murder by his brother over their mother's will. No evidence exists for any of these and the most likely explanation remains that he committed suicide, overcome by the shame of heavy debts and the apparent failure of his experiments. In 2004, a police archive in Paris was found to contain a photograph of a drowned man bearing a strong resemblance to Le Prince who was discovered in the Seine just after the time of his disappearance. In early 1890, Edison workers had begun experimenting with using a strip of celluloid film to capture moving images. The first public results of these experiments were shown in May 1891. However, Le Prince's widow and son Adolphe were keen to advance Louis's cause as the inventor of cinematography. In 1898, Adolphe appeared as a witness for the defence in a court case brought by Edison against the American Mutoscope Company. This suit claimed that Edison was the first and sole inventor of cinematography, and thus entitled to royalties for the use of the process. Adolphe was involved in the case but was not allowed to present his father's two cameras as evidence, although films shot with cameras built according to his father's patent were presented. Eventually the court ruled in favour of Edison. A year later that ruling was overturned, but Edison then reissued his patents and succeeded in controlling the US film industry for many years. Early life and education Le Prince was born on 28 August 1841 in Metz. His family referred to him as "Augustin" and English-speaking friends would later call him "Gus". Le Prince's father was a major of artillery in the French Army and an officer of the Légion d'honneur. He grew up spending time in the studio of his father's friend, the pioneer of photography Louis Daguerre, from whom Le Prince received lessons on photography and chemistry. He was also the subject of Daguerre's invention, a daguerreotype portrait. His education went on to include the study of painting in Paris and post-graduate chemistry at Leipzig University, which provided him with the academic knowledge he was to utilise in the future. Career Le Prince moved to Leeds, England in 1866, after being invited to join John Whitley, a friend from college, in Whitley Partners of Hunslet, a firm of brass founders making valves and components. In 1869 he married Elizabeth Whitley, John's sister and a talented artist. The couple started a school of applied art, the Leeds Technical School of Art, and became well renowned for their work in fixing coloured photographs on to metal and pottery, leading to them being commissioned for portraits of Queen Victoria and the long-serving Prime Minister William Gladstone produced in this way; these were included alongside other mementos of the time in a time capsule—manufactured by Whitley Partners of Hunslet—which was placed in the foundations of Cleopatra's Needle on the embankment of the River Thames. In 1881, Le Prince went to the United States as an agent for Lincrusta Walton, staying in the country along with his family once his contract had ended. He became the manager for a small group of French artists who produced large panoramas, usually of famous battles, that were exhibited in New York City, Washington, D.C. and Chicago. During this time he began experiments relating to the production of 'moving' photographs, designing a camera that utilised sixteen lenses, which was the first invention he patented. Although the camera was capable of 'capturing' motion, it wasn't a complete success because each lens photographed the subject from a slightly different viewpoint and thus the image would have jumped about, if he had been able to project it (which is unknown). After his return to Leeds in May 1887, Le Prince built a single-lens camera in mid-late 1888. An experimental model was developed in a workshop at 160 Woodhouse Lane, Leeds and used to shoot his motion-picture films. It was first used on 14 October 1888 to shoot what would become known as Roundhay Garden Scene and a sequence of his son Adolphe playing the accordion. Le Prince later used it to film road traffic and pedestrians crossing Leeds Bridge. The film was shot from Hicks the Ironmongers, now the British Waterways building on the south east side of the bridge, now marked with a commemorative Blue plaque. Disappearance In September 1890, Le Prince was preparing for a trip to the United States, supposedly to publicly premiere his work and join his wife and children. Before this journey, he decided to return to France to visit his brother in Dijon. Then, on 16 September, he took a train to Paris but, having taken a later train than planned, his friends missed him in Paris. He was never seen again by his family or friends. The last person to see Le Prince at the Dijon station was his brother. The French police, Scotland Yard and the family undertook exhaustive searches, but never found him. Le Prince was officially declared dead in 1897. A photograph of a drowned man pulled from the Seine in 1890, strongly resembling Le Prince, was discovered in 2003 during research in the Paris police archives. The most likely explanation for his disappearance is thus that, having failed to get his moving picture to work and now in debt, he chose to take his own life. Before the 2003 discovery, a number of wild and entirely unsubstantiated theories were proposed, including: Patent Wars assassination, "Equity 6928"Christopher Rawlence pursues the assassination theory, along with other theories, and discusses the Le Prince family's suspicions of Edison over patents (the Equity 6928) in his 1990 book and documentary The Missing Reel. Rawlence claims that at the time that he vanished, Le Prince was about to patent his 1889 projector in the UK and then leave Europe for his scheduled New York official exhibition. His widow assumed foul play though no concrete evidence has ever emerged and Rawlence prefers the suicide theory. In 1898, Le Prince's elder son Adolphe, who had assisted his father in many of his experiments, was called as a witness for the American Mutoscope Company in their litigation with Edison [Equity 6928]. By citing Le Prince's achievements, Mutoscope hoped to annul Edison's subsequent claims to have invented the moving-picture camera. Le Prince's widow Lizzie and Adolphe hoped that this would gain recognition for Le Prince's achievement, but when the case went against Mutoscope their hopes were dashed. Two years later Adolphe Le Prince was found dead on Fire Island near New York. Disappearance ordered by the family In 1966, Jacques Deslandes proposed a theory in Histoire comparée du cinéma (The Comparative History of Cinema), claiming that Le Prince voluntarily disappeared due to financial reasons and "familial conveniences". Journalist Léo Sauvage quotes a note shown to him by Pierre Gras, director of the Dijon municipal library, in 1977, that claimed Le Prince died in Chicago in 1898, having moved there at the family's request because he was homosexual; but he rejects that assertion. There is no evidence to suggest that Le Prince was gay. Fratricide, murder for money In 1967, Jean Mitry proposed, in Histoire du cinéma, that Le Prince was killed. Mitry notes that if Le Prince truly wanted to disappear, he could have done so at any time prior to that. Thus, he most likely never boarded the train in Dijon. He also wonders why, if his brother, who was confirmed as the last person to have seen Le Prince alive, knew Le Prince was suicidal, he didn't try to stop Le Prince, and why he didn't report Le Prince's mental state to the police before it was too late. Patents and cameras On 10 January 1888 Le Prince was granted an American patent on a 16-lens device that he claimed could serve as both motion picture camera (which he termed "the receiver or photo-camera") and a projector (which he called " the deliverer or stereopticon"). That same day he took out a near-identical provisional patent for the same devices in Great Britain, proposing "a system of preferably 3, 4, 8, 9, 16 or more lenses". Shortly before the final version was submitted he added a sentence which described a single-lens system, but this was neither fully explained nor illustrated, unlike the several pages of description of the multi-lens system, meaning the single-lens camera was not legally covered by patent. This addendum was submitted on 10 October 1888 and, on 14 October, Le Prince used his single-lens camera to film Roundhay Garden Scene. During the period 1889-1890 he worked with the mechanic James Longley on various "deliverers" (projectors) with one, two, three and sixteen lenses. The images were to be separated, printed and mounted individually, sometimes on a flexible band, moved by metal eyelets. The single lens projector used individual pictures mounted in wooden frames. His assistant, James Longley, claimed the three-lens version was the most successful. Those close to Le Prince have testified to him projecting his first films in his workshop as tests, but they were never presented to anyone outside his immediate circle of family and associates and the nature of the projector is unknown. In 1889 he took French-American dual citizenship in order to establish himself with his family in New York City and to follow up his research. However, he was never able to perform his planned public exhibition at Morris–Jumel Mansion in Manhattan, in September 1890, due to his disappearance. Later recognition Even though Le Prince's achievement is remarkable, with only William Friese-Greene and Wordsworth Donisthorpe achieving anything comparable in the period 1888-1890, his work was largely forgotten until the 1920s, as he disappeared before the first public demonstration of the result of his work, having never shown his invention to any photographic society or scientific institution or the general public. For the April 1894 commercial exploitation of his personal kinetoscope parlor, Thomas Edison is credited in the US as the inventor of cinema, while in France, the Lumière Brothers are hailed as inventors of the Cinématographe device and for the first commercial exhibition of motion-picture films, in Paris in 1895. However, in Leeds, Le Prince is celebrated as a local hero. On 12 December 1930, the Lord Mayor of Leeds unveiled a bronze memorial tablet at 160 Woodhouse Lane, Le Prince's former workshop. In 2003, the University's Centre for Cinema, Photography and Television was named in his honour. Le Prince's workshop in Woodhouse Lane was until recently the site of the BBC in Leeds, and is now part of the Leeds Beckett University Broadcasting Place complex, where a blue plaque commemorates his work. (coordinates: ). Reconstructions of his film strips are shown in the cinema of the Armley Mills Industrial Museum, Leeds. In France, an appreciation society was created as L'Association des Amis de Le Prince (Association of Le Prince's Friends), which still exists in Lyon. In 1990, Christopher Rawlence wrote The Missing Reel, The Untold Story of the Lost inventor of Moving Pictures and produced the TV programme The Missing Reel (1989) for Channel Four, a dramatised feature on the life of Le Prince. In 1992, the Japanese filmmaker Mamoru Oshii (Ghost in the Shell) directed Talking Head, an avant-garde feature film paying tribute to the cinematography history's tragic ending figures such as George Eastman, Georges Méliès and Louis Le Prince who is credited as "the true inventor of eiga", Japanese for "motion picture film". In 2013, a feature documentary, The First Film was produced, with new research material and documentation on the life of Le Prince and his patents. Produced and directed by Leeds-born David Nicholas Wilkinson, it was filmed in England, France and the United States by Guerilla Films. The First Film features several film historians to tell the story, including Michael Harvey, Stephen Herbert, Mark Rance, Daniel Martin, Jacques Pfend, Adrian Wootton, Tony North, Mick McCann, Tony Earnshaw, Carol S Ward, Liz Rymer, and twice Oscar-nominated cinematographer Tony Pierce-Roberts. Le Prince's great-great-granddaughter Laurie Snyder also makes an appearance. It had its world première in June 2015 at the Edinburgh Film Festival and opened in UK cinemas on 3 July 2015. The film also played in festivals in the US, Canada, Russia, Ireland and Belgium. On 8 September 2016 it played at the Morris-Jumel Mansion in New York, where 126 years earlier Le Prince planned to show his films. Le Prince Cine Camera-Projector types Legacy Remaining material and production Le Prince developed a single-lens camera in his workshop at 160 Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, which was used to shoot his motion-picture films. Remaining surviving production consists of two scenes in the garden at Oakwood Grange (his wife's family home, in Roundhay) and another of Leeds Bridge. Forty years later, Le Prince's daughter, Marie, gave the remaining apparatus to the National Science Museum, London (later transferred to the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television (NMPFT), Bradford, which opened in 1983 and is now the National Science and Media Museum). In May 1931, photographic plates were produced by workers of the Science Museum from paper print copies provided by Marie Le Prince. In 1999, these were re-animated to produce digital versions. Roundhay Garden was alleged by the Le Prince family to have been shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s, although this is not borne out by the NMPFT versions (see below) or motion analysis, with both films being estimated at a consistent 7 frames a second. All available versions of these sequences are derived from materials held by the National Science and Media Museum. Man Walking Around a Corner (16-Lens Camera) The only existing images from Le Prince's 16-lens camera are a sequence of 16 frames of a man walking around a corner. This appears to have been shot onto a single glass plate (which has since broken), rather than the twin strips of Eastman paper film envisaged in his patent. Jacques Pfend, a French cinema-historian and Le Prince specialist, confirms that these images were shot in Paris, at the corner of Rue Bochart-de-Saron (where Le Prince was living) and Avenue Trudaine. Le Prince sent 8 images of his mechanic running (which may be from this sequence) to his wife in New York City in a letter dated 18 August 1887, which suggests it represented a significant camera test. Exposure is very irregular from lens to lens with some of the images almost completely bleached out, which Le Prince later on fixed. Roundhay Garden Scene (Single-Lens Camera MkII) The 1931 National Science Museum copy of what remains of a sequence shot in Roundhay Garden features 20 frames. The frames appear to have been printed in reverse from the negative, but this is corrected in the video. The film's damaged edge results in distortion and deformation on the right side of the stabilised digital movie. The scene was shot in Le Prince's father-in-law's garden at Oakwood Grange, Roundhay on 14 October 1888. The NMPFT animation lasts two seconds at 24fps (frames per second), meaning the original footage is playing at 10fps. In this version, the action is speeded up - the original footage was probably shot at 7fps. Traffic Crossing Leeds Bridge (Single-Lens Camera MkII) Louis Le Prince filmed traffic crossing Leeds Bridge from Hicks the Ironmongers at the following coordinates: . The earliest copy belongs to the 1923 NMPFT inventory (frames 118–120 and 122–124), though this longer sequence comes from the 1931 inventory (frames 110–129). According to Adolphe Le Prince who assisted his father when this film was shot in late October 1888, it was taken at 20fps. However, the digitally stabilised sequence produced by the NMPFT lasts two seconds, meaning the footage is playing here at 10fps. As with the Roundhay Garden sequence, its appearance is sped up, suggesting the original footage was probably shot at 7fps. This would fit with what we know of the projection experiments, where James Longley reported a top speed of 7fps. Accordion Player (Single-Lens Camera MkII) The last remaining film of Le Prince's single-lens camera is a sequence of frames of Adolphe Le Prince playing a diatonic button accordion. It was recorded on the steps of the house of Joseph Whitley, Louis's father-in-law. The recording date may be the same as Roundhay Garden as the camera is in a similar position and Adolphe is dressed the same. The NMPFT has not remastered this film. An amateur animation of the first 17 frames is . The running speed appears to be 5-6fps See also List of people who disappeared Roundhay Garden Scene References Sources Insight Collections and Research Centre Guinness Book of Movie Facts and Feats Who's Who of Victorian Cinema The Career of Louis Aimée Augustin Le Prince by E. Kilburn Scott (July 1931) "La naissance du cinéma : cent sept ans et un crime..." by Irénée Dembowski (in Kino 1989, translated from Polish to French in Cahiers de l'AFIS, numéro 182, nov.–déc. by Michel Rouzé, quoted by Alliage numéro 22 1995) The Missing Reel, by Christopher Rawlence (Athenum Publishers, New York, 1990) "Le Prince's Early Film Cameras", by Simon Popple (in Photographica World, September 1993) "Le Prince and the Lumières", by Rod Varley (in Making of the Modern World, Science Museum, UK, 1992) "Career of Louis Aimée Augustin Le Prince", by E. Kilburn Scott, (in Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, US, July 1931) Burns, Paul The History of the Discovery of Cinematography An Illustrated Chronology "The Pioneer Work of Le Prince in Kinematography", by E. Kilburn Scott (in The Photographic Journal #63, August 1923, pp. 373–378) "Louis Aimée Augustin Le Prince" by Merritt Crawford (in Cinema, 1 December 1930, pp. 28–31) L'affaire Lumière. Du mythe à l'histoire, enquête sur les origines du cinéma by Léo Sauvage, 1985 Ingenious Le Prince 16-lens camera "Louis Le Prince: the body of evidence" by Richard Howells (in Screen vol.47 #2, Oxford University Press, 2006) "Le Prince, inventeur et artiste, précurseur du cinema" by Jean-Jacques Aulas and Jacques Pfend (in Revue d'Histoire du Cinéma N°32, December 2000, p. 9) ISSN 0769-0959 New research centre honours father of film Essential Films, chapter 2, Culture Wars by Ion Martea Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), Culture Wars by Ion Martea Traffic Crossing Leeds Bridge (1888), Culture Wars by Ion Martea The Indispensable Murder Book, edited by Joseph Henry Jackson (New York: The Book Society, 1951), pp. 437–464, "The Red and White Girdle" by Christopher Morley. This deals with the murder of Gouffe, and shows the intense study of that trunk murder in 1889–90. The facts concerning the life and death of LOUIS AIME AUGUSTIN LEPRINCE, pioneer of the moving pîcture and his family, by Jacques Pfend (Sarreguemines/57200/France) 2014.. Why Leeds was the birthplace of film External links L'EMPREINTE DE LOUIS AIME AUGUSTIN LEPRINCE DANS L'HISTOIRE DU CINEMA.(Université Paris Ouest, par Marie Crémaschi. sep. 2013. Jean-Jacques Aulas et Jacques Pfend, Louis Aimé Augustin Leprince, inventeur et artiste, précurseur du cinéma Adventures In Cybersound – extended biography by Dr Russell Naughton, RMIT University, Melbourne. Retrieved 2008-09-26 a rough video from the first 17 frames Louis Le Prince Centre for Cinema, Photography, and Television. University of Leeds. Retrieved 2008-09-26 The Legend of Louis Le Prince Leodis – a photographic archive of Leeds. Leeds Library & Information Service. Allows search for key terms such as Louis Le Prince or Leeds Bridge or Bridge End or Hick Brothers or Auto Express (workshop site), etc. Science Museum, London National Science and Media Museum, Bradford Armley Mills- Leeds Industrial Museum Le Prince single-lens camera 1888, Science & Society Picture Library Chronomedia year 1888 (Terramedia) Burns, Paul The History of the Discovery of Cinematography 1885–1889 An Illustrated Chronological History Local films for local people (BBC Bradford & West Yorkshire) 1841 births 1890s missing person cases 19th-century French people Articles containing video clips Cinema pioneers Discovery and invention controversies French cinematographers French cinema pioneers French expatriates in the United Kingdom French expatriates in the United States French film directors Missing person cases in France People from Metz Silent film directors Year of death unknown Leeds Blue Plaques Leipzig University alumni

342596

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20East%20Side

Lower East Side

The Lower East Side, sometimes abbreviated as LES and sometimes referred to as Loisaida, is a historic neighborhood in the southeastern part of the New York City borough of Manhattan, roughly between the Bowery and the East River from Canal to Houston streets. Traditionally an immigrant, working-class neighborhood, it began rapid gentrification in the mid-2000s, prompting the National Trust for Historic Preservation to place the neighborhood on their list of America's Most Endangered Places. The Lower East Side is part of Manhattan Community District 3, and its primary ZIP Code is 10002. It is patrolled by the 7th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Boundaries The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the FDR Drive and East River to the east, and Canal Street to the south. The western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street. The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown, which extends north to roughly Grand Street, in the west by Nolita and in the north by the East Village. Historically, the "Lower East Side" referred to the area alongside the East River from about the Manhattan Bridge and Canal Street up to 14th Street, and roughly bounded on the west by Broadway. It included areas known today as East Village, Alphabet City, Chinatown, Bowery, Little Italy, and NoLIta. Parts of the East Village are still known as Loisaida, a Latino pronunciation of "Lower East Side". Political representation Politically, the neighborhood is in New York's 7th and 12th congressional districts. It is in the New York State Assembly's 65th district and 74th district; the New York State Senate's 26th district; and New York City Council's 1st and 2nd districts. History Prior to Europeans As was all of Manhattan Island, the area now known as the Lower East Side was occupied by members of the Lenape tribe, who were organized in bands which moved from place to place according to the seasons, fishing on the rivers in the summer, and moving inland in the fall and winter to gather crops and hunt for food. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway. One encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack. Early settlement The population of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was located primarily below the current Fulton Street, while north of it were a number of small plantations and large farms called bouwerij (bowery) at the time (equivalent to "boerderij" in present-day Dutch). Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or "half-free" Africans, which served as a buffer between the Dutch and the Native Americans. One of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place, as well as the "only separate enclave" of this type within Manhattan. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area. Gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East Side was then part of the Delancey farm. James Delancey's pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city (Bowery) survives in the names Delancey Street and Orchard Street. On the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street. In response to the pressures of a growing city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the "West Farm" in the 1760s. A spacious projected Delancey Square—intended to cover the area within today's Eldridge, Essex, Hester and Broome Streets—was eliminated when the loyalist Delancey family's property was confiscated after the American Revolution. The city Commissioners of Forfeiture eliminated the aristocratic planned square for a grid, effacing Delancey's vision of a New York laid out like the West End of London. Corlears Hook The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this "plantation" that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans or Nechtanc. Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman (1623–1707), founder of the Beekman family of New York; his son Gerardus Beekman was christened at the plantation, on August 17, 1653. On February 25, 1643, volunteers from the New Amsterdam colony killed forty Wiechquaesgecks at their encampment in the Massacre at Corlears Hook, as part of Kieft's War, in retaliation for ongoing conflicts between the colonists and the natives of the area, including their unwillingness to pay tribute, and their refusal to turn over the killer of a colonist. The projection into the East River that retained Corlaer's name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, but since the early 19th century the spelling has been anglicized to Corlears. The rough unplanned settlement that developed at Corlaer's Hook under the British occupation of New York during the Revolution was separated from the densely populated city by rough hills of glacial till: "this region lay beyond the city proper, from which it was separated by high, uncultivated, and rough hills", observers recalled in 1843. As early as 1816, Corlears Hook was notorious for streetwalkers, "a resort for the lewd and abandoned of both sexes", and in 1821 its "streets abounding every night with preconcerted groups of thieves and prostitutes" were noted by the "Christian Herald". In the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers. In the summer of cholera in New York, 1832, a two-storey wooden workshop was commandeered to serve as a makeshift cholera hospital; between July 18 and September 15 when the hospital was closed, as the cholera wound down, 281 patients were admitted, both black and white, of whom 93 died. In 1833, Corlear's Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City. Corlears Hook is mentioned in the opening page of Herman Melville's Moby Dick, first published in 1851: "Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go from Corlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall, northward. What do you see? ..." The original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill. It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street. The name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive. Immigration The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there. By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, and a large part of it became known as "Little Germany" or "Kleindeutschland". This was followed by groups of Italians and Eastern European Jews, as well as Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Slovaks and Ukrainians, each of whom settled in relatively homogeneous enclaves. By 1920, the Jewish neighborhood was one of the largest of these ethnic groupings, with 400,000 people, pushcart vendors prominent on Orchard and Grand Streets, and numerous Yiddish theatres along Second Avenue between Houston and 14th Streets. Living conditions in these "slum" areas were far from ideal, although some improvement came from a change in the zoning laws which required "new law" tenements to be built with air shafts between them, so that fresh air and some light could reach each apartment. Still, reform movements, such as the one started by Jacob A. Riis' book How the Other Half Lives continued to attempt to alleviate the problems of the area through settlement houses, such as the Henry Street Settlement, and other welfare and service agencies. The city itself moved to address the problem when it built First Houses, the first such public housing project in the United States, in 1935-1936. The development, located on the south side of East 3rd Street between First Avenue and Avenue A, and on the west side of Avenue A between East 2nd and East 3rd Streets, is now considered to be located within the East Village. Societal change and decline By the turn of the twentieth century, the neighborhood had become closely associated with radical politics, such as anarchism, socialism and communism, and was also known as a place where many popular performers had grown up, such as Eddie Cantor, Al Jolson, George and Ira Gershwin, Jimmy Durante, and Irving Berlin. Later, more radical artists such as the Beat poets and writers were drawn to the neighborhood – especially the parts which later became the East Village – by the inexpensive housing and cheap food. The German population decreased in the early twentieth century as a result of the General Slocum disaster and due to anti-German sentiment prompted by World War I. After World War II, the Lower East Side became New York City's first racially integrated neighborhood with the influx of African Americans and Puerto Ricans. Areas where Spanish speaking was predominant began to be called Loisaida. By the 1960s, the influence of the Jewish and eastern European groups declined as many of these residents had left the area, while other ethnic groups had coalesced into separate neighborhoods, such as Little Italy. The Lower East Side then experienced a period of "persistent poverty, crime, drugs, and abandoned housing". A substantial portion of the neighborhood was slated for demolition under the Cooper Square Urban Renewal Plan of 1956, which was to redevelop the area from Ninth to Delancey Streets from the Bowery/Third Avenue to Chrystie Street/Second Avenue with new privately owned cooperative housing. The United Housing Foundation was selected as the sponsor for the project, which faced great opposition from the community. Neither the original large-scale development nor a 1961 revised proposal were implemented, and it was not until 1991 that an agreement was made to redevelop a small portion of the proposed renewal site. East Village split and gentrification The East Village was once considered the Lower East Side's northwest corner. However, in the 1960s, the demographics of the area above Houston Street began to change, as hipsters, musicians, and artists moved in. Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the East Village name, and the term was adopted by the popular media by the mid-1960s. As the East Village developed a culture separate from the rest of the Lower East Side, the two areas came to be seen as two separate neighborhoods rather than the former being part of the latter. By the 1980s, the Lower East Side had begun to stabilize after its period of decline, and once again began to attract students, artists and adventurous members of the middle-class, as well as immigrants from countries such as Bangladesh, China, the Dominican Republic, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippines and Poland. In the early 2000s, the gentrification of the East Village spread to the Lower East Side proper, making it one of the trendiest neighborhoods in Manhattan. Orchard Street, despite its "Bargain District" moniker, is now lined with upscale boutiques. Similarly, trendy restaurants, including Clinton St. Baking Company & Restaurant, Cube 63, and Falai are found on a stretch of tree-lined Clinton Street that New York Magazine described as the "hippest restaurant row" on the Lower East Side. In November 2007, the Blue Condominium, a 32-unit, 16 story luxury condominium tower was completed at 105 Norfolk Street just north of Delancey Street, the pixellated, faceted blue design of which starkly contrasts with the surrounding neighborhood. Following the construction of the Hotel on Rivington one block away, several luxury condominiums around Houston, and the New Museum on Bowery, this new wave of construction is another sign that the gentrification cycle is entering a high-luxury phase similar to in SoHo and Nolita in the previous decade. More recently, the gentrification that was previously confined to north of Delancey Street continued south. Several restaurants, bars, and galleries opened below Delancey Street after 2005, especially around the intersection of Broome and Orchard Streets. The neighborhood's second boutique hotel, Blue Moon Hotel, opened on Orchard Street just south of Delancey Street in early 2006. However, unlike The Hotel on Rivington, the Blue Moon used an existing tenement building, and its exterior is almost identical to neighboring buildings. In September 2013, it was announced that the Essex Crossing redevelopment project was to be built in the area, centered around the intersection of Essex and Delancey Streets, but mostly utilizing land south of Delancey Street. Demographics The census tabulation area for the Lower East Side is bounded to the north by 14th Street and to the west by Avenue B, Norfolk Street, Essex Street, and Pike Street. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Lower East Side was 72,957, an increase of 699 (1.0%) from the 72,258 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 22.6% (16,453) White, 10.9% (7,931) African American, 0.2% (142) Native American, 24.9% (18,166) Asian, 0.0% (13) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (191) from other races, and 1.6% (1,191) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 39.6% (28,870) of the population. The racial composition of the Lower East Side changed moderately from 2000 to 2010, with the most significant changes being the White population's increase by 18% (2,514), the Asian population's increase by 10% (1,673), and the Hispanic / Latino population's decrease by 10% (3,219). The minority Black population experienced a slight increase by 1% (41), while the very small population of all other races decreased by 17% (310). The Lower East Side lies in Manhattan Community District 3, which encompasses the Lower East Side, the East Village and Chinatown. Community District 3 had 171,103 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 82.2 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (35%) are between the ages of 25–44, while 25% are between 45–64, and 16% are 65 or older. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 13% and 11% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 3 was $39,584, though the median income in the Lower East Side individually was $51,649. In 2018, an estimated 18% of Community District 3 residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in Community District 3, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Community District 3 is considered to be gentrifying: according to the Community Health Profile, the district was low-income in 1990 and has seen above-median rent growth up to 2010. Culture Immigrant neighborhood One of the oldest neighborhoods of the city, the Lower East Side has long been a lower-class worker neighborhood and often a poor and ethnically diverse section of New York. As well as Irish, Italians, Poles, Ukrainians, and other ethnic groups, it once had a sizeable German population and was known as Little Germany (Kleindeutschland). Today it is a predominantly Puerto Rican and Dominican community, and in the process of gentrification (as documented by the portraits of its residents in the Clinton+Rivington chapter of The Corners Project.) Since the immigration waves from eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Lower East Side became known as having been a center of Jewish immigrant culture. In her 2000 book Lower East Side Memories: A Jewish Place in America, Hasia Diner explains that the Lower East Side is especially remembered as a place of Jewish beginnings for Ashkenazi American Jewish culture. Vestiges of the area's Jewish heritage exist in shops on Hester and Essex Streets, and on Grand Street near Allen Street. An Orthodox Jewish community is based in the area, operating yeshiva day schools and a mikvah. A few Judaica shops can be found along Essex Street and a few Jewish scribes and variety stores. Some kosher delis and bakeries, as well as a few "kosher style" delis, including the famous Katz's Deli, are located in the neighborhood. Second Avenue in the Lower East Side was home to many Yiddish theatre productions in the Yiddish Theater District during the early part of the 20th century, and Second Avenue came to be known as "Yiddish Broadway," though most of the theaters are gone. Songwriter Irving Berlin, actor John Garfield, and singer Eddie Cantor grew up here. Since the mid-20th century, the area has been settled primarily by immigrants, primarily from Latin America, especially Central America and Puerto Rico. They have established their own groceries and shops, marketing goods from their culture and cuisine. Bodegas have replaced Jewish shops. They are mostly Roman Catholic. In what is now the East Village, the earlier populations of Poles and Ukrainians have moved on and been largely supplanted by newer immigrants. The immigration of numerous Japanese people over the last fifteen years or so has led to the proliferation of Japanese restaurants and specialty food markets. There is also a notable population of Bangladeshis and other immigrants from Muslim countries, many of whom are congregants of the small Madina Masjid (Mosque), located on First Avenue and 11th Street. The neighborhood still has many historic synagogues, such as the Bialystoker Synagogue, Beth Hamedrash Hagadol, the Eldridge Street Synagogue, Kehila Kedosha Janina (the only Greek synagogue in the Western Hemisphere), the Angel Orensanz Center (the fourth oldest synagogue building in the United States), and various smaller synagogues along East Broadway. Another landmark, the First Roumanian-American congregation (the Rivington Street synagogue) partially collapsed in 2006, and was subsequently demolished. In addition, there is a major Hare Krishna temple and several Buddhist houses of worship. Chinese residents have also been moving into Lower East Side, and since the late 20th century, they have comprised a large immigrant group in the area. The part of the neighborhood south of Delancey Street and west of Allen Street has, in large measure, become part of Chinatown. Grand Street is one of the major business and shopping streets of Chinatown. Also contained within the neighborhood are strips of lighting and restaurant supply shops on the Bowery. Jewish neighborhood While the Lower East Side has been a place of successive immigrant populations, many American Jews relate to the neighborhood in a strong manner, and Chinatown holds a special place in the imagination of Chinese Americans, just as Astoria in Queens holds a place in the hearts of Greek Americans. It was a center for the ancestors of many people in the metropolitan area, and it was written about and portrayed in fiction and films. In the late twentieth century, Jewish communities have worked to preserve a number of buildings associated with the Jewish immigrant community. Landmarks include: The Educational Alliance Settlement house – 175 East Broadway Henry Street Settlement – 263–267 Henry Street and 466 Grand Street University Settlement House 184 Eldridge Street Katz's Deli – 205 East Houston Street Guss' Pickles – 87 Orchard Street Kossar's Bialys – 367 Grand Street Gertel's Bake Shop – formerly at 53 Hester Street from 1914 until it closed in 2007 Knickerbocker Village – 10 Monroe Street Streit Matzo Co. – 150 Rivington Street Yonah Schimmel's Knish Bakery – 137 East Houston Street Harris Levy Fine Linens since 1894 – 98 Forsyth Street Russ & Daughters – 179 East Houston Street Schapiro's Kosher Wine – Essex Street Market Forward Building Synagogues include: Bialystoker Synagogue – 7–11 Willet Street Beth Hamedrash Hagadol – 60–64 Norfolk Street Eldridge Street Synagogue – 12 Eldridge Street Kehila Kedosha Janina – 280 Broome Street Angel Orensanz Center – the fourth-oldest synagogue building in the United States Congregation Chasam Sopher Meseritz Synagogue Stanton Street Synagogue Boyaner kloiz at 247 East Broadway, opened in 1928 by the Boyaner Rebbe of New York Little Fuzhou, Chinatown Little Fuzhou (), or Fuzhou Town () is a neighborhood within the eastern sliver of Chinatown, in the Two Bridges and Lower East Side areas of Manhattan. Starting in the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, the neighborhood became a prime destination for immigrants from Fuzhou, Fujian, China. Manhattan's Little Fuzhou is centered on East Broadway. However, since the 2000s, Chinatown, Brooklyn became New York City's new primary destination for the Fuzhou immigrants evolving a second Little Fuzhou of the city and has now far surpassed as being the largest Fuzhou cultural center of the New York metropolitan area and still rapidly growing in contrast to Manhattan's Little Fuzhou, now undergoing gentrification. Since the 2010s, the Fuzhou immigrant population and businesses have been declining throughout the whole eastern portion of Manhattan's Chinatown due to gentrification. There is a rapidly increasing influx of high-income professionals moving into this area, often non-Chinese, including high-end hipster-owned businesses. Art scene The neighborhood has become home to numerous contemporary art galleries. One of the first was ABC No Rio. Begun by a group of Colab no wave artists (some living on Ludlow Street), ABC No Rio opened an outsider gallery space that invited community participation and encouraged the widespread production of art. Taking an activist approach to art that grew out of The Real Estate Show (the take over of an abandoned building by artists to open an outsider gallery only to have it chained closed by the police) ABC No Rio kept its sense of activism, community, and outsiderness. The product of this open, expansive approach to art was a space for creating new works that did not have links to the art market place and that were able to explore new artistic possibilities. Other outsider galleries sprung up throughout the Lower East Side and East Village—some 200 at the height of the scene in the 1980s, including the 124 Ridge Street Gallery among others. In December 2007, the New Museum relocated to a brand-new, critically acclaimed building on Bowery at Prince. A growing number of galleries are opening in the Bowery neighborhood to be in close proximity to the museum. The Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space, which opened in 2012, exhibits photography featuring the neighborhood in addition to chronicling its history of activism. Social service agencies like Henry Street Settlement and Educational Alliance have visual and performing arts programs, the former at Abrons Arts Center, a home for contemporary interdisciplinary arts. The neighborhood is also home to several graffiti artists, such as Chico and Jean-Michel Basquiat. Nightlife and live music As the neighborhood gentrified and has become safer at night, it has become a popular late night destination. Orchard, Ludlow and Essex between Rivington Street and Stanton Street have become especially packed at night, and the resulting noise is a cause of tension between bar owners and longtime residents. Further, as gentrification continues, many established landmarks and venues have been lost. The Lower East Side is also home to many live music venues. Punk bands played at C-Squat and alternative rock bands play at Bowery Ballroom on Delancey Street and Mercury Lounge on East Houston Street. Punk bands play at Otto's Shrunken Head and R-Bar. Punk and alternative bands play at Bowery Electric just north of the old CBGB's location. There are also bars that offer performance space, such as Pianos on Ludlow Street and Arlene's Grocery on Stanton Street. The Lower East Side is the location of the Slipper Room a burlesque, variety and vaudeville theatre on Orchard and Stanton. Lady Gaga, Leonard Cohen and U2 have all appeared there, while popular downtown performers Dirty Martini, Murray Hill and Matt Fraser often appear. Variety shows are regularly hosted by comedians James Habacker, Bradford Scobie, Matthew Holtzclaw and Matt Roper under the guise of various characters. Police and crime The Lower East Side is patrolled by the 7th Precinct of the NYPD, located at Pitt Street. The 7th Precinct, along with the neighboring 5th Precinct, ranked 48th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 42 per 100,000 people, the Lower East Side and East Village's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 449 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole. The 7th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 64.8% between 1990 and 2019. The precinct reported 0 murders, 7 rapes, 149 robberies, 187 felony assaults, 94 burglaries, 507 grand larcenies, and 18 grand larcenies auto in 2019. Fire safety The Lower East Side is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations: Engine Co. 15/Ladder Co. 18/Battalion 4 – 25 Pitt Street Engine Co. 9/Ladder Co. 6 – 75 Canal Street Health , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in the Lower East Side and East Village than in other places citywide. In the Lower East Side and East Village, there were 82 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 10.1 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). The Lower East Side and East Village have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 11%, slightly less than the citywide rate of 12%. The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in the Lower East Side and East Village is , more than the city average. Twenty percent of Lower East Side and East Village residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In the Lower East Side and East Village, 10% of residents are obese, 11% are diabetic, and 22% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 16% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Eighty-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is about the same as the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 70% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," less than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in the Lower East Side and East Village, there are 18 bodegas. The nearest major hospitals are Beth Israel Medical Center in Stuyvesant Town, as well as the Bellevue Hospital Center and NYU Langone Medical Center in Kips Bay, and NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area. In addition, FDNY EMS Division 1/Station 4 is located on Pier 39. Post offices and ZIP Code The Lower East Side is located within the ZIP Code 10002. The United States Postal Service operates two post offices in the Lower East Side: Knickerbocker Station – 128 East Broadway Pitt Station – 185 Clinton Street Education The Lower East Side and East Village generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . A plurality of residents age 25 and older (48%) have a college education or higher, while 24% have less than a high school education and 28% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Lower East Side and East Village students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period. The Lower East Side and East Village's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In the Lower East Side and East Village, 16% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 77% of high school students in the Lower East Side and East Village graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%. Schools The New York City Department of Education operates public schools in the Lower East Side as part of Community School District 1. District 1 does not contain any zoned schools, which means that students living in District 1 can apply to any school in the district, including those in the East Village. The following public elementary schools are located in the Lower East Side, serving grades PK-5 unless otherwise indicated: New Explorations Into Science Tech and Math (NEST+m) (grades K-12) PS 1 Alfred E Smith PS 2 Meyer London PS 20 Anna Silver PS 42 Benjamin Altman PS 110 Florence Nightingale PS 134 Henrietta Szold PS 142 Amalia Castro The following public elementary/middle schools are located in the Lower East Side, serving grades PK-8 unless otherwise indicated: PS 126 Jacob August Riis PS 140 Nathan Straus PS 184 Shuang Wen East Village Community School PS 188 The Island School - It is in a pink brick building and opened prior to 1916. In 2016 it had 500 students, almost all of them classified as low income, over 60% being Hispanic or Latino, and 47% being homeless. Due to the large number of homeless students, the rosters often change and students are often absent. The school has specific employees who check on students, and the school offers end of the year events to entice students to stay at the end of the year. PS 188 has its students wear school uniforms. The following public middle and high schools are located in the Lower East Side: Murry Bergtraum High School for Business Careers (grades 9-12) Orchard Collegiate Academy (grades 9-12) School for Global Leaders (grades 6-8) University Neighborhood Middle School (grades 5-8) The Lower East Side Preparatory High School (LESPH) and Emma Lazarus High School (ELHS) are second-chance schools that enable students, aged 17–21, to obtain their high school diplomas. LESPH is a bilingual Chinese-English school with a high proportion of Asian students. ELHS' instructional model is English-immersion with an ethnically diverse student body. The Seward Park Campus comprises five schools with an average graduation rate of about 80%. The original school in the building was opened 1929 and closed 2006. Libraries The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates two branches in the Lower East Side. The Seward Park branch is located at 4192 East Broadway. It was founded by the Aguilar Free Library Society in 1886, and the current three-story Carnegie library building was opened in 1909 and renovated in 2004. The Hamilton Fish Park branch is located at 415 East Houston Street. It was originally built as a Carnegie library in 1909, but was torn down when Houston Street was expanded; the current one-story structure was completed in 1960. Parks The Lower East Side is home to many private parks, such as La Plaza Cultural. There are several public parks in the area, including Sara D. Roosevelt Park between Chrystie and Forsyth Streets from Houston to Canal Streets, as well as Seward Park on Essex Street between Hester Street and East Broadway. The East River shorefront contains the John V. Lindsay East River Park, a public park running between East 12th Street in the East Village and Montgomery Street in the Lower East Side. Planned for the waterfront is Pier 42, the first section of which is scheduled to open in 2021. Transportation There are multiple New York City Subway stations in the neighborhood, including Grand Street (), Bowery (), Second Avenue (), Delancey Street–Essex Street (), and East Broadway (). New York City Bus routes include . The Williamsburg Bridge and Manhattan Bridge connect the Lower East Side to Brooklyn. The FDR Drive is on the neighborhood's south and east ends. , thirty-seven percent of roads in the Lower East Side have bike lanes. Bike lanes are present on Allen, Chrystie, Clinton, Delancey, Grand, Houston, Montgomery, Madison, Rivington, Stanton, and Suffolk Streets; Bowery, East Broadway, and FDR Drive; the Williamsburg and Manhattan bridges; and the East River Greenway. The Lower East Side is served by NYC Ferry's Lower East Side route, which stops at Corlears Hook in the East River Park. The service started operating on August 29, 2018. In popular culture Children's literature All-of-a-Kind Family, a five-book series by Sydney Taylor first published from 1951 to 1978 The House on the Roof; A Sukkot Story by David A. Adler Rebecca Rubin, a character in the American Girl doll and book series, is a Jewish girl growing up in an immigrant family in 1914. Novels Low Life by Lucy Sante Bread Givers by Anzia Yezierska Lush Life by Richard Price Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow The Basketball Diaries by Jim Carroll Wonder by R.J. Palacio Call It Sleep by Henry Roth Songs "Slum Goddess" by The Fugs "Ballad Of The Lower East Side" by Michael Monroe "Beautiful Night" by B2ST "Clinton St Girl" by Wakey!Wakey! "Down on the Lower East Side" by Justin Townes Earle "East Side Beat" by The Toasters "East Side Story" by Emily King "For My Family" by Agnostic Front "Heavy Metal Lover" by Lady Gaga "In the Flesh" by Blondie "L.E.S. Artistes" by Santigold "L.E.S." by Childish Gambino (aka Donald Glover) "Living in L.E.S." by INDK "Lower East Side Crew" by Warzone "Lower East Side" by David Peel "The Luckiest Guy On The Lower East Side" by The Magnetic Fields "Ludlow St" by Julian Casablancas "Ludlow Street" by Suzanne Vega "Marry the Night" by Lady Gaga "New York City Tonight" by GG Allin "She Took a Lot of Pills (And Died)" by Robbie Fulks "Southside" by Fun Lovin' Criminals "What's My Name?" by Rihanna ft. Drake "Veni Vidi Vici" by Madonna Motor-Cycle LP by Lotti Golden David Peel & the Lower East Side Band, an early punk band Gogol Bordello, a gypsy punk band from the area The Holy Modal Rounders, a freak-folk band in the 1960s Nausea, a crust punk band in the late 1980s and early 1990s Plays Secret History of the Lower East Side by Alice Tuan Welcome to Arroyo's by Kristoffer Diaz Films Alphabet City Batteries Not Included Beautiful Losers Before We Go Cloverfield The Cobbler The Corruptor Crossing Delancey Date Night Die Hard with a Vengeance Donnie Brasco Downtown 81 Frogs for Snakes Gangs of New York The Girl Is in Trouble Hester Street His People I Am Legend The Italian Johnny Dangerously Lucky Number Slevin Married to the Mob Men In Black Mixed Blood The Naked City Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist The Night They Raided Minsky's Once Upon a Time in America P.S. I Love You Raising Victor Vargas Rent Rhythm Thief Sex and the City Taxi Driver The Wolfpack When Harry Met Sally... Television The Andy Milonakis Show Flight of the Conchords (TV series) Forever Gossip Girl How To Make It In America Mr. Robot Breadwinners parodies the Lower East Side as the "Lower Yeast Side." Master of None Video games The Darkness Syphon Filter 2 Grand Theft Auto IV Music videos "Can't Hold Us Down" by Christina Aguilera "I'll Be Loving You Forever" by New Kids On The Block "Darling It's True" by Locksley "It Ain't Hard to Tell" by Nas Notable residents Adrienne Bailon (born 1983), recording artist and actress Lepke Buchalter (1897-1944), mobster and original leader of Murder, Inc. George Barris (1922–2016), photographer best known for his photographs of Marilyn Monroe. Sy Berger (1923–2014), baseball card designer with Topps Joseph B. Bloomingdale (1842–1904) and Lyman G. Bloomingdale (1841–1905), co-founders of Bloomingdale's Arlyne Brickman (born 1934), former mafia informant and prostitute George Burns (1896–1996), comedian and actor James Cagney (1899–1986), actor Michael Che (born 1983), comedian and actor Joshua Lionel Cowen (1877-1965), inventor and founder of Lionel Corporation, toy train manufacturer. Jimmy Durante (1893–1980), singer, pianist, comedian and actor Monk Eastman (1875–1920), gangster who ran the Eastman Gang Miriam Friedlander (1914-2009), activist, elected official Lady Gaga (born 1986), singer, songwriter, actress John Garfield (1913-1952), actor Luis Guzmán (born 1956), actor Stephen Grammauta (1916-2016) Ben Gazzara (1930–2012), actor, director George Gershwin (1898–1937), composer, pianist Vincent Gigante (1928–2005) Lotti Golden (born 1949) Marcus Goldman (1821–1904), banker, businessman, financier Ralph Goldstein (1913–1997), Olympic épée fencer Ruby Goldstein (1907–1984) Samuel Gompers (1850-1924), labor union leader Rocky Graziano (1919–1990), professional boxer Samuel Greenberg (1893-1917), poet David Greenglass (1922–2014) Sally Gross (1933-2015), choreographer. Maggie Gyllenhaal (born 1977), actress Yip Harburg (1896-1981), songwriter who wrote all of the songs for the film The Wizard of Oz, including "Over the Rainbow". Lazarus Joseph (1891–1966), NY State Senator and New York City Comptroller. Jane Katz (born 1943), Olympic swimmer Jack Kirby (1917–1994), comic book artist, writer, and editor. LA II (born 1967 as Angel Ortiz), graffiti artist and Keith Haring collaborator Fiorello LaGuardia (1882–1947), politician, renowned reform mayor of New York City Meyer Lansky (1902-1983), gangster Emanuel Lehman (1827-1907) Henry Lehman (1822-1855) Mayer Lehman (1830-1897) Saul Leiter (1923-2013), photographer and painter Melissa Leo (born 1960), actress Lucky Luciano (1897-1962) Sidney Lumet (1924-2011), filmmaker Madonna (Born 1958), pop star Joseph Mankiewicz (1909-1993) Academy Award-winning director, producer, and screenwriter Jackie Mason (1931-2021), comedian and actor Walter Matthau (1920-2000), film actor, often paired with Jack Lemmon Julia Migenes (Born 1949) Zero Mostel (1915-1977), comic stage and film actor Jim Neu (1943-2010) Mikhail Odnoralov (1944-2016 Charlie Parker (1920-1955) musician Genesis P-Orridge (1950-2020), British singer-songwriter, musician, co-founder of Throbbing Gristle Lady Jaye Breyer P-Orridge (1969-2007), British singer-songwriter, musician, co-founder of Throbbing Gristle Anthony Provenzano (1917-1988) Lee Quiñones (Born 1960) Lou Reed (1942-2013), musician, singer, songwriter, co-founder of The Velvet Underground, seminal New York City avant garde rock band Edward G. Robinson (1893-1973), film star, first became well-known for playing gangsters Sonny Rollins (Born 1930), musician Joseph Seligman (1819-1880) Bugsy Siegel (1906-1947), mobster, known for developing the Las Vegas Strip Sheldon Silver (1944-2022), former Speaker of the New York State Assembly. Al Singer (1909-1961), boxer Mose Solomon (1900-1966), the "Rabbi of Swat", American major league baseball player David South, musician and filmmaker John Spacely (died 1993), musician, actor and nightlife personality whose life was chronicled in two Lech Kowalski documentaries, Story of a Junkie and Born To Lose: The Last Rock and Roll Movie. Ysanne Spevack (Born 1972), British composer, conductor, arranger, and food writer, changed her name to Meena Ysanne in 2018 Johnny Thunders (1952-1991), guitarist, singer and songwriter, came to fame with the New York Dolls Rachel Trachtenburg (born 1993), musician, singer, actress, model, former radio host and activist. Luther Vandross (1951-2005), singer and songwriter B. D. Wong (born 1960), actor Christopher Woodrow (born 1977), financier See also Alife Rivington Club Cooperative Village Grand Street Settlement East Side (Manhattan) East Side Hebrew Institute (ESHI) East Village/Lower East Side Historic District First Houses Henry Street Settlement Lower East Side Conservancy Lower East Side History Project Lower East Side Tenement Museum Moshe Feinstein Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space Ray's Candy Store TEATRO SEA Tompkins Square Park University Settlement House References Notes Bibliography Brazee, Christopher, et al. (October 9, 2012) East Village/Lower East Side Historic District Designation Report Betts, Mary Beth (ed.). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission External links Lower East Side – Neighborhood Profile Lower East Side – Tenement Museum A Jewish Tour of the Lower East Side, New York magazine Photographs of the Lower East Side and East Village in 1980 and 2010 Lower East Side History Project Lower East Side Preservation Initiative The Lower East Side Photograph Collection at the New York Historical Society Neighborhoods in Manhattan Yiddish theatre in the United States Jews and Judaism in Manhattan Historic Jewish communities in the United States Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan Orthodox Judaism in New York City

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20to%20Perdition

Road to Perdition

Road to Perdition is a 2002 American neo-noir period crime drama film directed by Sam Mendes. The screenplay was adapted by David Self from the graphic novel of the same name written by Max Allan Collins and illustrated by Richard Piers Rayner. The film stars Tom Hanks, Paul Newman (in his final live-action theater film acting role), Jude Law, and Daniel Craig. The plot takes place in 1931, during the Great Depression, following a mob enforcer and his son as they seek vengeance against a mobster who murdered the rest of their family. Filming took place in the Chicago area. Mendes, having recently finished 1999's acclaimed American Beauty, pursued a story that had minimal dialogue and conveyed emotion in the imagery. Cinematographer Conrad L. Hall took advantage of the environment to create symbolism for the film, for which he won several awards, including a posthumous Academy Award for Best Cinematography. The film explores several themes, including the consequence of violence and father-son relationships. Road to Perdition was released on July 12, 2002, and eventually grossed over $181 million worldwide. The film was well-received by critics, who mainly praised the direction and visuals, performances (particularly of Hanks, Newman, and Law), cinematography, themes and setting. In addition to Hall's win for cinematography, the film earned five Academy Awards nominations, including Best Supporting Actor for Newman. Plot The film begins and ends in 1931 during the Great Depression with a voiceover from Michael Sullivan, Jr., speaking about his father. Michael Sullivan, Sr. was orphaned then raised by Irish mob boss John Rooney in Rock Island, Illinois, and is now his most fearsome enforcer, unknown to his own son. Rooney has come to love Sullivan more than his own biological son, the rash and unpredictable Connor. Speaking at his brother's wake, Rooney's associate Finn McGovern insinuates that Rooney is responsible for his brother's death. Rooney sends Connor and Sullivan to talk with McGovern, while twelve-year-old Michael watches through a hole in the wall, after hiding in the back of the family car. McGovern steadfastly denies that his brother stole anything from the mob before implying Connor was responsible - and Connor shoots him on the spot before Sullivan shoots the other witnesses. Michael's shocked reaction gives him away and the boy is sworn to secrecy. The next day Rooney visits the house to intimidate the boy, and he soon begins acting out. At a meeting with his mob associates, Rooney pointedly humiliates Connor after he halfheartedly apologizes for McGovern's murder. Then he sends Sullivan to collect a debt from a speakeasy owner Tony Calvino. Connor, jealous and afraid, sends a letter with Sullivan for Calvino. Calvino reads it then reaches for his revolver, but Sullivan kills both Calvino and his bodyguard. The letter reads "Kill Sullivan and all debts are paid", and he rushes home. Connor has been there before him, killing Sullivan's wife, Annie, and their younger son Peter just as Michael arrives home late from school after detention. He hears the shots, and stays hidden as he sees Connor leave. Sullivan and Michael flee Rock Island and head to Chicago to meet Frank Nitti. He offers to work for the Chicago Outfit in exchange for permission to kill Connor, but Nitti rejects the offer. Rooney, listening next door with Connor, reluctantly allows Nitti to dispatch freelance killer Harlen Maguire, who doubles as a crime scene photographer, to kill Sullivan - but forbids them to kill his son Michael, despite the risks down the road. Maguire tracks Sullivan to a roadside diner where they seem to converse casually while Michael hides in the car, but Sullivan's instincts send him escaping through the bathroom, before he punctures Maguire's car tire and drives off with Maguire shooting at him. Aware of the hit man now, Sullivan begins robbing banks that hold the Outfit's money, hoping to trade it for Connor. Sullivan is impeded when the mob withdraws its money, so he visits Rooney's accountant Alexander Rance. Rance stalls Sullivan until Maguire enters with a shotgun, killing Rance while Sullivan escapes with Rooney's ledgers. Michael drives them to a farm because Sullivan was wounded, where a childless elderly couple helps him recover. Sullivan's bond with his son grows deeper as he recovers and Michael comes to realize his father loves him. The ledgers reveal that Connor has been embezzling from his father for years, using the names of dead men including McGovern. Believing Rooney will call off the hit if he knows the truth, Sullivan gifts the couple a chunk of the stolen cash and heads back to Chicago. Sullivan confronts Rooney at Mass, learning Rooney already knows about Connor and expects he will be killed – if not by Sullivan, then by Nitti's men once Rooney is dead. He still refuses to give up his son and urges Sullivan to flee with Michael and ensure he becomes a better man than either of them. Later one night, cloaked by darkness and rain, Sullivan ambushes and kills Rooney's bodyguards with a Thompson submachine gun before walking up to Rooney, who looks him in the eye and says, "I'm glad it's you," as Sullivan shoots him at point-blank range. Having no further reasons to protect Connor now that Rooney is dead, Nitti reveals Connor's location after Sullivan promises the feud ends with his death. Sullivan goes to the hotel where Connor is hiding and kills him in the bathtub. Sullivan takes his son to his Aunt Sarah's beach house in Perdition, on the shore of Lake Michigan, where he is ambushed and shot by Maguire inside the house as Michael stands on the beach. As Maguire photographs the dying Sullivan, Michael appears and points a gun at Maguire but cannot bring himself to pull the trigger. As Maguire beckons to Michael to give him the gun, Sullivan fatally shoots Maguire. Sullivan tells his son he knew he couldn't do it before dying in his arms. Michael says his father's fear was that he would follow the same road, and that he has not held a gun since his father died. Michael drives the car back to the farm, saying he grew up there, and now when he is asked if his father was a good man, he just tells them, "He was my father." Cast Tom Hanks as Michael Sullivan Tyler Hoechlin as Michael Sullivan Jr. Paul Newman as John Rooney (based on John Patrick Looney) Jude Law as Harlen Maguire Daniel Craig as Connor Rooney Stanley Tucci as Frank Nitti Jennifer Jason Leigh as Annie Sullivan Liam Aiken as Peter Sullivan Dylan Baker as Alexander Rance Ciarán Hinds as Finn McGovern David Darlow as Jack Kelly Kerry Rossall as Rooney's Henchman (uncredited) Anthony LaPaglia as Al Capone (uncredited) Kevin Chamberlin as Frank the Bouncer Harry Groener as Mr. McDougal JoBe Cerny as Banker (as Jobe Cerny) Production Development When Max Allan Collins wrote the graphic novel Road to Perdition, his book agent saw potential in the story as a film adaptation and showed it to a film agent. By 1999, the novel had reached Dean Zanuck, who was the vice president of development at the company owned by his father, producer Richard D. Zanuck. The novel was sent to the elder Zanuck in Morocco, who was there producing Rules of Engagement (2000). The Zanucks agreed on the story's prospect and sent it to director-producer Steven Spielberg. Shortly afterward, Spielberg set up the project at his studio DreamWorks, though he did not pursue direction of the film due to his full slate. Mendes sought a new project after completing American Beauty (1999) and explored prospects including A Beautiful Mind, K-PAX, The Shipping News, and The Lookout. DreamWorks sent Mendes Road to Perdition as a prospect, and Mendes was attracted to the story, considering it "narratively very simple, but thematically very complex". One theme that he saw in the story was of the parents' world that is inaccessible to their children. Mendes considered the story's theme to be about how children deal with violence, and whether exposure to violence would render children violent themselves. Mendes described the script as having "no moral absolutes", a factor that appealed to the director. Writing Spielberg first contacted screenwriter David Self to adapt the story into a feature film. Self wrote an initial draft that remained close to the source material and retained most of its dialogue. The screenplay was then rewritten by uncredited writers, distancing the script from the graphic novel and leaving the core elements of the story. Some of the harsher aspects of the story were toned down as the script became more streamlined; for example, in some early drafts of the screenplay, Sullivan became an alcoholic, but this element was ultimately absent from the final version. The story itself is deeply informed by the Lone Wolf and Cub manga series. Novelist Max Allan Collins acknowledged the influence of Lone Wolf and Cub on his graphic novel Road to Perdition in an interview to the BBC, declaring that "Road To Perdition is 'an unabashed homage' to Lone Wolf and Cub". Some of the characters' names were slightly changed from their original versions from the graphic novel: the surname of the real-life gangsters John Looney and his son Connor were changed to Rooney, and the surname of Tom Hanks' character and his family was streamlined from the original O'Sullivan to simply Sullivan. One significant addition to the script was the creation of Maguire to provide a persistent element of pursuit to the Sullivans' departure from the old world. Hanks and cinematographer Conrad Hall requested Mendes to limit violence in the film to meaningful acts, rather than gratuitous carnage. Hanks' character, Michael Sullivan, is known as "The Angel of Death" in the graphic novel and invokes fear in those around him, but his infamy is downplayed in the film. Mendes, who described the graphic novel as "much more pulpy", sought to reduce the graphic novel's background to its essence, seeking the "nonverbal simplicity" of films like Once Upon a Time in America (1984), Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (1973), and films by Akira Kurosawa that lack dialogue. Duplicate language in characters' confrontations in Road to Perdition was trimmed to the absolute minimum. Mendes described Road to Perdition as a "poetic, elegiac story, in which the pictures tell the story". An example of one such unspoken scene in the film was the piano duet between Rooney and Michael Sr., intended to convey their relationship without words. In the final 20 minutes of Road to Perdition, the script was written to have only six lines of dialogue. Max Allan Collins originally wanted to write the adapted screenplay, but was not given the opportunity. He chose to stay out of the scripting process out of respect for the different style of writing for a different medium, though he served as a consultant in the process. Collins praised the addition of Maguire and considered the minimalist use of dialogue to be appropriate. The author also applauded the film's version of Rooney as "more overtly a father figure" to Sullivan. Collins opposed the profanity in the script, as the vulgar language did not fit his vision of the 1930s. He also contested the path of Sullivan's son in the film. In the graphic novel, the son kills once, and in the film, he does not kill anyone. Collins also disagreed with the narration technique of the film. In the novel, the son narrates the story as an adult, becoming a priest, while in the film, he narrates while still a young boy. Casting Tom Hanks was sent a copy of the graphic novel by Steven Spielberg while he was filming Cast Away. Initially too busy to make sense of the story, he later received David Self's adapted screenplay, to which he became attached. Hanks, a father to four children, described Michael Sullivan's role, "I just got this guy. If you're a man, and you've got offspring ... emotionally, it's devastating." Tyler Hoechlin was chosen from over 2,000 candidates to portray Michael Sullivan's son. The actor was 14 years old at the time of filming. For scenes in which Hoechlin's character assisted his father as a getaway driver, Hoechlin was trained by a driving instructor. Paul Newman was unanimously the first choice for the role of John Rooney. The actor prepared by requesting Frank McCourt, the Irish-American author of Angela's Ashes, to record a tape of his voice. David Self, who created the Maguire character, explained, "He gets so jaded from exposure to this world, he steps over the line from being the storyteller to being the story maker." To capture the "seedy countenance" of the character, Jude Law was given a sallow skin tone that reflected the wear from working in a darkroom. Law's teeth also received a lower gumline and had a rotted look. He was also given a weak, thinning hairline. Maguire's apartment also displays a collection of photographs of dead bodies, some of them actual police stills from the 1930s. Stanley Tucci was selective about roles in gangster films, believing that Hollywood stereotyped Italian-Americans as gangsters. However, attracted by the prospect of working with Mendes, the actor accepted the role of Nitti, a real-life Mob boss from Chicago. Anthony LaPaglia was cast as Al Capone and filmed a single scene, which was omitted from the final cut, and can be found in the DVD's deleted scenes. Mendes believed that Capone was more menacing as an unseen presence. Actor Alfred Molina was approached to portray Capone, but Molina was forced to turn the role down due to scheduling conflicts with Frida (2002). Filming Mendes sought to produce a period film that would avoid clichés in the gangster genre. He chose to film Road to Perdition on location in Chicago, IL including downtown at the University Club of Chicago, the Chicago neighborhood of Pullman, the Charles G. Dawes House in Evanston, Illinois, as well as the far west Chicago suburb of Geneva, Illinois. General Jones Armory, the state's largest location mainstay which houses units of the Illinois National Guard, was provided to the studio by the Illinois State Film Commission. Sets were built inside the armory, including interiors of the Sullivan family's home and the Rooney mansion. The availability of an inside location provided the crew complete control over the lighting environment, which was established with the rigging of scaffoldings. Mendes collaborated with costume designer Albert Wolsky, production designer Dennis Gassner, and cinematographer Conrad Hall to design the film's style. Wolsky designed costumes that were "very controlled, with soft outlines and very soft silhouettes". Gassner built sets that could capture the cold look of the era. Mendes sought a muted palette for the film, having dark backgrounds and sets with dark, muted greens and grays. Mendes filmed Road to Perdition using the Super 35 format. The director filmed exterior scenes in Illinois in the winter and the spring of 2001, using real weather conditions such as snow, rain, and mud for the scenes. Mendes considered the usage of bleak weather conditions and the intended coldness of Gassner's exterior locations to define the characters' emotional states. Pullman became a key location to reflect this theme, having several settings, including the town's historic Florence Hotel, easily redressed by the crew for the film. Filming concluded in June 2001. Cinematography To establish the lighting of scenes in Road to Perdition, Mendes drew from the paintings of Edward Hopper as a source of inspiration, particularly Hopper's New York Movie (1939). Mendes and cinematographer Conrad Hall sought to convey similar atmospheric lighting for the film's scenes, applying a "less is more" mantra. Hall also shot at wide apertures that retained one point in the depth of field sharply focused. Hall considered the technique to provide an emotional dimension to the scenes. The cinematographer also used unconventional techniques and materials to create unique lighting effects. One of Hall's methods was to use black silk in daylight exterior scenes to filter the light enough to create an in-shade look. Hall purposely distanced the camera from Hanks' character, Michael Sullivan Sr., at the beginning of the film to establish the perspective of Sullivan's son, who is unaware of his father's true nature. Hanks' character was filmed as partially obscured and seen through doorways, and his entrances and exits took place in shadows. A wide lens was used to maintain a distance from the character. Shots in the film were drawn directly from panels in the graphic novel, illustrated by Richard Piers Rayner. An instance of the direct influence is the scene in which Michael Jr. looks up at the Chicago skyline from the vehicle, with the skyline reflected in the vehicle's glass. A seamless 40-second driving scene, in which Michael Sullivan and his son travel into Chicago from the countryside, was aided by visual effects. The live-action part of the scene was filmed at LaSalle Street, and due to the lack of scenery for part of the drive down LaSalle Street, the background of Balbo Drive was included with the use of visual effects. Themes Consequences of violence The film's title, Road to Perdition, is both Michael Sullivan and his son's destination town and a euphemism for Hell, a road that Sullivan desires to prevent his son from traveling. Sullivan, who chooses his violent path early on in life, considers himself irredeemable and seeks to save his son from a similar fate. Said Mendes, "[Sullivan] is in a battle for the soul of his son. Can a man who has led a bad life achieve redemption through his child?" Hanks described Sullivan as a man who achieved a comfortable status through violent means, whose likely repercussions he ignored. Sullivan is a good father and husband, but also has a job that requires him to be a violent killer. The film explores this paradoxical dichotomy. When Sullivan is faced with the consequences, Hanks says, "At the moment we're dropped into the story, it is literally the last day of that false perspective." To keep Sullivan from justifying his violent actions in the film, Mendes omitted scenes in the final cut that had Sullivan explaining his background to his son. In the film, most of the numerous acts of violence are committed off-screen. The violent acts were also designed to be quick, reflecting the actual speed of violence in the real world. The focus was not on the direct victims of the perpetuated violence, but the impact of violence on the perpetrators or witnesses to the act. Fathers and sons The film also explores father-son relationships between Michael Sullivan and his son, Sullivan and his boss, John Rooney, and between Rooney and his son Connor. Sullivan simultaneously idolizes and fears Rooney, and Sullivan's son feels the same about his own father. Rooney's son, Connor, has none of Sullivan's redeeming qualities, and Rooney is conflicted about whom to protect: his biological son or his surrogate son. Connor is jealous of his father's relationship with Sullivan, which fuels his actions, ultimately causing a domino effect that drives the film. Because Sullivan shields his background from his son, his attempt to preserve the father-son relationship is actually harmful. Tragedy brings Sullivan and his son together. Sullivan escapes from the old world with his son, and the boy finds an opportunity to strengthen the relationship with his father. Tyler Hoechlin, who portrayed Michael Jr., explained, "His dad starts to realize that Michael is all he has now and how much he's been missing. I think the journey is of a father and son getting to know each other, and also finding out who they themselves are." Water Water served as a motif in the film. It was developed after researching the wake scene at the beginning of the film informed the director that corpses were kept on ice in the 1930s to keep bodies from decomposing. The notion was interwoven into the film, which linked the presence of water with death. Mendes reflected on the theme, "The linking of water with death ... speaks of the mutability of water and links it to the uncontrollability of fate. These are things that humans can't control." Release With filming concluding in June 2001, the studio intended a United States release for the following Christmas. However in September 2001, Mendes requested more time. It was rescheduled for release on July 12, 2002, an unconventional move that placed the drama among the action-oriented summer films. Reception Box office Road to Perdition opened in 1,798 theaters in its debut weekend, competing against several other new releases including Reign of Fire, Halloween: Resurrection and The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course. It ended up grossing $22.1 million, placing second to holdover Men in Black II. It eventually grossed $104.5 million in the United States and $76.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $181 million. Critical response Road to Perdition received positive reviews from critics, with Conrad L. Hall's cinematography, the production design, and the lead performances of Hanks and Newman being praised. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 81% based on 216 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Somber, stately, and beautifully mounted, Sam Mendes' Road to Perdition is a well-crafted mob movie that explores the ties between fathers and sons." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Reviewer James Berardinelli, on his own ReelViews web site, praised Road to Perdition for its atmosphere and visuals, but he considered an emotional attachment to be lacking except for Sullivan's son. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times praised Hall's cinematography and the thematic use of water. He, too, felt an emotional detachment from the characters, saying, "I knew I admired it, but I didn't know if I liked it ... It is cold and holds us outside." Eleanor Ringel Gillespie of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution enjoyed the film's cinematography and Depression-era setting, as well as the performances of Hanks and Newman. Gillespie expressed the wish that the film lasted a little longer to explore its emotional core further. Eric Harrison of the Houston Chronicle considered Road to Perdition "the most brilliant work in this [gangster] genre" since the uncut Once Upon a Time in America (1984). Harrison considered Self's script "so finely honed that the story can change directions in a heartbeat." Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised Hanks, Newman, and Craig but called Law's performance "almost cartoonish". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also complimented Hanks and Newman: "[They] act together with the confidence of titans, their talents in the service of character, never star ego." Travers cited Hall's "breathtaking" cinematography and composer Thomas Newman's "evocative" score. Paul Clinton of CNN said: "While these deeply human issues are touched upon, they're never fully explored, and that undermines the sense of greatness to which this movie obviously aspires". Clinton considered Craig's character "one-dimensional to the extreme". He found the cinematography too overpowering for the film's storyline, which he considered "weak". J. Hoberman of The Village Voice described the film as "grim yet soppy." He added: "The action is stilted and the tabloid energy embalmed." Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post thought that the script lost its path when Sullivan and his son fled their old life. Accolades In April 2006, Empire recognized Road to Perdition as number six in its list of the top 20 comic book films. Home media Max Allan Collins, who authored the graphic novel, was hired to write the novelization for the film adaptation. Collins initially turned in a draft that contained 90,000 words, but the licensing at DreamWorks required the author to use only the dialogue from the film and no additional dialogue. Collins reluctantly edited the novelization down to 50,000 words and later said he regretted taking on the task. In 2016, Brash Books published Collins' original version of the novelization as Road to Perdition: The New, Expanded Edition Road to Perdition was released on DVD on February 25, 2003, in both full screen and anamorphic widescreen versions. The DVD's features included an audio commentary, deleted scenes, an HBO "Making of" documentary, and a photo gallery. Work on the DVD began on the same day the film's production began, and a collaborative effort among the director, the studio, and the DVD production crew shaped the DVD's content. Due to a limit of space on the DVD, the film's deleted scenes were chosen over a DTS soundtrack. Instead, the DVD included a Dolby Digital 5.1 soundtrack. A special edition DVD containing both DTS and Dolby Digital 5.1 soundtracks was also released, excluding the "Making of" documentary to fit both soundtracks. Road to Perdition was released on Blu-ray Disc on August 3, 2010, featuring a widescreen transfer, a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack, and all of the features from the DVD release. References Further reading External links Cinematography coverage at American Cinematographer 2002 films 20th Century Fox films American films BAFTA winners (films) Cultural depictions of Frank Nitti DreamWorks Pictures films Father and son films 2000s English-language films Films scored by Thomas Newman Films about the Chicago Outfit Films about the Irish Mob Films directed by Sam Mendes Films produced by Richard D. Zanuck Films produced by Sam Mendes Films set in Chicago Films set in 1931 Films shot in Chicago Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award Live-action films based on DC Comics The Zanuck Company films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaws%202

Jaws 2

Jaws 2 is a 1978 American thriller film directed by Jeannot Szwarc and co-written by Carl Gottlieb. It is the sequel to Steven Spielberg's Jaws (1975), and the second installment in the Jaws franchise. The film stars Roy Scheider as Police Chief Martin Brody, with Lorraine Gary and Murray Hamilton reprising their respective roles as Martin's wife Ellen Brody and mayor Larry Vaughn. It also stars Joseph Mascolo, Jeffrey Kramer, Collin Wilcox, Ann Dusenberry, Mark Gruner, Susan French, Barry Coe, Donna Wilkes, Gary Springer, and Keith Gordon in his first feature film role. The plot concerns Chief Brody suspecting another great white shark is terrorizing the fictional sea side resort of Amity Island, following a series of incidents and disappearances, and his suspicions are eventually proven true. Like the production of the original film, the production of Jaws 2 was troubled. The first director for the film, John D. Hancock, proved to be unsuitable for an action film and was replaced by Szwarc. Scheider, who only reprised his role to end a contractual issue with Universal, was also unhappy during production and had several heated exchanges with Szwarc. Jaws 2 was briefly the highest-grossing sequel in history until Rocky II was released in 1979. The film's tagline, "Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water..." has become one of the most famous in film history and has been parodied and homaged several times. The film received mixed reviews and was followed by Jaws 3-D in 1983 and Jaws: The Revenge in 1987. Plot While a new hotel opens on Amity Island, a great white shark kills two scuba divers photographing the wreckage of the Orca before heading into Amity waters. Their camera, which took pictures during the attack, is recovered the next day. The shark then kills a female water skier. The driver of the boat attempts self-defense by using a gas tank and flare gun, but the boat explodes, killing her and severely burning the right side of the shark's face. A killer whale carcass is found on the beach. Police Chief Martin Brody believes that a shark is responsible. Brody explains his concerns to Mayor Larry Vaughn, who expresses doubts that the town has another shark problem. Brody then finds floating debris from the destroyed speedboat and the boat driver's burnt remains. Brody calls Matt Hooper for assistance, but he is in Antarctica on a research expedition. Brody prohibits his 17-year-old son Mike from boating out of concern for his safety and instead lands him a job on the beach as a show of community service. The following day, Brody watches a beach from an observation tower and causes a panic after mistaking a school of bluefish for a shark, and shooting at it. However, his fears are confirmed when photos from the diver's camera are processed, and one of them shows a close-up of the shark. When he presents it to the Amity Town Council, they refuse to believe it is a shark, and vote Brody out as police chief. The next morning, Mike disobeys his father's orders by going sailing with his friends, taking his 10-year-old younger brother Sean with him. Marge, another teen, takes Sean with her, and they head out on six separate boats, going past a team of divers led by instructor Tom Andrews. Moments after submerging, Andrews encounters the shark. Panicking, he rushes to the surface, causing an embolism. Soon after, the shark hits the boat of teenage couple, Eddie Marchand and Tina Wilcox, who have strayed from the others; Eddie falls into the water and is mauled to death. Brody and his wife Ellen witness Tom's evacuation by ambulance and hear that the other divers suspect something scared him. Deputy Jeff Hendricks, who has taken over as Brody's replacement, tells them that Mike went sailing with his friends, so Brody and Ellen commandeer the police boat, aided by a reluctant Hendricks, to rescue them. They come across Tina's boat and find her hiding in the bow; she confirms the shark's presence. Brody hails a passing boat to take Hendricks, Ellen, and Tina to shore, where the truth is revealed, while he goes searching for the kids. Meanwhile, the shark attacks the group, striking one of their boats and causing most of them to capsize or crash into each other. Mike is knocked unconscious and falls in the water. The only pair whose boat is still seaworthy retrieve Mike and leave the others to take him ashore and get help; Sean and the others remain adrift upon the wreckage of tangled boats. A Coast Guard marine helicopter that Brody contacted arrives to tow them to shore, but the shark latches onto the chopper's pontoons, capsizing it and drowning the pilot. The shark knocks Sean into the water, and Marge is eaten while saving him. Brody finds Mike, who informs him of the situation before Brody sends him to safety. Brody finds the others at Cable Junction, a small island housing an electrical relay station that supplies power to Amity. The cheering and jumping that greet him attract the shark, which attacks again, causing Brody to maroon the police boat. He tries pulling them in with a winch but instead hooks an underwater power cable. The shark hits the boat wreckage, sending most of the teenagers into the water, and they swim to the edge of Cable Junction; Jackie Peters, Mike's love interest, and Sean remain on the boats. Using an inflatable raft, Brody taps the power cable with an oar to lure the shark toward him. The shark bites the cable, electrocuting it to death. Brody collects Sean and Jackie and they join the others on Cable Junction to await rescue. Cast Production Development and writing Universal wanted a sequel to Jaws early into the success of the original film. Producers Brown and Zanuck realized that someone else would produce the film if they did not, and preferred to be in charge of the project themselves. In October 1975, Steven Spielberg told the San Francisco Film Festival that "making a sequel to anything is just a cheap carny trick" and that he did not even respond to the producers when they asked him to direct Jaws 2. He claimed that the planned plot was to involve the sons of Quint and Brody hunting a new shark. Brown said that Spielberg did not want to direct the sequel because he felt that he had done the "definitive shark movie". The director later added that his decision was influenced by the problems the Jaws production faced – "I would have done the sequel if I hadn't had such a horrible time at sea on the first film." Despite Spielberg's rejection, the studio went ahead with plans to make the sequel, leading to an arduous 18-month pre-production process. Howard Sackler, who had contributed to the first film's script but chose not to be credited, was charged with writing the first draft. He originally proposed a prequel based on the sinking of the USS Indianapolis, the story relayed by Quint in the first film. Although Universal president Sidney Sheinberg thought Sackler's treatment for the film was intriguing, he rejected the idea. On Sackler's recommendation, theatre and film director John D. Hancock was chosen to helm the picture. Hancock began filming in June 1977. However, after nearly a month of filming, Universal and MCA executives disliked the dark, subtle tone that the film was taking and wanted a more lighthearted and action oriented story. Additionally, Hancock ran into trouble with Sheinberg, who suggested to Hancock and Tristan that his (Sheinberg's) wife, actress Lorraine Gary (Ellen Brody), "should go out on a boat and help to rescue the kids." When told of the idea, Zanuck replied, "Over my dead body." The next draft of the film's screenplay was turned in with Gary not going out to sea. Hancock says that this, and his later firing of another actress who turned out to be a Universal executive's girlfriend, contributed to his own dismissal from the film. Hancock began to feel the pressure of directing his first epic adventure film "with only three film credits, and all small-scale dramas". The producers were unhappy with his material, and on a Saturday evening in June 1977, after a meeting with the producers and Universal executives, the director was fired. He and his wife left for Rome and production was shut down for a few weeks. The couple had been involved in the film for eighteen months. Hancock blamed his departure on the mechanical shark, telling a newspaper that it still could not swim or bite after a year and a half: "You get a couple of shots, and [the shark] breaks." Echoing the first film's production, Carl Gottlieb was enlisted to further revise the script, adding humor and reducing some of the violence. Gottlieb wrote on location at Fort Walton Beach, Florida. It cost the producers more money to hire Gottlieb to do the rewrite than it would have if they had hired him in the first place. At this point, Spielberg considered returning to direct the sequel. Over the Bicentennial weekend in 1976, Spielberg had hammered out a screenplay based on Quint's Indianapolis speech. Because of his contract for Close Encounters of the Third Kind, however, Spielberg would not be able to work on the film for a further year and the producers could not wait for him to be free. Production designer Joe Alves (who would direct Jaws 3-D) and Verna Fields (who had been promoted to vice-president at Universal after her acclaimed editing on the first film) proposed that they co-direct it. The request was declined by the Directors Guild of America, partly because they would not allow a DGA member to be replaced by someone who was not one of its members, and partly because they, in the wake of events on the set of The Outlaw Josey Wales, had instituted a ban on any cast or crew members taking over as director during a film's production. The reins were eventually handed to Jeannot Szwarc, best known for the film Bug and whom Alves knew from working on the TV series Night Gallery. Szwarc recommenced production by filming the complicated water skier scene, giving Gottlieb some time to complete the script. He reinstated the character of Deputy Hendricks, played by Jeffrey Kramer, who had been missing from the earlier script. Many of the teenagers were sacked, with the remaining roles developed. Three sharks were built for the film. The first was the "platform shark", also referred to as the "luxurious shark". Special mechanical effects supervisor Robert Mattey and Roy Arbogast used the same body mould used for the shark in the first film. The sharks from the original film had rotted behind sheds on the lower lot of Universal Studios in the intervening years, and the only pieces that were salvageable were the chromoly tube frames. Mattey's design was much more complicated and ambitious than the first film. The same (male) body was used, but a brand new head was made by sculptor Chris Mueller which made use of an all-new mouth mechanism, one which incorporated jowls to disguise the pinching of the cheeks that had proven to be a problem with the shark in the original film. The sharks for Jaws 2 were known as Bruce Two (the sharks for the original film had been nicknamed "Bruce", after Steven Spielberg's lawyer), but on set they were referred to as "Fidel" and "Harold", the latter after David Brown's Beverly Hills lawyer. The other shark props used were a fin and a full shark, both of which could be pulled by boats. "Cable Junction", the island shown in the film's climax, was actually a floating barge covered with fiber-glass rocks. This was created in order to enable the shark platform to be positioned to it as close as possible (a real island would have hindered this due to the upward slope of the seabed making the shark platform visible). Like the first film, footage of real sharks filmed by Australian divers Ron & Valerie Taylor was used for movement shots that could not be convincingly achieved using the mechanical sharks. Although the first film was commended for leaving the shark to the imagination until two thirds of the way through, Szwarc felt that they should show it as much as possible because the dramatic "first image of it coming out of the water" in the first film could never be repeated. Szwarc believed that the reduction of the first film's Hitchcockian suspense was inevitable because the audience already knew what the shark looked like from the first film. Reviewers have since commented that there was no way that they were ever going to duplicate the original's effectiveness. The filmmakers gave the new shark a more menacing look by scarring it in the early boat explosion. Like the first film, shooting on water proved challenging. Scheider said that they were "always contending with tides, surf and winds ... jellyfish, sharks, waterspouts and hurricane warnings." After spending hours anchoring the sailboats, the wind would change as they were ready to shoot, blowing the sails in the wrong direction. The saltwater's corrosive effect damaged some equipment, including the metal parts in the sharks. Susan Ford, daughter of U.S. President Gerald Ford, was hired to shoot publicity photographs. Many of these photos appeared in Ray Loynd's Jaws 2 Log, which documented the film's production, similar to the Jaws Log, a book written by Carl Gottlieb covering production of the first film. Location Martha's Vineyard was again used as the location for the town scenes and Emerald Coast was included on this film. Although some residents guarded their privacy, many islanders welcomed the money that the company was bringing. Shortly after the production arrived in June 1977, local newspaper the Grapevine wrote: Many residents enjoyed being cast as extras. Some people, however, were less pleased by the film crew's presence and refused to cooperate. Only one drugstore allowed its windows to be boarded up for the moody look that Hancock wanted. "Universal Go Home" T-shirts began appearing on the streets in mid-June 1977. When Szwarc took over, the majority of the film was shot at Navarre Beach in Florida, because of the warm weather and the water's depth being appropriate for the shark platform. The company was at this location from August 1 until December 22, 1977. The production "was a boost to the local economy because local boaters, extras and stand-ins or doubles were hired. Universal brought in actors, directors, producers and their wives, camera and crew people who needed housing, food and clothing for the movie. Services were needed for laundry, dry-cleaning and recreation." Navarre's Holiday Inn "Holidome" was used as the film's headquarters, with the ground floor converted into production offices, and some of the Gulf-front suites remodeled for David Brown and Roy Scheider. Universal rented 100 of the hotel's 200 rooms, spending $1 million. The Holiday Inn was destroyed in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season. Boats and parts for their maintenance were purchased from local businesses. One proprietor said that he sold "Universal approximately $400,000 worth of boats and equipment". On one occasion, the Cable Junction Island set, which was built on a barge, broke loose from its anchorage and had to be rescued. Szwarc was contacted one night and told that his island was drifting towards Cuba. Real hammerhead sharks circled the teen actors during the filming of one shot. Because the characters they were playing were meant to be in distress, the crew (filming from a distance) did not realize that the actors were genuinely calling for help. The interior shots of the teen hang-out where they play pinball were filmed in the original location of the Hog's Breath Saloon on Okaloosa Island. This restaurant later relocated to Destin, Florida as its original building was susceptible to hurricane damage. The production company had to seek dredge and fill permits from Florida's Department of Environmental Regulation to sink the revised platform that controlled the shark on the sea bottom. Principal photography ended three days before Christmas 1977, on the Choctawhatchee Bay, near Destin, Florida. The actors had to put ice cubes in their mouths to prevent their breath showing on camera. The final sequence to be filmed was the shark being electrocuted on the cable. In mid-January, the crew reconvened in Hollywood with some of the teenage actors for five weeks of post-production photography. Jaws 2 cost $30 million to produce, over three times more than the original. David Brown says that they did not budget the film "because Universal would never have given a green light to a $30 million budget in those days." The Marine Division Head for Universal on location, Philip Kingry, says that "It cost approximately $80,000 per day to make that movie." When Kingry asked Brown what his budget was, the producer responded, "We're not wasteful, but we're spending the profit from Jaws, and it will take what it takes." Casting Roy Scheider reluctantly returned to reprise his role as Martin Brody. In 1977, he had quit the role of Michael Vronsky in The Deer Hunter two weeks before the start of filming because of "creative differences". Scheider was contracted to Universal at the time for a three-picture deal, but the studio offered to forgive his failure to fulfill his contractual obligation if he agreed to appear in Jaws 2. The actor heavily resisted the film, claiming that there was nothing new to create and that people would be watching the film to see the shark, not him. According to his biographer, Scheider was so desperate to be relieved from the role that he "pleaded insanity and went crazy in The Beverly Hills Hotel". However, he was given an attractive financial package for appearing in Jaws 2; he quadrupled his base salary from the first film, and negotiated points (a percentage of the film's net profits). The Star newspaper reported that Scheider received $500,000 for 12 weeks work, plus $35,000 for each additional week that the schedule ran over. Despite his reluctance, Scheider pledged to do the best job that he could, wanting to make Brody believable. However, the atmosphere was tense on the set, and he often argued with Szwarc. On one occasion, Scheider complained (in front of extras) that Szwarc was wasting time with technical issues and the extras while ignoring the principal actors. A meeting was called with the two, David Brown and Verna Fields, in which Scheider and Szwarc were encouraged to settle their differences. The discussion became heated and a physical fight broke out, which Brown and Fields broke up. The rift was also articulated in written correspondence. In a letter to Szwarc, Scheider wrote that "working with Jeannot Szwarc is knowing he will never say he is sorry or ever admitting he overlooked something. Well, enough of that shit for me!" He requested an apology from the director for not consulting him. Szwarc's reply focused upon completing the film to the "best possible" standard: Many extras were recruited from Gulf Breeze High School. The students were paid $3 per hour, well above the minimum wage at the time ($2.65/hr), and reveled in being able to miss classes. Casting director Shari Rhodes, requested members of the Gulf Breeze band perform as the Amity High School Band, seen in an early scene in the film showing the opening of the Holiday Inn Amity Shores "Amity Scholarship Fund Benefit". "The GBHS band consisted of approximately 100 members, and band director John Henley chose 28 student musicians, including the band's section known as Henley's Honkers." Universal scheduled their involvement for mid-afternoons to prevent them missing too much time in school. Universal made a contribution of $3,500 to the school and the band for their part in the film. Several other GBHS students were hired as stand-ins or doubles for the teenage actors to appear in the water scenes and to maintain and sail the boats. Richard Dreyfuss, who played Matt Hooper in Jaws, said he chose not to return in Jaws 2 due to Spielberg not directing it. Music Soundtrack John Williams returned to score Jaws 2 after winning an Academy Award for Best Original Score for his work on the first film. Williams says that it was assumed by everyone that "the music would come back also and be part of the cast ... it would require new music, certainly, but the signature music of Jaws should be used as well". He compares this to "the great tradition" for repeating musical themes in Hollywood serials such as Roy Rogers and The Lone Ranger. In addition to the familiar themes, Szwarc says Williams also composed a "youthful counterpoint to the shark that is always around when the kids are sailing or going out to sea. It was very inventive". Szwarc said that the sequel's music should be "more complex because it was a more complex film". Williams says that this score is broader, allowing him to make more use of the orchestra, and use longer notes, and "fill the space" created by the director. Williams used a larger ensemble than for the first film, and "the orchestral palette may have been broader or had longer notes". Delays in shooting meant that Williams was forced to start working on the score before the film was completed. Szwarc discussed the film with the composer, showing him edited sequences and storyboards. The director praises Williams in being able to work under such difficult conditions. Critic Mike Beek suggests these time constraints enabled Williams "to create themes based on ideas and suggestions, rather than a locked down print." Critics have praised Williams' score, comparing it favorably to the original. Williams "uses a few basic elements of the original—the obligatory shark motif, for one—and takes the music off in some new and interesting directions." The score is "more disturbing in places" than the original, and "Williams some new and hugely memorable out to sea adventure music." Because Jaws 2 "isn't a film that requires subtlety ... Williams pulls out all the stops to make it as exciting and hair raising as possible." According to the liner notes on the soundtrack album, Williams' "sense of the dramatic, coupled with his exquisite musical taste and knowledge of the orchestra definitely stamp this score as truly one of his best." It is "brilliantly performed by a mini-symphony made up of the finest instrumentalists to be found anywhere." Mike Beek makes positive comments about the film, saying that "the music certainly elevates it to a level it would otherwise never have achieved." In 2015, Intrada Records issued a two-disc edition with Williams' complete score in chronological order on the first disc and the original 1978 soundtrack album on the second. Release Theatrical Jaws 2 had sneak previews at 31 theaters across the United States on June 2, 1978, including at Loew's State II in New York City, before opening June 16. Home media In 1980, MCA Home Video (then known as MCA Videocassette Inc.) released Jaws 2 on VHS, Betamax and Laserdisc, following its 1980 theatrical re-release. In the 1990s, MCA-Universal Home Video reissued it on VHS and Laserdisc. The film received a DVD release on May 22, 2001. Many reviewers praised it for the quantity of special features, with DVD Authority asserting that it had "more than a lot of titles labeled as 'special edition' discs". It includes a 45-minute documentary produced by Laurent Bouzereau, who is responsible for many of the documentaries about Universal's films. Actor Keith Gordon reminisces in a short feature, and Szwarc explains the phonetic problem with its original French title, Les Dents de la mer 2, as it sounded like it ended with the expletive merde (mer deux). This was combated by using the suffix Part 2. The disc also contains a variety of deleted scenes. These scenes show the animosity between Brody and his wife's boss, Len Peterson (Joseph Mascolo), Brody explaining to Ellen that he is not about to take any chances letting Mike go sailing, saying that the "smell of death" is the same in Amity as it is in New York, and the selectmen voting to fire Brody; the Mayor (Murray Hamilton) is the only person to vote to save him. These scenes were cut because they were slowing the film's pace. Also included is footage of the shark attacking the coast guard pilot underwater after his helicopter had capsized. The scene was cut because of the struggle with the ratings board to acquire a PG certificate. In the storyboard, it is shown that the helicopter pilot would have escaped and saved Marge (Martha Swatek) from being eaten after she saves Sean, and saves himself as well. Although the audio was presented in Dolby Digital 2.0 mono, a reviewer for Film Freak Central comments that "Williams' score often sounds deceptively stereophonic". The BBC, though, suggest that the mix "really demands the added bass that a 5.1 effort could have lent it". Universal Studios released Jaws 2 on Blu-ray in 2016. The Blu-ray contains most of the bonus materials from the 2001 DVD release, with the exception of the text based bonus features and the galleries. Reception Box office Jaws 2 was the most expensive film that Universal had produced up until that point, costing the studio $30 million. It opened to a gross of $9,866,023 in 640 theaters across the United States and Canada, ranking first and giving it the highest grossing opening weekend of all time up to that point as well as the single day record of $3.5 million despite opening on the same day as Grease which grossed $9 million the same weekend, which was greater than any film released prior to that weekend. It was the first time that there had been two day-and-date releases grossing such high amounts. The opening weekend led it to set a record weekly total of $16,654,000. It went on to earn $77,737,272 during its initial release, making it the #6 highest-grossing film in 1978. It eventually surpassed the $100 million with reissues, ultimately earning $102,922,376, and $208,900,376 worldwide. Despite grossing less than half of its predecessor, it became the highest-grossing sequel in history up to that point. Jaws 2 inspired much more merchandising and sponsors than the first film. Products included sets of trading cards from Topps and Baker's bread, paper cups from Coca-Cola, beach towels, a souvenir program, shark tooth necklaces, coloring and activity books, and a model kit of Brody's truck. A novelization by Hank Searls, based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Sackler and Tristan, was released, as well as Ray Loynd's The Jaws 2 Log, an account of the film's production. The first chapter of the novelization was published in advance of the film's release in 15 U.S. newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, the New York Post, Chicago Tribune and The Washington Post, as well as a condensed version of the novelization being published in Readers Digest. Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Rick Marschall and artists Gene Colan and Tom Palmer in Marvel Super Special #6 (also based on the earlier script). Critical response Throughout the years, the film has received mixed reviews, though it is widely regarded as the best of the three Jaws sequels. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 61% based on 33 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Jaws 2 never approaches the lingering thrills of its classic predecessor, but it's reasonably entertaining for a sequel that has no reason to exist." Critic John Kenneth Muir comments that opinions towards Jaws 2 depend upon which side of the series it is being compared. Against Spielberg's original, "it is an inferior sequel to a classic", but comparison with the subsequent films Jaws 3-D and Jaws: The Revenge shows Szwarc's film to be "a decent sequel, and one produced before the franchise hit troubled waters." Jaws 2, he says, is "at the deep end of the pool, better than its two shallow follow ups, and there is enough of Jaws lingering greatness floating about to make it an entertaining and exciting two hours." DVD Authority says "After this one, the other Jaws movies seemed to just not be as good." One review says: "it's obviously not a patch on Spielberg's classic, but it's about as good as could be hoped for, with some excellent sequences, almost worthy of the original, several genuine shocks, a different enough story and some pretty decent characters." The performances of Scheider, Gary and Hamilton have been particularly praised. Among contemporary reviews, Roger Ebert described the film as "pure trash." Gene Siskel gave it two-and-a-half stars out of four in his print review, writing that the film "is worth watching only when its leading player is on camera" and that when the teenage characters were not being attacked, Jaws 2 offers teenage action even less inspired than Beach Blanket Bingo". Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "Some of the action sequences have been well staged, but they've been dropped into the film so indiscriminately that Jaws 2 never builds to a particular climax. It simply drones on and on, like a television movie. Someone also made a mistake in showing us so much of the mechanical shark so early in the film." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times stated, "Maybe because familiarity breeds indifference the more you see of the shark this time the more it seems to have wandered away from the Universal Studios Tour, manmade and mechanical." Tom Pulleine of The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Less a sequel than a remake, Jaws 2 is a tiresomely foregone conclusion to anyone who has seen Spielberg's film ... Even worse, since the events of the first film are acknowledged in this one, the refusal of the mayor and council to act on Brody's warning a second time round makes them appear idiotic to a degree that effectively sabotages any halfway serious dramatic interest." George Morris for the Texas Monthly preferred Jaws 2 over the original because it is "less insidious in its methods of manipulation" and "because director Jeannot Szwarc streamlines the terror ... By crosscutting among the teenagers, Scheider, and the officials' efforts to rescue them, Szwarc works up enough suspense to keep the adrenaline going." However, Morris' review is not entirely complimentary. He would have preferred the shark to have been seen less, positing "producers and audiences alike seem to have forgotten that the greatest suspense derives from the unseen and the unknown, and that the imagination is capable of conceiving far worse than the materialization of a mere mechanical monster." Similarly, John Simon felt that the "shark's waning is caused by a decline in direction: Jeannot Szwarc has none of Steven Spielberg's manipulative cleverness. For one thing, he allows us close and disarming close-ups of the shark almost immediately ..." A reviewer for the BBC complained that the additional screen time awarded to the shark makes it "seems far less terrifying than its almost mystical contemporary". David Parkinson of Radio Times awarded it two stars out of five, calling it a "pale imitation of the classic original" and stating that "the suspense comes unglued because the film floats in all-too-familiar waters. You just know how everyone is going to react — from the stars to the director, and even the mechanical shark." Although many critics identify some flaws, often comparing Szwarc negatively to Spielberg, DVD.net states that "this sequel does have some redeeming qualities going for it that make it a good movie in its own right". Richard Dreyfuss and Robert Shaw are missed, especially since the teenage characters are labeled "largely annoying 'Afterschool Special' archetypes" who are "irritating and incessantly screaming" and "don't make for very sympathetic victims". Because of its emphasis upon the teenage cast, some critics have compared the film to the popular slasher films that would soon follow. Also comparing the film's "interchangeable teens to slasher films, particularly the Friday the 13th franchise, Muir says that "it feels wrong for a Jaws film to dwell in that shallow domain." However, the critic also commends the teen characters' comradeship and heroism, citing the girl killed when saving Sean from the shark. The film's tagline, "Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water ...", has become one of the most famous in film history. Andrew J. Kuehn, who developed the first film's trailer, is credited with coining the phrase. It has been parodied in numerous films; most notably the tagline of the 1996 feature film adaptation of the television series, Flipper, "This summer, it's finally safe to go back in the water." See also List of killer shark films References Bibliography External links 1978 films 1978 horror films American films 1970s English-language films Sea adventure films 1970s adventure films Seafaring films American natural horror films American sequel films Films about shark attacks 2 Films about sharks Films adapted into comics Films directed by Jeannot Szwarc Films produced by David Brown Films produced by Richard D. Zanuck Films set in Massachusetts Films set on fictional islands Films set on beaches Films shot in Florida Films shot in Martha's Vineyard Universal Pictures films Films with screenplays by Carl Gottlieb Films based on works by Peter Benchley Navarre, Florida The Zanuck Company films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20peace%20medal

Indian peace medal

Indian peace medals refer to ovular or circular medals awarded to tribal leaders throughout colonial America and early United States history, primarily made of silver or brass and ranging in diameter from about one to six inches. Medals were often perforated and worn suspended around the neck of the recipient. Controversy remains surrounding the use and impact of peace medals in furthering diplomatic relationships between Native Americans and the federal government. Many Indian peace medals today are archived in museums, libraries, and cultural centers. Early peace medals During the colonization of America, European nations issued the earliest peace medals to build alliances and negotiate with tribes, dating as far back as the seventeenth century. Medals were given to North American Indians by the British, French, and Spanish in the eighteenth century as sentiments of peace, often in conjunction with national flags and other gifts. A number of silver medals issued under Kings George the First and Second have been excavated in Pennsylvania, the reverse of which show an American Indian figure offering a peace pipe to a Quaker. Medals were also used by European nations to curry favor and secure military alliances with tribes during wartime. For Native Americans, the early medals represented a pledge to supply and trade commodities such as kettles, beads, ornaments, clothes, and weapons. In return, they would supply much of the raw materials that Europeans' overseas trade depended on, including animal hides, furs, and feathers.Like many European medals, early US medals incorporated Indian figures on their design. What are thought to be the earliest peace medals issued by the US government carry the date 1789, the year of President Washington's inauguration, along with the inscription G. WASHINGTON. PRESIDENT above. The medals show an Indian man wearing a headdress, draped in a blanket. With his right hand he drops his tomahawk while simultaneously receiving a pipe of peace with his left from a figure of Minerva, symbolizing the young America. On the reverse is an eagle with wings extended and thirteen stars above its head, the arms of the United States. US medals issued from 1792 to 1795 are similar in design, but replace the figure of Minerva with George Washington himself. Medals were an expression of promise: that the United States was invested in furthering peace and diplomacy with the Indians who called this land home. Consequently, the awarding of peace medals often accompanied a formal treaty or negotiation. One of the first known uses of peace medals by the US government dates back to the Treaty of Hopewell, the culmination of Colonel Joseph Martin's mission to the Cherokee nation in 1785. While the medals were issued in accordance with the treaty, the records do not confirm whether or not they were actually distributed to Cherokee leaders. The ultimate origin of Indian peace medals is not known. Thomas Jefferson himself noted that the usage of the medals is "an ancient custom from time immemorial." Presidential medals While early peace medals issued by European nations and the US government frequently incorporate images of European and tribal figures in cultural exchange, peace medals issued during and after the presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1801 – 1809) are almost exclusively presidential medals, displaying the bust of the President in office at the time they were issued. Jefferson medals were the first of their kind, and inspired a long series of presidential medals that continued until the presidency of Benjamin Harrison (1889 – 1893). Presidential medals were minted in mass using engraved dies, replacing the practice of engraving individual medals. Jefferson medals, first issued in 1801, display on one side a bust of Thomas Jefferson and on the other, the clasped hands of an Indian and a US soldier. The one to the right bears a metal wristband worn by Native American chiefs, and the one to the left wears the braided cuff of a US military officer. Above the hands is an overlaying tomahawk and pipe, with the legend "Peace and Friendship." Above Jefferson's profile is his name, title, and date he took office, 1801. Jefferson medals consist of two thin silver discs joined by a silver rim and a wooden core. The medals were issued in three standard sizes: 55mm, 75mm, to 105mm in diameter. US government use of presidential medals The distribution of presidential medals accompanied nearly every formal interaction between Native Americans and the US federal government. So established was the practice that Thomas L. McKenney, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, wrote in 1829, "Without medals, any plan of operating among the Indians, be it what it may, is essentially enfeebled." In a short string of correspondence between the US House of Representatives Committee of Ways and Means and the Department of the Interior in 1865, an appropriation was requested "to provide for the usual distribution of medals to leading and influential chiefs," as the funds provided in 1861 for the same purpose had been exhausted. The growing popularity of peace medals compelled regulation, and as a result, presidential medals, in comparison to early peace medals given alongside treaties, were increasingly awarded to select individuals. A report issued in 1908 by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, for example, recommended the passage of a bill that awards medals to a group of Indian policemen who arrested Sitting Bull, the Sioux chief, near Fort Yates in 1890. Additionally, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark famously distributed about eighty-seven peace medals, many of which were issued under Jefferson, to Indian leaders during their 1803-1806 expedition across the United States as demonstrations of goodwill from the government. In 1829, Lewis Cass, the Governor of Michigan Territory and William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs at St. Louis, issued a proposal to the US government: "Regulations for the Government of the Indian Department." The regulations they set forth were never formally adopted, but do represent the established norms of presidential medal distribution. Among other rules, the medals were to "be given to influential persons only." The largest medals were reserved for the chiefs, while the mid-sized medals would be given to war chiefs. The smallest medals were given to less distinguished chiefs and warriors. The awarding of the peace medals required "proper formalities," and any foreign medal previously worn would be replaced by an American medal if the recipient is deserving of a medal. Native American acceptance of peace medals Great value was prescribed by the peace medals, which were to be buried with the owner or passed down from generation to generation. A considerable amount of portraiture made of Native American figures accentuating the medals worn around their neck serves as a testament to their importance. Peace medals assumed a role within many Native ethea akin to earlier worn shell gorgets, associating the wearer of the medal with the individual engraved on its surface. The imagery presented on the medals, of both royal and political figures, was understood as a symbol of access into the world of the White man. This world brought with it new trade goods and technologies of Europe and later the United States, notably the rifle. The medals became a physical representation of a spiritual dimension that linked the medal wearer to a source of power, for example, the "Great Father" as President Washington was referred to by medal recipients. The distribution of peace medals both reinforced and furthered a political order within the tribes. Criticisms of peace medals Black Hawk, a Sauk chief, represents a number of tribal leaders who were critical of US peace medals and their actual use in advancing relations between the federal government and Native Americans. Black Hawk wrote in his autobiography, "Life of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak" (1833), that he never accepts or wears a US peace medal, though he openly wore those given to him by the British, particularly during the War of 1812. Black Hawk writes, "Whilst the British made but few [promises]- we could always rely upon their word." Towards the end of his narrative, Black Hawk reflects on his tour of the federal mint in Philadelphia, the source of the United States' "medals and money." He relates the coins to the US peace medals; both are "very hand-some," and both are unreliable. Other contemporary criticisms of Indian peace medals demand a reconsideration of what peacekeeping implies and who the kept peace belongs to. In his analysis of the peace medals issued by the United States government between 1789 and 1889, art historian Klaus Lubbers describes the changing composition of the medal engravings, and how those changes reflect the government's increasingly assimilationist Indian policy. In comparison to the first peace medals that display full Indian figures and little in the background, Lubbers notes that subsequent peace medals incorporate typical agricultural backdrops with a house, oxen, and farm land. Over time, the Indian figures take up less space in the compositions, which Lubbers attributes to a receding equality in rank between the White man and the Indian. The issuing of the Rutherford B. Hayes medal in 1877 coincided with the final efforts endorsed by the Indian Removal Act, and unsurprising to Lubbers, the Hayes medal affords little space to the Native American figure. Its backdrop displays the world of the White man, who stands in the center of the composition leaning on an ax with a chopped tree at his feet. Behind the figures appears a log cabin, and there sits a woman and infant while a man plows. Indian peace medals today By the 1840s, Indian peace medals had come to be known as a "presidential series" for which there was growing interest. The federal mint in Philadelphia started collecting dies for the previously issued medals. This began the practice of striking bronze replicas of medals for presentation to government officials or historical societies. Production of the bronze medals began in 1842 with the Jefferson medal. The dies of the Washington and John Adams medals were missing during initial production, however. The John Adams die was not collected until 1878, and the George Washington die was ultimately reproduced in 1903, completing the series. The American Numismatic Society in New York has the most extensive collection of Indian peace medals, containing an example of nearly every medal issued. The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. has a similarly large collection. Significant medal collections may be found in the Denver Natural History Museum, the Gilcrease Institute of American History and Art, the Henry Ford Museum, and the Massachusetts Historical Society. Other locations, including the Arizona Pioneer's Historical Society, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Brooklyn Museum, and the Chicago Historical Society, have smaller collections. A number of peace medals also belong to private collectors. References Further reading External links Indian Peace Medals in the collection of the American Numismatic Society. Native American history United States federal Indian policy Peace symbols

359558

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Stonehouse

John Stonehouse

John Thomson Stonehouse (28 July 192514 April 1988) was a British Labour and Co-operative Party politician and cabinet minister under Prime Minister Harold Wilson. Stonehouse is remembered for his unsuccessful attempt at faking his own death in 1974, a scheme uncovered after a claim that Stonehouse was recently-disappeared murder suspect Lord Lucan. More than twenty years after his death, it was publicly revealed that he had been an agent for the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic military intelligence. In 1979, the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, and top cabinet members learned from a Czech defector that Stonehouse had been a paid Czechoslovak spy since 1962. He had provided secrets about government plans as well as technical information about aircraft, and received about £5,000. He was already in prison for fraud and the government decided there was insufficient evidence to bring him to trial, so no announcement or prosecution was made. Education and early career Stonehouse was born in Southampton, had a trade unionist upbringing and joined the Labour Party at the age of sixteen. He was educated at Taunton's College, Southampton, and the London School of Economics. His mother, Rosina Stonehouse, was the sixth female mayor of Southampton and a councillor on Southampton City Council. Stonehouse was in the RAF for two years from 1944 when he was conscripted. An economist, he became involved in co-operative enterprise and was a manager of African co-operative societies in Uganda (1952–54). He served as a director (1956–62) and President (1962–64) of the London Co-operative Society. Political career Stonehouse stood unsuccessfully in Norwood at the 1949 London County Council election. He was first elected as Labour Co-operative Member of Parliament (MP) for Wednesbury in Staffordshire in a 1957 by-election, having contested Twickenham in 1950 and Burton in 1951. In February 1959, Stonehouse travelled to the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on a fact-finding tour in which he condemned the White minority government of Southern Rhodesia. Speaking to the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, he encouraged Blacks to stand up for their rights and said they had the support of the British Labour Party. He was promptly deported from Southern Rhodesia and banned from returning a year later. Stonehouse allegedly began spying for Czechoslovakia in 1962. He served as a junior minister of aviation, where he was involved in BOAC's order of Boeing 707 aircraft from the United States, against his own recommendation that they should buy a British aircraft, the Super VC10. This led to his making accusations against colleagues about the reasons for the decision. In March 1968, he negotiated an agreement providing a framework for the long-term development of technological co-operation between Britain and Czechoslovakia. It provided for the exchange of specialists and information, facilities for study and research in technology, and such other forms of industrial co-operation which might be agreed. While in the Colonial Office, Stonehouse's rise continued, and in 1967 he became Minister of State for Technology under Tony Benn and later Postmaster General until the position was abolished by the Post Office Act 1969. As Postmaster General, Stonehouse oversaw the introduction of first and second-class stamps. As Minister of Posts and Telecommunications in 1970, he oversaw the controversial jamming of the offshore radio station Radio North Sea International. When Labour was defeated at the 1970 general election, he was not appointed to the Shadow Cabinet. When the Wednesbury constituency was abolished in 1974, he stood for and was elected to the nearby Walsall North constituency. In 1969, Stonehouse was subjected to the assertion that he was a Czechoslovak secret service agent. He successfully defended himself, but the allegation was substantiated in the official history of MI5, The Defence of the Realm (2009) by Cambridge historian Christopher Andrew. In December 2010, it was revealed that, in 1980, then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had agreed to cover up revelations that Stonehouse had been a Czechoslovak spy since the 1960s as there was insufficient evidence to bring him to trial. Until Ray Mawby, briefly a member of a Conservative government, was exposed in June 2012, Stonehouse was the only Minister known to have been an agent for the former Eastern bloc. Business interests After 1970, Stonehouse set up various companies in an attempt to secure a regular income. By 1974, most of these were in financial trouble, and he had resorted to deceptive creative accounting. Aware that the Department of Trade and Industry was looking at his affairs, he decided that his best choice would be to flee. Secret British government documents, declassified in 2005, indicate that Stonehouse spent months rehearsing his new identity, that of Joseph Markham—the deceased husband of a constituent. Faking own death Stonehouse maintained the pretence of normality until he faked his death on 20 November 1974, leaving a pile of clothes on a beach in Miami. It appeared that he had gone swimming, and had been drowned or possibly killed by a shark. He was presumed dead, and obituaries were published despite the fact that no corpse had been found. In reality, he was en route to Australia, hoping to set up a new life with his mistress and secretary, Sheila Buckley. Using false identities, Stonehouse set about transferring large sums of money between banks as a further means of covering his tracks. Under the name of Clive Mildoon, he deposited A$21,500 in cash at the Bank of New Zealand. The teller who handled the money later spotted "Mildoon" at the Bank of New South Wales. Inquiries led the teller to learn that the money was in the name of Joe Markham and he informed the local police. Stonehouse spent a while in Copenhagen with Sheila Buckley, but later returned to Australia, unaware that he was now under surveillance. The police initially suspected him of being The 7th Earl of Lucan, who had disappeared a fortnight before Stonehouse, following the murder of his children's nanny, Sandra Rivett. Investigators noted that the suspect was reading British newspapers that also included stories attacking the "recently deceased" John Stonehouse. They contacted Scotland Yard, requesting pictures of both Lord Lucan and Stonehouse. On his arrest, the police instructed him to pull down his trousers so they could be sure whether or not he was Lord Lucan, who had a six-inch scar on the inside of his right thigh. Arrest and aftermath Stonehouse was arrested in Melbourne on 24 December 1974. He applied for the position of Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds while still in Australia (one of the ways for an MP to resign), but decided not to sign the papers. Six months after he was arrested, he was deported to the UK; he had tried to obtain offers of asylum from Sweden or Mauritius. He was remanded in Brixton Prison until August 1975 when he was released and put on bail. He continued to serve as an MP. Although unhappy with the situation, the Labour Party did not expel him. Their majority was very narrow. Stonehouse conducted his own defence on 21 charges of fraud, theft, forgery, conspiracy to defraud, causing a false police investigation and wasting police time. His trial lasted 68 days. On 6 August 1976, he was convicted and sentenced to seven years in prison for fraud. On 4 April 1976 Stonehouse had attended a St George's Day festival hosted by the English National Party and confirmed he had joined the party, making Labour a minority government. He agreed to resign as a Privy Counsellor on 17 August 1976, becoming one of only three people to resign from the Imperial Privy Council in the 20th century. Stonehouse tendered his resignation from the House of Commons on 27 August 1976. The subsequent by-election was won by Robin Hodgson, a Conservative. In October 1976, Stonehouse was declared bankrupt. Stonehouse was imprisoned in HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs. On 30 June 1977, the House of Lords refused his appeal against five of the charges of which he was convicted. While he was in prison, he complained that the prison workshop where he worked played pop music on the radio station. When his health deteriorated, he was moved to HM Prison Blundeston in Suffolk. Health problems On 14 August 1979, he was released early from prison because of good behaviour and because he had suffered three heart attacks; he had the first on 18 April 1977, a second one four days later, and a massive heart attack on 13 August 1978. On 6 September 1978 Stonehouse suffered a coronary ischemia attack which required him to spend three days in hospital. He underwent open heart surgery on 7 November 1978 which lasted for six hours. After release From January 1980, Stonehouse was a volunteer fundraiser for the East London-based charity, Community Links. He joined the SDP, which later amalgamated with the Liberal Party to become the Liberal Democrats. In June 1980, he was discharged from bankruptcy. Stonehouse wrote three novels, and made TV appearances and radio broadcasts during the rest of his life, mostly in connection with discussing his disappearance. In June 1986 he appeared on TVS's Regrets programme and in December that year on the BBC Radio 4 interview programme In The Psychiatrist's Chair with Anthony Clare. Personal life Stonehouse married Barbara Joan Smith in 1948, and they had two daughters, Jane and Julia, and a son, Mathew. After their divorce in 1978, Stonehouse married his mistress, Sheila Elizabeth Buckley, in Hampshire on 31 January 1981. In December 1982 their son James William John was born. Stonehouse's daughter Julia Stonehouse published an account of her father's life in 2021 entitled John Stonehouse, My Father: The True Story of the Runaway MP; it was released almost simultaneously with a book called Stonehouse: Cabinet Minister, Fraudster, Spy, by criminal defence solicitor Julian Hayes, who is Stonehouse's great nephew through the author's father, Michael Hayes, who was the MP's nephew and his lawyer. Julia Stonehouse has a web site "John Stonehouse - so where's the evidence?" which shows her correspondence with Julian Hayes' publishers detailing factual errors in Hayes' book, as well as her correspondence with ITV (who are planning a drama series on John Stonehouse for broadcast in Autumn 2022) asking them to produce evidence that her father was a spy. Actual death On 25 March 1988, Stonehouse abruptly collapsed on set during an edition of Central Weekend in Birmingham during the filming of a programme about missing people. He was given emergency medical treatment at the studio and an ambulance was called. He was diagnosed as having suffered a minor heart attack and kept in the city's general hospital overnight. Just under three weeks later, early on 14 April, he suffered a massive heart attack at his house at Dales Way in Totton, Hampshire, where he had moved six months earlier, having lived in London since his release from prison, his last address there having been at 20 Shirland Mews. This time Stonehouse could not be saved, and he died in hospital at 2.30am. He was cremated in Bassett Green, Southampton, on 22 April 1988. The former MP Bruce Douglas-Mann paid tribute. In 1989, his fourth novel was published posthumously. He left under £70,000 according to his will published on 17 August 1988. Bibliography – Stonehouse's account of his 1959 African tour, which culminated in his deportation from Southern Rhodesia. . . . . . . References Further reading External links 1925 births 1988 deaths 20th-century English criminals Alumni of the London School of Economics British people accused of spying for Czechoslovakia (1945–1989) British politicians convicted of fraud Criminals from Hampshire English fraudsters English nationalists British politicians convicted of crimes Labour Co-operative MPs for English constituencies People from Southampton People who faked their own death Politicians from Hampshire Social Democratic Party (UK) politicians UK MPs 1955–1959 UK MPs 1959–1964 UK MPs 1964–1966 UK MPs 1966–1970 UK MPs 1970–1974 UK MPs 1974 UK MPs 1974–1979 United Kingdom Postmasters General Western spies for the Eastern Bloc Ministers in the Wilson governments, 1964–1970 Royal Air Force personnel of World War II 20th-century English businesspeople

360496

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sydney

History of Sydney

The History of Sydney begins in prehistoric times with the occupation of the district by Australian Aboriginals, whose ancestors came to Sydney in the Upper Paleolithic period. The modern history of the city began with the arrival of a First Fleet of British ships in 1788 and the foundation of a penal colony by Great Britain. From 1788 to 1900 Sydney was the capital of the British colony of New South Wales. An elected city council was established in 1840. In 1901, Sydney became a state capital, when New South Wales voted to join the Australian Federation. Sydney today is Australia's largest city and a major international capital of culture and finance. The city has played host to many international events, including the 2000 Summer Olympics. Prehistory The first people to occupy the area now known as Sydney were Australian Aboriginals. Radiocarbon dating suggests that they lived in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years. In an archaeological dig in Parramatta, Western Sydney, it was found that the Aboriginals used charcoal, stone tools and possible ancient campfires. Near Penrith, a far western suburb of Sydney, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Cranebrook Terraces gravel sediments having dates of 45,000 to 50,000 years BP. This would mean that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought. Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in the Sydney area from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan. The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish. The area surrounding Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) was home to several Aboriginal tribes. The "Eora people" are the coastal Aborigines of the Sydney district. The name Eora simply means "here" or "from this place", and was used by Local Aboriginal people to describe to the British where they came from. The Cadigal band are the traditional owners of the Sydney CBD area, and their territory south of Port Jackson stretches from South Head to Petersham. Consequently, they were first to suffer the effects of dispossession when the British arrived, though the descendants of Eora still have a strong presence in the Sydney area today. Other than the Eora, people of the Dharug, Kuringgai and Dharawal language groups occupied the lands in and around Sydney. Their occupation pre-dates the arrival of the First Fleet of British by some thousands of years. Examples of Aboriginal stone tools and Aboriginal art (often recording the stories of the Dreamtime religion) can be found throughout New South Wales: even within the metropolis of modern Sydney, as in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. Arrival of Great Britain On 19 April 1770, the crew of HMS Endeavour, under the command of Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook, were the first known Europeans to sight the east coast of Australia. Ten days later they came across an extensive but shallow inlet, and upon entering it moored off a low headland fronted by sand dunes. The ship's naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was so impressed by the volume of flora and fauna hitherto unknown to European science, that Cook named the inlet Botany Bay, on the Kurnell Peninsula, in the southern headland of Kamay Botany Bay National Park, and made contact of a hostile nature with the Gweagal Aborigines, on 29 April. At first Cook bestowed the name "Sting-Ray Harbour" to the inlet after the many such creatures found there; this was later changed to "Botanist Bay" and finally Botany Bay after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks, Daniel Solander and Herman Spöring. Cook charted the east coast to its northern extent and, on 22 August, at Possession Island in the Torres Strait, took possession of the coast in the name of King George III of Great Britain. Cook and Banks then reported favourably to London on the possibility of establishing a British colony at Botany Bay. The British colony of New South Wales was subsequently established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of over a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). Phillip soon decided that Botany Bay, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage and no reliable water source. A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and Port Jackson a safe harbour, which Phillip described as: Phillip originally named the colony "New Albion", but for some uncertain reason the colony acquired the name "Sydney", after the (then) British Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney (Baron Sydney, Viscount Sydney from 1789). This is possibly because Lord Sydney issued the charter authorising Phillip to establish a colony. Phillip visited the Manly Cove area, between 21 and 23 January 1788 and was so impressed by the confident and manly behaviour of the local Aboriginal people of the Cannalgal and Kayimai clans who waded out to meet his boat in North Harbour, that he gave the cove the name Manly Cove. Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Enlightened for his age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers—most notably Watkin Tench—left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of Sydney. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3,546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney—many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its "passengers" through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791 on, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies. Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils and fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life, leaving Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building programme, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Impact on Sydney Indigenous people European settlement had a disastrous impact on the local Aboriginal people. In the early days of the colony this was mainly due to depletion of local food stocks and the advent of introduced diseases such as measles, possibly chicken pox, venereal disease and smallpox, to which the Aboriginal population had no genetic immunity. Contrary to later trends, Governor Phillip in fact enforced strict rules of behaviour for interaction between settlers and native people, and his policy was remarkably enlightened by the standards of the time. In April 1789, however, twelve months after the departure from Botany Bay by the French expedition led by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse, a catastrophic epidemic of smallpox (or possibly chicken pox) spread through the Eora people and surrounding groups, with the result that local Aborigines died in their hundreds. Author and First Fleet officer Watkin Tench, whose accounts are primary sources about the early years of the colony, suggested that the epidemic may have been caused by Aborigines disturbing the grave of a French sailor who died shortly after arrival in Australia and had been buried at Botany Bay. However, in his memoir A Complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson in New South Wales", Tench wrote that he had never heard of the existence of smallpox among the French sailors. Another intriguing possibility mentioned by Tench was that, as the colony's physicians had brought bottles of smallpox-infected material with them from England for use in inoculation against smallpox. Historian Judy Campbell argues that it is highly improbable that the First Fleet was the source of the epidemic as "smallpox had not occurred in any members of the First Fleet"; the only possible source of infection from the Fleet being Tench's "bottles". She points to regular contact between fishing fleets from the Indonesia archipelago, where smallpox was endemic, and Aboriginal people in Australia's North as a far more likely source for the introduction of smallpox. Other historians have argued that it is likely that the outbreak came from First Fleet sources. This area has been highly contentious, but in the 2014 review by Christopher Warren, in Journal of Australian Studies it was argued that British marines were most likely to have spread smallpox without the knowledge of Governor Phillip. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their jailers made up the majority of the population; in one generation, however, a population of emancipated convicts who could be granted land began to grow. These people pioneered Sydney's private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired, and later still by free settlers who began arriving from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. Aboriginal resistance and conflicts With the expansion of European settlement large amounts of land was cleared for farming, which resulted in the destruction of Aboriginal food sources. This, combined with the introduction of new diseases such as smallpox, caused resentment within the Aboriginal clans against the British and resulted in violent confrontations. Pemulwuy, an Aboriginal Political leader, is notable for his resistance to the European settlement of Australia. He persuaded the Eora, Dharug and Tharawal people to join his campaign against the newcomers. From 1792 Pemulwuy led raids on settlers from Parramatta, Georges River, Prospect, Toongabbie, Brickfield Hill and Hawkesbury River. His most common tactic was to burn crops and kill livestock. Whether Pemulwuy was actively resisting European settlement, or was only attempting to uphold Aboriginal law, which often involved revenge acts, is debated by historians. Regardless, the British believed the attacks made against them were acts of war. In March 1797, Pemulwuy led a group of Aboriginal warriors, estimated to be at least 100, in an attack on a government farm at Toongabbie. At dawn the next day government troops and settlers followed them to Parramatta. When confronted, Pemulwuy threw a spear at a soldier prompting the government troops and settlers to open fire. Pemulwuy was the first to be shot and wounded. The Aboriginal warriors threw many spears, hitting one man in the arm. The difference in firepower was evident and five Aboriginal warriors were killed instantly. This incident has more recently become known as the Battle of Parramatta. The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars (1795–1816) were a series of wars between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Indigenous clans of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Rivers in northwest Sydney. It was fought using mostly guerrilla-warfare tactics; however, several conventional battles also took place. The wars resulted in the defeat of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Indigenous clans who were subsequently dispossessed of their lands. Sydney Town Early Sydney was moulded by the hardship suffered by early settlers. In the early years, drought and disease caused widespread problems, but the situation soon improved. The military colonial government was reliant on the army, the New South Wales Corps (also known as the "Rum Corps" due to their monopoly on the importation of alcohol).Conditions for convicts in the penal colony were harsh. In 1804, Irish convicts led the Castle Hill Rebellion. Conflicts arose between the governors and the officers of the Rum Corps, many of which were land owners such as John Macarthur. In 1808 these conflicts came to open rebellion, with the Rum Rebellion, in which the Rum Corps ousted Governor William Bligh (known from the mutiny on the Bounty). The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. In the Rum Rebellion of 1808, the Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Governor William Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule in the colony prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821 and had a leading role in the social and economic development of Sydney which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society. He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Indigenous population although the motivations behind were still embedded in colonial dominance. In 1813 he sent Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson across the Blue Mountains, where they found the great plains of the interior. Central, however to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he decreed should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. Against opposition, he appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. London judged his public works to be too expensive and society was scandalised by his treatment of emancipists. Governor and Mrs Macquarie preferred the clean air of rural Parramatta to the unsanitary and crime-ridden streets of Sydney Town and transformed Old Government House, Parramatta, into an elegant Palladian-style home in the English manner. Originally constructed under Governor John Hunter in 1799 to reflect the economic importance of the Parramatta district, the building remains today Australia's oldest public building and was given World Heritage Listing by UNESCO in 2010. 1850s Gold Rush and economic power Australia experienced a number of gold rushes in the mid-19th century, beginning with the discovery of gold in Bathurst (150 km west of Sydney) in 1851. Large numbers of immigrant miners poured into Sydney and the population grew from 39,000 to 200,000 people 20 years later. Demand for infrastructure to support the growing population and subsequent economic activity led to massive improvements to the city's railway and port systems throughout the 1850s and 1860s. Many of those arriving were Chinese absconding from their indentured work. After a period of rapid growth, further discoveries of gold in Victoria began drawing new residents away from Sydney towards Melbourne and a great rivalry began to grow between the two cities. The rivalry culminated as Australia moved to become a federation and both Melbourne and Sydney lobbied to be officially recognised as the capital city (a dispute settled with the creation of a new city, Canberra, instead). Political development The first government established in Sydney after 1788 was an autocratic system run by an appointed governor – although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights of 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies. The oldest legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in Sydney in 1825 as an appointed body to advise the Governor of New South Wales. The northern wing of Macquarie Street's's Rum Hospital was requisitioned and converted to accommodate the first Parliament House in 1829, as it was the largest building available in Sydney at the time. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. The reformist attorney general, John Plunkett, sought to apply Enlightenment principles to governance in the colony, pursuing the establishment of equality before the law, by extending jury rights to emancipists, then legal protections to convicts, assigned servants and Aborigines and legal equality between Anglicans, Catholics, Presbyterians and later Methodists. In 1838, the celebrated humanitarian Caroline Chisholm arrived at Sydney and soon after began her work to alleviate the conditions for the poor women migrants. She met every immigrant ship at the docks, found positions for immigrant girls and established a Female Immigrants' Home. Later she began campaigning for legal reform to alleviate poverty and assist female immigration and family support in the colonies. In 1842 the Sydney City Council was established with a limited franchise. Men who possessed property valued at £1000 (or £50 per year) were able to stand for election. Every adult male over 21 years who occupied a "house warehouse counting-house or shop" valued at £25 per year was permitted to vote in one of four wards – this amounted to only around 15% of the adult population. Plural voting was prohibited by the enabling legislation. Australia's first parliamentary elections were conducted for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with voting rights (for males only) tied to property ownership or financial capacity. The passing of the Sydney Incorporation Act in 1842 officially recognised the colonial settlement as a township, enabled the taxation of property owners and occupiers, and imposed a managerial structure to its administration. The first elected aldermen met in public houses, among their constituents, but began campaigning for a civic hall. They chose the run down site of Sydney's first official European cemetery: on George Street, in the commercial heart of the city and organised for Sydney's first royal visitor, HRH Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, to lay a foundation stone on 4 April 1868, even before colonial authorities on Macquarie Street had approved the plan. That same year, a design for the Sydney Town Hall by architect J. H. Willson was chosen which took its inspiration from the French style of the Hotel de Ville de Paris. To this day, the Hall remains the civic office of the Lord Mayor of Sydney and aldermen of the City Council. The end of convict transportation and the rapid growth of population following the Australian gold rushes led to further demands for "British institutions" in New South Wales, which meant an elected parliament and responsible government. In 1851 the franchise for the Legislative Council was expanded and 1857 saw the granting of the right to vote to all male British subjects 21 years or over in New South Wales and from the 1860s onwards government in New South Wales became increasingly stable and assured. Cultural development Over the course of the 19th-century Sydney established many of its major cultural institutions. Governor Lachlan Macquarie's vision for Sydney included the construction of grand public buildings and institutions fit for a colonial capital. Macquarie Street began to take shape as a ceremonial thoroughfare of grand buildings. He founded the Royal Botanic Gardens and dedicated Hyde Park to the "recreation and amusement of the inhabitants of the town and a field of exercises for the troops".Macquarie set aside a large portion of land for an Anglican Cathedral and laid the foundation stone for the first St Mary's Catholic Cathedral in 1821. St Andrew's Anglican Cathedral, though more modest in size than Macquarie's original vision, later began construction and, after fire and setbacks, the present St Mary's Catholic Cathedral foundation stone was laid in 1868, from which rose a towering gothic-revival landmark. Religious groups were also responsible for many of the philanthropic activities in Sydney. One of these was the Sydney Female Refuge Society set up to care for prostitutes in 1848. The first Sydney Royal Easter Show, an agricultural exhibition, began in 1823. Alexander Macleay started collecting the exhibits of Australia's oldest museum–Sydney's Australian Museum–in 1826 and the current building opened to the public in 1857. The University of Sydney was established in 1850. The Royal National Park, south of the city opened in 1879 (second only to Yellowstone National Park in the USA). An academy of art formed in 1870 and the present Art Gallery of New South Wales building began construction in 1896. Inspired by the works of French impressionism, artists camps formed around the foreshores of Sydney Harbour in the 1880s and 1890s at idyllique locations such as Balmoral Beach and Curlew Camp in Sirius Cove. Artists such as Arthur Streeton and Tom Roberts of the Heidelberg School worked here at this time and created some of the masterpieces of newly developing and distinctively Australian styles of painting. Australia's first rugby union club, the Sydney University Football Club, was founded in Sydney in the year 1863. The New South Wales Rugby Union (or then, The Southern RU – SRU) was established in 1874, and the tradition of an annual club competition began in Sydney that year. Initially widely popular, the code would later assume secondary popularity in Sydney, when in 1907, the New South Wales Rugby League was established and would grow to be the favourite football code of the city. In 1878 the inaugural first class cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground was played between New South Wales and Victoria. The Athletic Association of the Great Public Schools of New South Wales (A.A.G.P.S) was established in Sydney 1892 and interschool rugby and athletics competitions began that year, followed by cricket and rowing the following year. The Sydney International Exhibition of 1879 showcased the colonial capital to the world. Some exhibits from this event were kept to constitute the original collection of the new Technological, Industrial and Sanitary Museum of New South Wales (today's Powerhouse Museum). Many grand public buildings were built during the 19th century. The Romanesque landmark Queen Victoria Building (QVB), designed by George McRae, was completed in 1898 on the site of the old Sydney markets. Built as a monument to the popular and long reigning monarch, Queen Victoria, construction took place while the city was in severe recession and construction of the ornate structure helped employ out of work stonemasons, plasterers, and stained window artists. Restored in the late 20th century, the building remains a boutique shopping and dining hall. Sydney's preservation of heritage buildings, particularly Victorian terrace houses, has drawn comparisons to "parts of London, particularly given the predominance of the London terrace". Sydney's first newspaper was the Sydney Gazette established, edited and distributed by George Howe. It appeared irregularly between 1803 and 1842, but nonetheless provides a valuable source on the early development of the colony based at Sydney. The Sydney Morning Herald joined the Sydney Gazette as a daily publication in 1831; it continues to be published to this day. Two Sydney journalists, J. F. Archibald and John Haynes, founded The Bulletin magazine; the first edition appeared on 31 January 1880. It was intended to be a journal of political and business commentary, with some literary content. Initially radical, nationalist, democratic, and racist, it gained wide influence and became a celebrated entry-point to publication for Australian writers and cartoonists such as Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, Miles Franklin, and the illustrator and novelist Norman Lindsay. Transport Ferries Ferries have played a key role in the transport and economic development of the city. Leading up to the 1932 opening of the Sydney Harbour bridge, Sydney had the world's largest ferry fleet. From the time of the first European settlement in Sydney Cove, slow and sporadic boats ran along the Parramatta River serving Parramatta and the agricultural settlements in between. By the mid-1830s, speculative ventures established regular services. From the late-nineteenth century the North Shore developed rapidly. A rail connection to Milsons Point took alighting ferry passengers up the North Shore line to Hornsby via North Sydney. Without a bridge connection, increasingly large fleets of steamers serviced the cross harbour routes and in the early twentieth century, Sydney Ferries Limited was the largest ferry operator in the world. Arguably the most well-known is the Manly ferry service, and its large ship-like ferries that negotiate the beam swells of the Sydney Heads. From the mid-nineteenth century, the Port Jackson and Manly Steamship Company and its forerunners ran commuter and weekend excusioner services to the beach-side suburb. The 1932 opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge dramatically and permanently changed Sydney Harbour. Sydney Ferries Limited annual patronage fell from 40 million to 15 million almost immediately. The hardships of the Great Depression and Second World War slowed the ferries' decline, but by 1951 the NSW State Government was forced to take over the ailing Sydney Ferries Limited. The Port Jackson company had fared better and their peak year was 1946, after which a slow decline saw it too taken over by the NSW State Government in the 1970s. Ferry operations were privatised in 2015 with vessels and facilities remaining in public ownership. Trams Sydney once had the largest tram system in Australia, the second largest in the British Commonwealth (after London), and one of the largest in the world. It was extremely intensively worked, with about 1,600 cars in service at any one time at its peak during the 1930s (cf. about 500 trams in Melbourne today). Sydney's first tram was horse-drawn, running from the old Sydney Railway station to Circular Quay along Pitt Street. Built in 1861, the design was compromised by the desire to haul railway freight wagons along the line to supply city businesses, in addition to passenger traffic. This resulted in a track that protruded from the road surface and damaged the wheels of wagons trying to cross it. Hard campaigning by competing omnibus owners – as well as the fatal accident involving the leading Australian musician Isaac Nathan in 1864 – led to closure in 1866. In 1879 a steam tramway was established. The System was a great success and the network expanded rapidly through the city and inner suburbs. There were also two cable tram routes, to Ocean Street (Edgecliff) and in North Sydney, later extended to Crows Nest, because of the steep terrain involved. Electrification started in 1898, and most of the system was converted by 1910. The privately owned Parramatta to Redbank Wharf (Duck River) steam tram remained until 1943. By the 1920s, the system had reached its maximum extent. The overcrowded and heaving trams running at a high frequency, in competition with growing private motor car and bus use, created congestion. Competition from the private car, private bus operators and the perception of traffic congestion led to the gradual closure of lines from the 1940s. Overseas transport experts were called upon to advise the city on its post-war transport issues and recommended closure of the system, but generally went against public opinion. Nevertheless, closure became Labor government policy and the system was wound down in stages, with withdrawal of the last service, to La Perouse, in 1961. 20th century Federation, Great War and Great Depression With the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901, Sydney ceased to be a colonial capital and became the capital of the Australian state of New South Wales. With industrialisation, Sydney expanded rapidly, and by the early 20th century it had a population well in excess of one million. With the close of the Victorian Era, the character of Sydney began to change in various ways. During the 19th century, Sydney's beaches had become popular seaside holiday resorts, but daylight sea bathing was considered indecent until the early 20th century. In defiance of these restrictions, in October 1902, William Gocher, wearing a neck to knee costume, entered the water at Manly Beach only to be escorted from the water by the police – but the following year, Manly Council removed restrictions on all-day bathing – provided neck to knee swimming costumes were worn – and Sydney's love affair with sun and surf flourished. Arguably the world's first surf lifesaving club was founded at Bondi Beach, Sydney, in 1906. In the summer of 1915, Duke Kahanamoku of Hawaii introduced surf board riding to Sydney's Freshwater Beach, amazing locals and starting a long-term love affair with the sport in Australia. Australia entered World War I in 1914 on the side of Great Britain and 60,000 Australian troops lost their lives. The small Australian nation was deeply affected. After the war, Martin Place was selected as the site for the Sydney Cenotaph which honours the dead and remains a focus for Anzac Day commemorations in the city to this day. The city's main war memorial, the Anzac War Memorial, opened in Hyde Park in 1934. In the cultural life of the city, the first Archibald Prize was awarded in 1921. Now regarded as the most important portraiture prize in Australia, it originated from a bequest from J. F. Archibald, the editor of The Bulletin, who died in 1919. Administered by the Trustees of the Art Gallery of New South Wales, it is awarded for "the best portrait, preferentially of some man or woman distinguished in Art, Letters, Science or Politics." Sydney's opulent Capitol Theatre opened in 1928 and after restoration in the 1990s remains one of the nation's finest auditoriums.In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age, wrote his name into the record books at by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. Although Bradman would later transfer to play for South Australia, his world-beating performances provided much needed joy to Sydney-siders through the emerging Great Depression. The Great Depression hit Sydney badly. One of the highlights of the Depression Era however, was the completion of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932. The landmark which links Sydney's northern and southern shores began construction in 1924 and took 1,400 men eight years to build at a cost of £4.2 million. It carried six traffic lanes, two rail lines and two tram tracks. Sixteen workers were killed during construction. A toll was established and it cost a horse and rider three pence and a car six pence to cross the bridge. In its first year, the average annual daily traffic was around 11,000 vehicles (by the beginning of the 21st century, the figure stood at around 160,000 vehicles per day). The Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, was to open the bridge by cutting a ribbon at its southern end. However, just as Lang was about to cut the ribbon, a man in military uniform rode in on a horse, slashing the ribbon with his sword and opening the bridge in the name of the people of New South Wales before the official ceremony began. He was promptly arrested. The ribbon was hurriedly retied and Lang performed the official opening ceremony. The uninvited ribbon cutter was Francis de Groot, a member of a right-wing paramilitary group called the New Guard, opposed to Lang's leftist policies and resentful of the fact that a member of the Royal Family had not been asked to open the bridge. With large unemployment and growing state debt, the premier, Jack Lang became embroiled in disputes with the federal government and foreign creditors and was dismissed by the Governor in 1932. The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesquicentennial (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). World War II On 3 September 1939 Prime Minister Robert Menzies announced the beginning of Australia's involvement in World War II on every national and commercial radio station across Australia. Sydney-siders fighting in the Australian Armed Forces served in campaigns against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in Europe, the Mediterranean and North Africa, as well as against Imperial Japan in south-east Asia and other parts of the Pacific. The Japanese entered the war in December 1941. Singapore fell in February and Japan occupied much of South East Asia and the large parts of the Pacific in response, the Australian government expanded the army and air force and called for an overhaul of economic, domestic, and industrial policies to mount a total war effort. Sydney saw a surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a war economy, and also the elimination of unemployment. Labour shortages forced the government to accept women in more active roles in war work. After launching their Pacific War, the Imperial Japanese Navy managed to infiltrate New South Wales waters and in late May and early June 1942, Japanese submarines made a daring series of attacks on the cities of Sydney and Newcastle. On the night of 31 May–1 June 1942, three midget submarines were launched from their large "mother" submarines east of Sydney to enter Sydney Harbour to attack shipping located there: principally the cruisers USS Chicago and HMAS Canberra. The first of the two-men submarines entered the harbour at 8 pm, while the third became entangled in the harbour's anti-submarine boom net. One sub managed to reach Potts Point where, under fire, it fired two torpedoes at the US heavy cruiser Chicago. Missing the target, one torpedo struck the sea wall against which the converted harbour ferry HMAS Kuttabul was moored. The blast sank the Kuttabul, killing 19 Australian and 2 British naval personnel who were asleep on board. In the aftermath of the attack, the Harbour's defences were increased and the Australian population feared Japanese invasion. Amid great controversy, the bodies of the four Japanese submariners responsible for the raid were cremated with full military honors and returned to Japan. Eight days after the first attack, two large "mother" submarines lying off shore fired shells on Sydney and Newcastle. Causing little real damage, the aim of this second attack was to create a sense of unease among the city's population. Some Sydney-siders moved away from the coast while others dug air raid shelters in their backyards and membership of volunteer defence organisations grew to over 80,000. The main Japanese naval advance towards Australian territory was however halted with the assistance of the United States Navy, in May 1942, at the Battle of the Coral Sea and by the end of 1943, the Japanese had abandoned submarine operations in Australian waters. Post war Following the Second World War, the Australian government launched a largescale multicultural immigration program. Consequently, Sydney experienced population growth and increased cultural diversification throughout the post-war period. During the post war period, Sydney enhanced its position as an education capital of the Western Pacific. Five new universities were developed to service the demands of an increasing population and demand for education: University of New South Wales, University of Technology, Sydney, University of Western Sydney and the Australian Catholic University. Since the 1970s Sydney has undergone a rapid economic and social transformation. As aviation has replaced shipping, most new migrants to Australia have arrived in Sydney by air rather than in Melbourne by ship, and Sydney now gets the lion's share of new arrivals from every continent of the globe. As a result, the city has become one of the most multicultural in the world. A new skyline of concrete and steel skyscrapers swept away much of the old lowrise and often sandstone skyline of early Sydney: Australia Square Tower, constructed in 1967 and designed by modernist architect Harry Seidler became a city landmark, surpassed in 1981 by Sydney Tower ("Centrepoint") as the tallest building in Sydney at 305 m. By the late 1960s, bulldozers were encroaching on The Rocks – European settlement's oldest Sydney precinct – saved only by public protests aimed at preserving 'working class housing' close to the Central Business District (which resulted also in considerable colonial era architecture being preserved in one precinct next to Circular Quay). In 1973, after a long period of planning and construction, the Sydney Opera House was officially opened. The building was from a design by Jørn Utzon. It became a symbol not only of Sydney, but of the Australian nation and was inscribed by UNESCO in 2007. As time passed, architectural modernism in Sydney has been looked at in a deplorable sense from those who wished to preserve heritage in the form of the city's most grand Victorian, Gothic, Colonial and Edwardian edifices, many of which were wiped away in the 1970s and 1980s. Architect and urban historian Singh d'Arcy writes: "From the 1950s onwards, many of Sydney's handsome sandstone and masonry buildings were wiped away by architects and developers who built brown concrete monstrosities in their place. The 1980s saw uncomfortable pastiches of facades with no coherence and little artistic merit". Despite this, Sydney is still home to Australia's oldest public building, Old Government House, located in Parramatta. This building is protected by both the New South Wales State Heritage Register and Australian National Heritage List. Intellectuals such as those of the Sydney Push (including feminist Germaine Greer, author and broadcaster Clive James and art critic Robert Hughes) rose out of Sydney during the period, as did influential artists like painter Brett Whiteley. Paul Hogan went from painter on the Sydney Harbour Bridge to local TV star, then global film star with his hugely successful Crocodile Dundee in 1986 (a film which begins with scenes of Sydney) while theatre institutions like the Sydney Theatre Company and National Institute of Dramatic Art nurtured the budding careers of actors innumerable, some of whom forged their early careers in the city. In 1998, Fox Studios Australia opened as a major movie studio, occupying the site of the former Sydney Showground at Moore Park – going on to produce such commercially viable films as The Matrix films, Moulin Rouge!, Mission: Impossible 2 (set partly in Sydney), and the revived Star Wars and Superman film franchises. The traditional Sydney Royal Easter Show was relocated to the New Sydney Showground at Homebush. By 1990 most of Sydney's sewerage was being released close to the continental shelf, five kilometres from shore at three deep ocean outfalls. To relieve congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Sydney Harbour Tunnel opened in August 1992. The 2.3 kilometer underwater tunnel cost A$554 million to construct. Built to withstand earthquakes and sinking ships, in the early 21st century it carries around 75,000 vehicles a day. Although generally of mild climate, in 1993–4, Sydney suffered a serious bushfire season, causing destruction even within urban areas. Olympic City and the new millennium Stadium Australia (currently also known as ANZ Stadium due to naming rights), a multi-purpose stadium located in the Sydney Olympic Park precinct of the redeveloped Homebush Bay was completed in March 1999 at a cost of A$690 million to serve as a venue for the 2000 Summer Olympics. Sydney captured global attention in the Year 2000 by hosting the Summer Olympic Games. The Opening Ceremony of the Sydney Olympics featured a theatrical rendering of Australian history through dance and a torch lighting by Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman. At the Closing Ceremony, President of the International Olympic Committee, Juan Antonio Samaranch, declared: The Olympic mayor, Frank Sartor, was the Lord Mayor of Sydney, serving from 1991 to 2003 and his successor, Lucy Turnbull, became the first woman to hold that office in 2003. She was in turn succeeded by independent Clover Moore, Sydney's longest-serving mayor from 2004 – present. From 1991 to 2007, Sydneysiders governed as Prime Minister of Australia – first Paul Keating (1991–1996) and later John Howard (1996–2007), Tony Abbott (2013–2015), Malcolm Turnbull (2015–2018) and Scott Morrison (2018–present). Sydney has maintained extensive political, economic and cultural influence over Australia as well as international renown in recent decades. Following the Olympics, the city hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the APEC Leaders conference of 2007 and Catholic World Youth Day 2008, led by Pope Benedict XVI. Sydney's population officially hit 5 million people at the 2016 census. The city has gained a reputation for diversity and is Australia's most multicultural city. In the , 34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas. The city's first dedicated rapid transit system is currently under construction, with one line open, one under construction and two other lines announced. The project has been hailed as "transformative" by journalists. Australia's first rapid transit metro line, part of the Sydney Metro, linking the suburb of Epping to the north-west of Sydney, opened on 26 May 2019. It is a first in Australian transportation, as no other Australian city currently has an automated underground metro. The first line serves the north-western suburbs of the city, while a future line to open in 2024 will run under Sydney Harbour from the southwest into the central business district. A third line, serving the western suburbs including Rozelle and Westmead, has been approved for construction. See also Aboriginal sites of New South Wales Culture of Sydney History of Australia History of New South Wales Royal Australian Historical Society Rocks Push Sydney punchbowls Sydney Push Timeline of Sydney References Further reading Charnley, W. "The Founding Of Sydney." History Today (Feb 1962), Vol. 12 Issue 2, p105-115. Bibliography External links Royal Australian Historical Society Dictionary of Sydney – history of Sydney

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Texas

List of people from Texas

The following are notable people who were either born, raised or have lived for a significant period of time in the U.S. state of Texas. Founders and early settlers of Texas Augustus Chapman Allen (1806–1864), founder of Houston Charlotte Baldwin Allen (1805–1895), financed founding of Houston, known as the "mother of Houston" John Kirby Allen (1810–1838), founder of Houston Stephen F. Austin (1793–1836), "father of Texas" Padre José Nicolás Ballí (c. 1770–1829), grantee, settler, and namesake of Padre Island John Neely Bryan (1810–1877), founder of Dallas Moses Austin Bryan (1817–1895), early settler of Texas David G. Burnet (1788–1870), interim President of Republic of Texas Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels (1812–1875), established colonies of German immigrants in Texas Henri Castro (1786–1865), Jewish empresario William Leslie Cazneau (1807–1876), pioneer Jesse Chisholm (1806–1868), Indian trader, guide, interpreter, namesake of Chisholm Trail Jao de la Porta (fl. 1810s), trader, financed settlement of Galveston Island Green DeWitt (1787–1835), empresario, namesake of DeWitt County Susanna Dickinson (1814–1883), DeWitt Colonist, witnessed and survived Battle of the Alamo Angelina Eberly (1798–1860), stopped the attempted removal from Austin of the Republic of Texas Archives, thereby preserving Austin's status as the capital of Texas Johann Friedrich Ernst (born Friedrich Diercks) (1796–1848), first German to bring family to Texas, benefactor to German immigrants Warren Angus Ferris (1810–1873), early surveyor of Dallas Henry Francis Fisher (1805–1867), German settler, explored and colonized San Saba area Samuel Rhoads Fisher (1794–1839), settler in Republic of Texas and later its Secretary of Navy; namesake of Fisher County Betty Holekamp (1826–1902), German Texan pioneer, called the Betsy Ross of Texas Sam Houston (1793–1863), first and third President of Republic of Texas, later U.S. Senator and Governor of Texas Anson Jones (1798–1858), last President of Republic of Texas, called "Architect of Annexation" Mirabeau B. Lamar (1798–1859), second President of Republic of Texas, one of strongest proponents of Texas Navy Gideon Lincecum (1793–1874), pioneer, historian, physician, philosopher, naturalist Jane Herbert Wilkinson Long (1798–1880), considered the "mother of Texas" Collin McKinney (1766–1861), drafter of Texas Declaration of Independence; both Collin County and its county seat, McKinney, are named for him John Henry Moore (1800–1880), early settler Jose Antonio Navarro (1795–1871), Texas statesman, revolutionary and politician Robert Neighbors (1815–1859), Indian agent, soldier, legislator Cynthia Ann Parker (1826–1870), kidnapped in 1836 and raised by Comanche Indians; mother of Quanah Parker, the last Comanche Chief Daniel Parker (1781–1844), settler, church founder James W. Parker (1797–1864), early settler John Parker (1758–1836), pioneer Texas settler John Richard Parker (1834–1915), kidnapped in 1836 by Comanche Indians Emily Austin Perry (1795–1851), early settler of Texas Elijah Sterling Clack Robertson (1820–1879), early settler, translator, lawyer, postmaster Sterling C. Robertson (1785–1842), impresario, colony founder; signed Texas Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson Rusk (1803–1857), Secretary of War of Republic of Texas, Chief Justice of Supreme Court of Texas, U.S. Senator after state's admission to U.S. Edwin Waller (1800–1881), judge and signer of Texas Declaration of Independence Frank E. Wheelock (1863–1932), founder and first mayor of Lubbock, 1909–15 Lorenzo de Zavala (1788–1836), first vice president of Republic of Texas, signer of Texas Declaration of Independence Military The Texas Revolution/The Alamo Richard Andrews (1797?–1835), the first Texian killed during the Texas Revolution James Bowie (1796–1836), frontiersman, died at Battle of the Alamo William Joel Bryan (1815–1903), soldier in Texas Revolution, landowner Edward Burleson (1798–1851), lieutenant colonel during Texas Revolution, later Vice President of Republic of Texas John Coker (1789–1851), hero of San Jacinto Davy Crockett (1786–1836), frontiersman and U.S. Congressman from Tennessee, died at Alamo Almaron Dickinson (1800–1836), Texian soldier, died at Alamo James Fannin (c. 1804–1836), key figure during Texas Revolution Thomas Green (1814–1864), artillery officer at San Jacinto, brigadier general in Confederate Army Sam Houston (1793–1863), commander of victorious Texian Army at the Battle of San Jacinto, which won independence for Texas Henry Karnes (1812–1840), soldier and commander in Texas Revolution Robert J. Kleberg (1803–1888), veteran of Battle of San Jacinto; descendants owned and managed King Ranch Antonio Menchaca (1800–1879), soldier in the Texas Army; he helped convince Houston to allow Tejanos to fight in the battle of San Jacinto Benjamin Milam (1788–1835), commander in Texas Revolution Emily West Morgan (c. 1815–1891), indentured servant known as "The Yellow Rose of Texas" who, legend has it, helped win Texas Revolution Juan Seguín (1806–1890), Tejano soldier during Texas Revolution John William Smith (1792–1845), fought at Battle of San Jacinto; later first mayor of San Antonio Alfonso Steele (1817–1911), last survivor of Battle of San Jacinto William B. Travis (1809–1836), commander of Texas forces at Alamo Logan Vandeveer (1815–1855), hero of San Jacinto William A. A. "Bigfoot" Wallace (1817–1899), Texas Ranger who fought in Texas Revolution, Mexican–American War, Civil War American Civil War John Baylor (1822–1894), Confederate colonel, politician, military governor of Arizona Territory John Henry Brown (1820–1895), Confederate officer, served on staffs of two generals Nicholas Henry Darnell (1807–1885), leader of 18th Texas Cavalry Regiment, known as "Darnell's Regiment"; Speaker of House for both Republic of Texas and state of Texas Dick Dowling (1838–1867), commander at Sabine Pass and famous Houstonian John "Rip" Ford (1815–1897), Texas Rangers legend and commander at Battle of Palmito Ranch Milton M. Holland (1844–1910), Union soldier, won Medal of Honor John Bell Hood (1831–1879), commander of Hood's Texas Brigade and Confederate General Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr. (1838–1915), soldier, grandfather of U.S. President Lyndon Baines Johnson Albert Sidney Johnston (1803–1862), Confederate General and commander of Confederate western forces John J. Kennedy (1813–1880), Confederate cavalry officer, ended Regulator-Moderator War John B. Magruder (1807–1871), Confederate General at Battle of Galveston Benjamin McCulloch (1811–1862), soldier in Texas Revolution, Texas Ranger, U.S. Marshal, and brigadier general for Confederate States of America Henry Eustace McCulloch (1816–1895), soldier in Texas Revolution, Texas Ranger, and brigadier general for Confederate States of America William Henry Parsons (1826–1907), colonel, Twelfth Texas Cavalry; newspaper editor, legislator Felix Huston Robertson (1839–1928), only Confederate general who was native-born Texan Lawrence Sullivan "Sul" Ross (1838–1898), Confederate general, Governor of Texas, President of Texas A&M University, namesake of Sul Ross State University William Read Scurry (1821–1864), Confederate General at Battle of Glorieta Pass Pleasant Tackitt (1803–1886), Confederate Officer and county official at Fort Belknap; a founder of Parker County Charles S. West (1829–1885), Confederate officer and judge advocate general for Trans-Mississippi Department Louis T. Wigfall (1816–1874), Confederate General and Senator from Texas, secured surrender of Fort Sumter World War I Charles Gray Catto (1896–1972), flying ace credited with eight aerial victories Daniel R. Edwards (1897–1967), received Medal of Honor William S. Graves (1895–1940), commander of US forces in Siberia during the allied intervention in Russia David E. Hayden (1897–1974), Navy corpsman, Medal of Honor recipient Robert Lee Howze (1864–1926), Major General of 38th Infantry Division, commander of Third Army of Occupation of Germany, Medal of Honor recipient Louis Jordan (1890–1918), 1914 All American, first US Army officer from Texas to be killed in action during World War I William Thomas Ponder (1893–1947), flying ace credited with six aerial victories Marcelino Serna (1896–1992), Army private, first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross Edgar Gardner Tobin (1896–1954), flying ace credited with six aerial victories World War II Harlon Block (1924–1945), raised flag on Mt. Suribachi at Iwo Jima Romus Burgin (1922–2019), U.S. Marine, author Charles P. Cabell (1903–1971), U.S. Air Force general; later Deputy Director of Central Intelligence Agency Horace S. Carswell Jr. (1916–1944), Army Air Corps major, awarded Medal of Honor Claire Chennault (1893–1958), commander of "Flying Tigers" Robert G. Cole (1915–1944), soldier, won Medal of Honor for role in D-Day Normandy invasion Samuel David Dealey (1906–1944), U.S. Navy submarine commander, received Medal of Honor and other distinctions for valor Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969), Supreme Allied Commander WWII and 34th President of the U.S. Ira C. Eaker (1896–1987), commander of Eighth Air Force in World War II Calvin Graham (1930–1992), youngest US serviceman of World War II Dean E. Hallmark (1914–1942), aviator, Army Air Corps 1st lieutenant, Doolittle Raid David Lee "Tex" Hill (1915–2007), fighter pilot, flying ace Oveta Culp Hobby (1905–1995), Colonel Women's Army Corps, first secretary of Department of Health, Education and Welfare James L. Holloway Jr. (1898–1984), U.S. Navy four-star admiral; Superintendent of U.S. Naval Academy Neel E. Kearby (1911–1944), fighter ace, Medal of Honor recipient Raymond L. Knight (1922–1945), aviator, Medal of Honor recipient Turney W. Leonard (1921–1944), Army officer, received Medal of Honor Felix Z. Longoria Jr. (1920–1945), Hispanic soldier KIA in the Philippines whose burial was refused in hometown, causing statewide debate Glenn McDuffie (1927–2014), sailor featured kissing nurse in Alfred Eisenstaedt's iconic photograph V-J Day in Times Square Doris Miller (1919–1943), Pearl Harbor hero, first African American to receive Navy Cross Audie Murphy (1924–1971), World War II hero, actor, Medal of Honor Recipient Chester Nimitz (1885–1966), commander of Allied naval forces in Pacific during World War II Richard Arvin Overton (1906–2018), U.S. Army sergeant; from May 2016 until his death was the oldest surviving American military veteran Bruce Palmer Jr. (1913–2000), U.S. Army officer, Chief of Staff of the United States Army during Vietnam War John L. Pierce (1895–1959), U.S. Army Brigadier General James Earl Rudder (1910–1970), D-Day commander of the U.S. Army 2nd Ranger Battalion, which stormed cliffs at Pointe du Hoc William H. Simpson (1888–1980), commander of U.S. Ninth Army in European Theater Lucian K. Truscott (1895–1965), U.S. Army General who held successive commands in European Theater Edwin Walker (1909–1993), U.S. Army Major General known for conservative views and attempted assassination target for Lee Harvey Oswald Walton Walker (1889–1950), U.S. Army general who served under Patton in European Theater and later in Korean War Korean War Charles F. Pendleton (1931–1953), awarded Medal of Honor Oliver P. Smith (1893–1977), U.S. Marine Corps general noted for his leadership in Battle of Chosin Reservoir Edwin Walker (1909–1993), U.S. Army Major General, attempted assassination target of Lee Harvey Oswald Walton Walker (1889–1950), U.S. Army general, first commander of U.S. Eighth Army during Korean War Vietnam War Raul (Roy) Perez Benavidez (1935–1998), awarded Medal of Honor for actions in South Vietnam Steven Logan Bennett (1946 - 1972) Captain United States Air Force received Medal of Honor Posthumously for actions in Vietnam Alfredo Cantu Gonzalez (1946–1968), Sergeant, USMC, Medal of Honor recipient Fred E. Haynes Jr. (1921–2010), Major General, USMC David H. McNerney (1931–2010), 1st Sergeant U.S. Army, Medal of Honor, Vietnam 1967 Oliver North (born 1943), Lieutenant-Colonel, USMC (retired), NRA board member and founder of the Freedom Alliance Chester M. Ovnand (1914–1959), Master Sergeant, U.S. Army, second American killed in Vietnam War Bruce Palmer Jr. (1913–2000), U.S. Army officer, Chief of Staff of the United States Army during Vietnam War Alfred M. Wilson (1948–1969), Marine Private First Class awarded Medal of Honor posthumously Somali Civil War William F. Garrison (born 1944), major general, commander of United States Army forces during Operation Gothic Serpent War in Afghanistan Marcus Luttrell (born 1975), U.S. Navy SEAL, was awarded the Navy Cross for actions in conflicts with Taliban William H. McRaven (born 1955), U.S. Navy admiral and SEAL, led planning for Operation Neptune Spear Patrick M. Walsh (born 1955), U.S. Navy admiral, Commander of U.S. Pacific Fleet Billy Waugh (born 1929), U.S. Army Special Forces, Studies and Observations Group Iraq War Chris Kyle (1974–2013), U.S. Navy SEAL who fought in the Second Battle of Fallujah Kristian Menchaca (1983–2006), U.S. Army soldier who was captured and executed War on Terror Clint Lorance (born 1984), Army First Lieutenant convicted of second-degree murder for battlefield deaths; pardoned Michael L. Oates (born 1957), United States Army Lieutenant General Intelligence Bobby Ray Inman (born 1931), U.S. Navy Admiral, Director of National Security Agency, Deputy Director of Central Intelligence Agency Other Robert T. Clark (born 1948), U.S. Army lieutenant general, commanded United States Army North (ARNORTH) Alfred Valenzuela (born 1948), U.S. Army major general, commanded United States Army South (USARSO) Politics and public office See also :Category:Texas politicians and its subcategories. See also :List of mayors of Austin, Texas; :List of mayors of Dallas, Texas; :List of mayors of El Paso, Texas; :List of mayors of Fort Worth, Texas; List of mayors of Houston, Texas; :List of mayors of Plano, Texas; :List of mayors of San Antonio, Texas. A Greg Abbott (born 1957), Governor of Texas, former Attorney General Fred Agnich (1913–2004), Texas state representative, member of "Dirty 30" in 1971; oilman, rancher, conservationist Elsa Alcala (born 1964), judge of Texas Court of Criminal Appeals from Houston since 2011 Elizabeth Alexander (born 1979), press secretary for Vice President Joe Biden Bruce Alger (1918–2015), Republican U.S. representative for Texas's 5th congressional district, based in Dallas County, 1955–1965 Rodney Anderson (born 1968), former member of Texas House of Representatives from Grand Prairie Betty Andujar (1912–1997), first Republican woman to serve in Texas State Senate (1973–1983); Pennsylvania native Bob Armstrong (1932–2015), member of Texas House of Representatives for Travis County 1963–71; Commissioner of General Land Office 1971–83 B Ben F. Barnes (born 1938), lieutenant governor (1969–1973) of Texas; youngest House Speaker in Texas history (1965–1969) Ray Barnhart (1928–2013), state representative and director of Federal Highway Administration under President Reagan Decimus et Ultimus Barziza (1838–1882), state representative, Harris County, 1874–1876, businessman, Civil War soldier Robert Emmett Bledsoe Baylor (1793–1874), district judge, a framer of Texas Constitution; co-founded Baylor University Tina Benkiser (born 1962), former chairman of Republican Party of Texas Lloyd Bentsen (1921–2006), U.S. representative and U.S. senator Leo Berman (1936–2015), former state representative from Tyler Nandita Berry (born 1968), Secretary of State of Texas, 2014–2015 Paul Bettencourt (born 1958), Republican member of Texas State Senate from Houston Teel Bivins (1947–2009), state senator from Amarillo and U.S. Ambassador to Sweden Bill Blythe (born ca. 1935), Houston Realtor and Republican state representative from Harris County, 1971–1983 Robert Lee Bobbitt (1888–1972), Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives (1927–1929), state attorney general (1929–1930) Elton Bomer (born 1935), state representative from Anderson County and Texas Secretary of State Henry Bonilla (born 1954), U.S. representative from San Antonio Greg Bonnen (born 1966), neurosurgeon and state representative from Galveston County; brother of Dennis Bonnen Jeffrey S. Boyd (born 1961), associate justice of Texas Supreme Court since 2012 Wally Brewster (born c. 1960), U.S. Ambassador to Dominican Republic John A. Brieden III (born 1955), politician and National Commander of The American Legion, 2003–2004 Stephen Broden (born 1952), politician, professor, businessman, activist Louis H. Bruni (born 1949), businessman and politician Esther Buckley (1948–2013), member of United States Commission on Civil Rights; educator in Laredo Cindy Burkett (born 1958), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Dallas County Albert S. Burleson (1863–1937), U.S. Postmaster General and Congressman Edward Burleson (1798–1851), Texas soldier, general, and statesman Joel Burns (born 1969), Fort Worth city councilman who spoke out against bullying of LGBT youth Konni Burton (born 1963), member of Texas Senate from Tarrant County Jeb Bush (born 1953), former governor of Florida, reared in Midland and Houston Angie Chen Button (born 1954), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Dallas County C Frank Kell Cahoon (1934–2013), Midland oilman and Republican former state representative Briscoe Cain (born c. 1984), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives for Harris County District 128, effective January 2017 Bill Callegari (born 1941), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Harris County, 2001–2015 Donna Campbell (born 1954), Texas state senator and physician from New Braunfels Francisco Canseco (born 1949), former U.S. representative from San Antonio John Carona (born 1955), state senator from Dallas County, 1996–2015 Stefani Carter (born 1978), member of Texas House of Representatives from Dallas County since 2011; first African-American female Republican to serve in state House Carlos Cascos (born 1952), Secretary of State of Texas in Abbott administration Henry E. Catto, Jr. (1930–2011), U.S. diplomat, businessman Lauro Cavazos (born 1927), U.S. Secretary of Education in the George H. W. Bush administration, first Hispanic U.S. Cabinet officer Francis Cherry (1908–1965), Governor of Arkansas 1953–55, born in Fort Worth Wayne Christian (born 1950), Republican former state representative from Center and Nacogdoches; candidate for Texas Railroad Commission in 2014 Henry Cisneros (born 1947), former mayor of San Antonio and United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Ronald H. Clark (born 1953), federal judge; former member of Texas House of Representatives Tom C. Clark (1899–1977), United States Attorney General and Associate Justice of Supreme Court of the United States David Cobb (born 1962), 2004 U.S. presidential candidate for Green Party Cathy Cochran (1944–2021), retiring judge of Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Susan Combs (born 1945), Texas comptroller and agriculture commissioner, state representative John B. Connally, Jr. (1917–1993), Secretary of the Navy, Governor of Texas, US Treasury Secretary John Cornyn (born 1952), United States Senator since 2002 Tom Craddick (born 1943), member of Texas House of Representatives from Midland; former Speaker Juanita Craft (1902–1985), Dallas city council member, civil rights activist Brandon Creighton (born 1970), member of Texas House of Representatives from Conroe; House Majority Leader (2013), attorney, businessman, and rancher Ted Cruz (born 1971), Canadian-born politician, Texas Senator since 2013, and former 2016 presidential candidate Henry Cuellar (born 1955), U.S. Representative from Texas' 28th congressional district; native of Laredo D–F Tony Dale (born 1969), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Williamson County since 2013 Price Daniel (1910–1988), Democratic US Senator and 38th Governor of Texas Nicholas Henry Darnell (1807–1885), Speaker of House for both Republic of Texas and state of Texas John E. Davis (born 1960), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Houston since 1999 Wendy Davis (born 1963), Texas State Senator from Tarrant County, Democratic gubernatorial nominee in 2014 Jay Dean (born 1953), mayor of Longview, 2005–2015; state representative for Gregg and Upshur counties, effective 2017 David Dewhurst (born 1945), Lieutenant Governor of Texas since 2003 Paul Eggers (1919–2013), Republican gubernatorial nominee in both 1968 and 1970 Gary Elkins (born 1955), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Houston since 1995 Pat Fallon (born 1967), member of Texas House of Representatives from Denton County Marsha Farney (born 1958), state representative from Williamson County since 2013; member of the Texas State Board of Education 2011–2013; businesswoman and former educator James E. "Pa" Ferguson (1871–1944), governor of Texas (1915–1917), impeached, convicted, and removed from office Miriam "Ma" Ferguson (1875–1961), first female Governor of Texas Mindy Finn (born 1980), media strategist, conservative feminist activist, independent U.S. vice presidential candidate in 2016 Charles R. Floyd (1881–1945), Texas State Senator, State Representative, and co-founder of Paris Junior College Dan Flynn (born 1943), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Van Zandt County James Frank (born 1967), member of Texas House of Representatives from Wichita Falls G Rick Galindo (born 1981), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from District 117 in Bexar County, effective 2015 Pete Gallego (born 1961), U.S. representative from Texas' 23rd congressional district H. S. "Buddy" Garcia (born c. 1968), former interim 2012 member of Texas Railroad Commission John Nance Garner (1868–1967), 44th Speaker of the US House and 32nd Vice President of the United States Tony Garza (born 1958), former U.S. ambassador to Mexico Charlie Geren (born 1949), member of Texas House of Representatives from his native Fort Worth Pete Geren (born 1952), former member of United States House of Representatives from Texas's 12th congressional district and United States Secretary of the Army Craig Goldman (born 1968), member of Texas House of Representatives from his native Fort Worth Alberto Gonzales (born 1955), United States Attorney General Henry B. Gonzalez (1916–2000), U.S. representative from San Antonio John W. Goode (1923–1994), Republican lawyer from San Antonio; lost 1961 House race to Henry B. Gonzalez Austan Goolsbee (born 1969), Chairperson of Council of Economic Advisers under President Barack Obama Tony Goolsby (1933–2020), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Dallas County, 1989–2009 Blake Gottesman (born 1980), aide to President George W. Bush Phil Gramm (born 1942), former United States Senator Rick Green (born 1970), former state representative and motivational speaker Tom Greenwell (1956–2013) Jesse Edward Grinstead (1866–1948), one-time mayor of Kerrville and state legislator Henry C. Grover (1927–2005), state legislator, 1972 Republican gubernatorial nominee H–I Bob Hall (born 1942), Texas state senator from Van Zandt County Holly Ham (born c. 1972), Executive director of the White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders at the United States Department of Education Rick Hardcastle (born 1956), Republican former member of Texas House form Wilbarger County Patricia Harless (born 1963), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from northwestern Harris County since 2007 Will Ford Hartnett (born 1956), Dallas lawyer and Republican member of Texas House, 1991–2013 Talmadge L. Heflin (born 1940), former state representative from Harris County, director of Center for Fiscal Policy at Texas Public Policy Foundation Glenn Hegar (born 1970), state senator and Republican candidate for state comptroller in 2014 Jeb Hensarling (born 1957), U.S. representative Harvey Hilderbran (born 1960), state representative from Kerrville; Republican candidate for state comptroller in 2014 Jim Hogg (1851–1906), first native Texan to become Governor of Texas Vernon Edgar Howard (1937–1998), representative of the Texas House of Representatives, 1969–1975 Dan Huberty (born 1968), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Harris County Joan Huffman (born 1956), former Houston criminal court judge; Republican member of Texas State Senate Bryan Hughes (born 1969), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Wood County Swanee Hunt (born 1950), U.S. Ambassador Robert Dean Hunter (born 1928), member of Texas House of Representatives from Abilene, 1986–2007 Todd A. Hunter (born 1953), state representative, 1989–1997, 2009–present Thad Hutcheson (1915–1986), Houston lawyer and Republican politician Kay Bailey Hutchison (born 1943), first woman U.S. Senator from Texas, 1993–2013 Ray Hutchison (1932–2014), Dallas lawyer and Republican former politician Frank N. Ikard (1913–1991), U.S. representative from Texas' 13th congressional district, 1951–1961 Sarah Isgur, attorney and political analyst J–L Alphonso Jackson (born 1945), U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development under President George W. Bush Wallace B. Jefferson (born 1963), Chief Justice of Supreme Court of Texas; resigned 2013 Cheryl Johnson, Austin lawyer and judge of Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Elizabeth Ames Jones (born 1956), former Texas Railroad Commissioner, member of Texas House of Representatives Gina Ortiz Jones (born 1981), U.S Under Secretary of the Air Force Jesse H. Jones (1874–1956), U.S. Secretary of Commerce under President Franklin D. Roosevelt Barbara Jordan (1936–1996), member of United States House of Representatives Rudy Juedeman (1908–2004), Odessa businessman and Republican politician Kyle Kacal (born 1969), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from District 12 David S. Kaufman (1813–1851), only Jew from Texas to serve in U.S. House of Representatives (1846–1851) before 1970s Bill Keffer (born 1958), Dallas lawyer who served in Texas House (District 107), 2003–2007 Jim Keffer (born 1953), Eastland businessman and current Republican member of Texas House (District 60); brother of Bill Keffer Isaac Herbert Kempner (1873–1967), Mayor of Galveston, founder of Imperial Sugar Mark Keough (born 1953), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from The Woodlands in Montgomery County Ken King (born 1971), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Canadian in Hemphill County Ron Kirk (born 1954), United States Trade Representative; former Texas Secretary of State, former mayor of Dallas Lois Kolkhorst (born 1964), member of Texas House of Representatives from Washington County since 2001 Linda Koop (born 1950), member of Texas House from Dallas County; former member of the Dallas City Council Bob Krueger (born 1935), former U.S. Ambassador, U.S. Senator and Congressman (New Braunfels, Comal County) Dan Kubiak (1938–1998), state representative, businessman, educator Barbara Lee (born 1946), U.S. Representative from California Debra Lehrmann (born 1956), Texas Supreme Court justice, elected 2010 Eugene M. Locke (1918–1972), ambassador to Pakistan, deputy ambassador to South Vietnam, was awarded Presidential Medal of Freedom; candidate for Governor of Texas J. M. Lozano (born 1980), member of Texas House of Representatives from Kingsville; native of Mexico Lanham Lyne (born 1955), Mayor of Wichita Falls, state representative 2011–13 M George H. Mahon (1900–1985), U.S. representative from Texas' 19th congressional district 1935 until 1979 Charles R. Matthews (born c. 1939), former Texas Railroad Commissioner and chancellor-emeritus of Texas State University System Jim Mattox (1943–2008), U.S. representative and attorney general of Texas Maury Maverick (1895–1954), Democratic U.S. representative Glen Maxey (born 1952), state representative from Austin Ruth McClendon (1943–2017), African-American Democrat member of Texas House of Representatives from San Antonio since 1996 Don McLeroy (born 1946), former chairman and member of Texas State Board of Education; dentist, young-earth creationist Tom Mechler (born c. 1957), Texas Republican state chairman since 2015; oil and gas consultant in Amarillo Will Metcalf (born 1984), state representative from Montgomery County since 2015 Rick Miller (born 1946), member of Texas House of Representatives from Sugar Land; former Republican party chairman in Fort Bend County Hilmar Moore (1920–2012), mayor of Richmond, 1949–2012, longest tenure of any elected official in U.S. history William T. "Bill" Moore (1918–1999), state senator from Bryan, known as "Bull of the Brazos" and "father of the modern Texas A&M University" Robert Morrow (born c. 1965), chairman of Republican Party of Travis County since 2016; considered a conspiracy theorist Azie Taylor Morton (1936–2003), Treasurer of the United States Steve Munisteri (born 1957), chairman of Republican Party of Texas, 2010–2015 Jim Murphy (born 1957), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from District 133 in Houston, 2007–2009 and since 2011 N–O David Newell (born 1971), judge of Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, Place 9; Houston attorney James Robertson Nowlin (born 1937), U.S. District Judge for Western District of Texas; one of first two Republicans since Reconstruction to represent Bexar County in Texas House of Representatives James E. Nugent (1922–2016), former Democratic member of Texas Railroad Commission and the Texas House of Representatives W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel (1890–1969), Governor of Texas and U.S. senator Tom Oliverson (born c. 1971), anesthesiologist, Republican member of Texas House of Representatives Dora Olivo (born 1943), attorney and former member of Texas House of Representatives for Fort Bend County Bill Owens (born 1950), former Governor of Colorado Alvin M. Owsley (1888–1967), diplomat P Susan Pamerleau (born 1946), retired United States Air Force major general and Republican sheriff of Bexar County, first woman elected to that position, 2012 Hugh Q. Parmer (1939–2020), former Mayor of Fort Worth and member of both houses of Texas State Legislature Brad Parscale (born 1976), political strategist Dan Patrick (born 1950), Lieutenant Governor of Texas, former member of Texas State Senate and radio broadcaster Diane Patrick (born 1946), former member of Texas House of Representatives from Arlingon Jerry E. Patterson (born 1946), Texas Land Commissioner; former state senator, candidate for lieutenant governor in 2014 Thomas Pauken (born 1944), Texas Republican chairman, 1994–1997, lawyer and political commentator Gilbert Peña (born 1949), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Pasadena Rick Perry (born 1950), Governor of Texas, 2000–15; United States Secretary of Energy Dade Phelan (born 1975), Republican state representative from Beaumont Larry Phillips (born 1966), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Sherman Thomas R. Phillips (born 1949), former Chief Justice of Texas Supreme Court Katrina Pierson (born 1976), Tea Party activist, Donald Trump campaign spokesperson Dan Pope (born c. 1963), Mayor of Lubbock since 2016 David J. Porter (born 1954), member of Railroad Commission of Texas, elected November 2, 2010 Robert "Bob" Price (1927–2004), U.S. representative from Pampa in Texas Panhandle Tom Price (born 1945), judge of Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, 1997–2015, and the Dallas-based 282nd Court, 1987–1997 Walter Thomas Price, IV (born 1968), state representative from Amarillo, first elected November 2, 2010 Graham B. Purcell, Jr. (1919–2011), U.S. representative from Texas's 13th congressional district, 1962–1973; Wichita Falls lawyer R Jack Rains (born 1937), former Texas secretary of state John N. Raney (born 1947), member of Texas House of Representatives from Brazos County since 2011 Bennett Ratliff (born 1961), member of Texas House of Representative from Dallas County (2013–2015) Bill Ratliff (born 1936), state senator and lieutenant governor from Mount Pleasant Sam Rayburn (1882–1961), U.S. Congressman and Speaker of the House of Representatives Richard P. Raymond (born 1960), South Texas state representative Ron Reynolds (born 1973), African-American Democrat member of Texas House of Representatives from District 27 in Missouri City Ann Richards (1933–2006), second woman governor of Texas (1991–1995); state treasurer (1983–1991) Cecile Richards (born 1957), liberal political activist, daughter of Ann Richards Matt Rinaldi (born 1975), member of Texas House of Representatives from Dallas County since 2015 Roy R. Rubottom, Jr. (1912–2010), diplomat Jim Rudd (born 1943), lawyer and lobbyist in Austin; former Texas state representative from Brownfield Sa–Sl Paul Sadler (born 1955), state representative, Democrat U.S. Senate nominee in 2012, lost to Republican Ted Cruz Pete Saenz (born 1951), mayor of Laredo Joe Sage (1920–1977), one of first two Republicans since Reconstruction to represent Bexar County in Texas House of Representatives Mario Marcel Salas (born 1949), civil rights activist, politician Tom Schieffer (born 1947), diplomat, brother of CBS anchorman Bob Schieffer Leighton Schubert (born c. 1982), member of Texas House of Representatives for District 13; lawyer in Caldwell Pete Sessions (born 1955), U.S. representative Sonal Shah (born 1968), economist and public official with Obama Administration John Sharp (born 1950), former Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts, chancellor of Texas A&M University J. D. Sheffield (born 1960), member of Texas House of Representatives from Coryell County since 2013; physician in Gatesville Mark M. Shelton (born 1956), pediatrician and member of Texas House of Representatives from District 97 (Fort Worth), 2009–2013 David McAdams Sibley (born 1948), attorney-lobbyist, Texas state senator (1991–2002), Mayor of Waco (1987–1988) Ron Simmons (born 1960), member of Texas House of Representatives from Carrollton since 2013 Ryan Sitton (born 1975), Republican nominee for Texas Railroad Commission in 2014 general election Sm–Sz Preston Smith (1912–2003), Governor of Texas (1969–1973) and lieutenant governor (1963–1969) Steven Wayne Smith (born 1961), member of Texas Supreme Court (2002–2005) Wayne Smith (born 1943), member of Texas House of Representatives from District 128 in Harris County since 2003 Barry Smitherman (born 1957), former member of Texas Railroad Commission; unsuccessful candidate for attorney general in 2014 Clay Smothers (1935–2004), member of Texas House of Representatives; operator of St. Paul Industrial Training School orphanage in Malakoff; radio personality Burt Solomons (born 1950) Denton County lawyer and Republican member of Texas House of Representatives, 1995–2013 Margaret Spellings (born 1957), U.S. Secretary of Education (2005–2009) Drew Springer, Jr. (born 1966), member of the Texas House of Representatives from District 68 (North Texas and eastern South Plains) Barbara Staff (1924–2019), co-chairman of 1976 Ronald Reagan Texas presidential primary campaign Sylvia Stanfield (born 1943), diplomat Robert Stanton (born 1940), director of National Park Service Todd Staples (born 1963), Texas agriculture commissioner; candidate for lieutenant governor in 2014 Ken Starr (born 1946), federal judge, Solicitor General, and Independent Counsel during Clinton Administration William Steger (1920–2006), U.S. District Judge Jonathan Stickland (born 1983), member of Texas House of Representatives from Tarrant County since 2013 Steve Stockman (born 1956), member of U.S. House of Representatives from Texas; candidate for Republican nomination for U.S. Senate in 2014 Robert Schwarz Strauss (1918–2014), politician, chairman of Democratic National Committee, and diplomat Dwayne Stovall (born 1966), Cleveland, Texas, businessman and Republican candidate for U.S. Senate against John Cornyn in primary election scheduled March 4, 2014 Carole Keeton Strayhorn (born 1939), Texas comptroller (1999–2007), railroad commissioner, former Mayor of Austin Raymond Strother (born 1940), political consultant, native of Port Arthur Michael Quinn Sullivan (born 1970), reporter, political activist, president of Texans for Fiscal Responsibility T–V Robert Talton (born 1945), police officer, attorney, member of Texas House of Representatives from Harris County 1993–2009; candidate for Chief Justice of Texas Supreme Court in 2014 Republican primary Jack Taylor (1907–1995), Arizona Republican politician born in Sonora and former resident of Brownwood Buddy Temple (1942–2015), businessman, state representative from Angelina County, and railroad commissioner Tony Tinderholt (born 1970), member of Texas House of Representatives from Arlington Raul Torres (born 1956), former state representative from Nueces County Steve Toth (born 1960), member of Texas House of Representatives, 2013–2015, from The Woodlands John G. Tower (1925–1991), first Republican U.S. Senator from Texas since Reconstruction Lupe Valdez (born 1947), only female elected sheriff in Texas Gary VanDeaver (born 1958), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Bowie County, effective 2015 Jason Villalba (born 1971), state representative from Dallas County since 2013; Dallas attorney with Haynes and Boone Catalina Vasquez Villalpando (born 1940), Treasurer of the United States W–Z Dale Wainwright (born 1961), former associate justice of Texas Supreme Court Richard A. Waterfield (1939–2007), state representative who advocated for feeding programs for disabled and elderly Craig Watkins, first African-American district attorney in Texas, Dallas Morning News Texan of the Year 2008 Reed N. Weisiger (1838–1908), Texas State Senator (1891–1893), Confederate cavalry officer, pioneer in Victoria County Jack Wheeler (1944–2010), presidential aide to Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush administrations Molly S. White (born 1958), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Bell County John Roger Williams (born 1949), Republican U.S. representative from Texas, former Texas secretary of state, professional baseball player Michael L. Williams (born 1953), director of Texas Education Agency, former Texas Railroad Commissioner, former assistant Secretary of Education for Civil Rights Barry Williamson (born 1957), Republican former member of Texas Railroad Commission Arlene Wohlgemuth (born 1947), Republican member of Texas House of Representatives from Johnson County, 1995–2005; executive director of the Texas Public Policy Foundation; ran unsuccessfully against Chet Edwards for Congress in 2004 Jared Woodfill (born 1968), Houston attorney and chairman of Harris County Republican Party, 2002–2014 John Lee Wortham (1862–1924), Texas Railroad Commissioner and Secretary of State, businessman Betsey Wright (born 1943), political lobbyist, activist, consultant Clymer Wright (1932–2011), political activist; father of municipal term limits in Houston Jim Wright (1922–2015), former Congressman and Speaker of the House of Representatives Vicente T. Ximenes (1919–2014), Mexican-American civil rights pioneer, U.S. politician Ralph Yarborough (1903–1996), state senator, 1957 –1971; leader of progressive or liberal wing of his party Judith Zaffirini (born 1946), state senator from Laredo Bill Zedler (born 1943), member of Texas House of Representatives from Arlington Brian Zimmerman (1972–1996), elected mayor of Crabb at age 11 U.S. Presidents George H. W. Bush (1924–2018), 41st President and 43rd Vice President of the United States (raised in Greenwich, Connecticut, but lived much of his adult life in West Texas) George W. Bush (born 1946), 43rd President of the United States (born in New Haven, Connecticut, but raised in Texas) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969), 34th President of the United States (born in Denison, but raised in Kansas) Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–1973), 36th President of the United States (1963–69); Vice President (1961–63) (born in raised near Stonewall) Notable women of Texas Jessie Daniel Ames (1883–1972), suffragette, civil rights activist Annie Webb Blanton (1870–1945), suffragist, educator Mary Eleanor Brackenridge (1837–1924), social activist, university regent Mary Couts Burnett (1856–1924), philanthropist Laura Bush (born 1946), First Lady of the United States Mary Elizabeth Butt (1903–1993), philanthropist Minnie Fisher Cunningham (1882–1964), women's suffragist Nannie Webb Curtis (1861-1920), president, Texas Woman's Christian Temperance Union May Dickson Exall (1859–1936), civic leader, founder of Dallas Public Library Gloria Feldt (born 1942), feminist leader, author, political commentator Margaret Formby (1929–2003), founder of the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth Mariette Rheiner Garner (1869–1948), Second Lady of the United States Melinda Gates (born 1964), philanthropist, wife of software magnate Bill Gates Edna Gladney (1886–1961), founder of "The Edna Gladney Home" for orphaned children Nellie Gray (1924–2012), pro-life activist Margaret Hunt Hill (1915–2007), heiress, philanthropist Ima Hogg (1882–1975), philanthropist Helen LaKelly Hunt (born 1949), philanthropist for women's causes Lady Bird Johnson (1912–2007), former First Lady of the United States (married to President Lyndon B. Johnson) Maura McNiel (1921–2020), activist for women's rights Lucy Pickett (1832–1899), socialite, Southern belle; known as the "Queen of the Confederacy", her portrait appeared on some Confederate currency Cecile Richards (born 1957), activist, president of Planned Parenthood Jennie Scott Scheuber (1860–1944), librarian, women's-suffrage activist, civic leader Ruth Carter Stevenson (1923–2013), arts patron, museum founder Virginia Whitehill (1928–2018), activist for women's rights See also List of Texas suffragists Entertainment Dance Joshua Allen (born 1989), dancer, 2008 winner of So You Think You Can Dance Lauren Anderson (born 1965), ballet dancer; first African-American ballerina to be principal of a major company (Houston Ballet) Corky Ballas (born 1960), ballroom dancer Mark Ballas (born 1986), ballroom dancer, choreographer, actor, musician, and singer-songwriter Candy Barr (1935–2005), model, burlesque dancer Cyd Charisse (1922–2008), actress, dancer Bebe Daniels (1901–1971), actress, singer, dancer, writer, producer Gussie Nell Davis (1906–1993), physical education teacher who founded the Kilgore College Rangerettes drill team Kelli Finglass (born 1964), dancer, director of Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders Summer Glau (born 1981), dancer and actress, Firefly Chachi Gonzales (born 1996), dancer Nathalie Krassovska (1918–2005), ballerina, ballet teacher Ann Miller (1923–2004), actress, dancer Annette O'Toole (born 1952), dancer, actress Ginger Rogers (1911–1995), actress, singer, dancer Ross Sisters, Betsy (1926–1996), Vickie (1927–2002), and Dixie (1929–1963), Broadway singers, dancers, contortionists Kelly Rowland (born 1981), R&B singer-songwriter, dancer, actress George Skibine (1920–1981), ballet dancer, choreographer Solange (born 1986), R&B singer-songwriter, actress, model, dancer, producer, director Ben Stevenson (born 1936), artistic director of Houston Ballet and Texas Ballet Theater Patsy Swayze (1927–2013), choreographer, dancer, dance teacher Judy Trammell (born 1958), choreographer for Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders Fashion and modeling Lisa Baker (born 1944), Playboy Playmate of the Year Tyson Ballou (born 1976), model Candy Barr (1935–2005), model, burlesque dancer Brooke Burns (born 1978), model, actress Lois Chiles (born 1947), model, actress Chloe Dao (born 1972), fashion designer Hope Dworaczyk (born 1984), model, Playboy Playmate of the Year Kelly Emberg (born 1959), model, former partner of Rod Stewart Hannah Ferguson (born 1992), model Tom Ford (born 1961), former creative director for Gucci, film director Michelle Galdenzi (born 1987), model, actress Jerry Hall (born 1956), model, actress Marcy Hanson (born 1952), Playboy Playmate, actress Angie Harmon (born 1972), model, actress Julie Haus (born 1973), fashion designer Kimberly Holland (born 1982), Playboy model Daina House (born 1954), Playboy centerfold Elisa Jimenez (born 1963), fashion designer, interdisciplinary artist Sandy Johnson (born 1954), Playboy centerfold, actress Tina Knowles (born 1954), businesswoman, fashion designer Dorian Leigh (Parker) (1917–2008), model, considered one of the first supermodels Kym Malin (born 1962), Playboy Playmate, actress Irlene Mandrell (born 1956), model, actress Brandon Maxwell (born 1984), fashion designer Kim McLagan (1948–2006), model Ali Michael (born 1990), model Kiko Mizuhara (born 1990), model, actress, Japanese television personality Cole Mohr (born 1986), model Chandra North (born 1973), model Derrill Osborn (1942–2019), fashion executive Joan Severance (born 1958), model, actress Lori Singer (born 1957), actress, model, classical musician Anna Nicole Smith (1967–2007), model, actress Kimberly Kay Smith (born 1983), model, actress Amir Taghi (born 1996), fashion designer Tila Tequila (born 1981), model, television personality Paola Turbay (born 1970), model, actress, beauty pageant winner Ann Ward (born 1991), model, winner of America's Next Top Model, Cycle 15 Film, theater, and television A B C D–E F–G H I–J K–L M N–P Q–R S T–U V–Z A F. Murray Abraham (born 1939), Academy Award- and Golden Globe Award-winning actor Amy Acker (born 1976), actress Jensen Ackles (born 1978), actor, Smallville, Supernatural Sunrise Adams (born 1982), actress Norman Alden (1924–2012), actor Kevin Alejandro (born 1976), actor Jaimie Alexander (born 1984), actress Richard Alexander (1902–1989), actor Debbie Allen (born 1950), actress, choreographer, director, producer Joshua Allen (born 1989), dancer, 2008 winner of So You Think You Can Dance Krista Allen (born 1971), actress Marshall Allman (born 1984), actor, Prison Break, True Blood John A. Alonzo (1934–2001), cinematographer Audrey Marie Anderson (born 1975), actress, played Kim Brown on The Unit Jacqueline Anderson (born 1975), actress Wes Anderson (born 1969), director, Bottle Rocket, Rushmore, The Royal Tenenbaums Dana Andrews (1909–1992), actor, The Best Years of Our Lives, Laura Andrew Arbuckle (1887–1938), actor Macklyn Arbuckle (1866–1931), actor Melissa Archer (born 1979), actress Michael Arden (born 1982), actor Kelly Asbury (born 1960), story artist, director, writer, Shrek 2 Frank Ashmore (born 1945), actor Tex Avery (1908–1980), animator, cartoonist, director B Lorri Bagley (born 1973), actress, model, Veronica's Closet, Ice Age G. W. Bailey (born 1944), actor, M*A*S*H, Police Academy Joe Don Baker (born 1936), actor, Charley Varrick, Walking Tall Kathy Baker (born 1950), Emmy-winning actress, Picket Fences, Boston Public Paul Baker (1911–2009), actor, director, educator; founded Dallas Theater Center Troy Baker (born 1976), voice actor, musician Greg Baldwin (born 1960), actor, Avatar: The Last Airbender Taylor Ball (born 1987), actor Reginald Ballard (born 1965), character actor, comedian, The Bernie Mac Show, Martin Bob Banner (1921–2011), television producer, writer, director Matt Barr (born 1984), actor Barbara Barrie (born 1931), actress, Suddenly Susan, Barney Miller, Double Trouble Skye McCole Bartusiak (1992–2014), actress Texas Battle (born 1980), actor, played Marcus Walton on The Bold and the Beautiful Jim Beaver (born 1950), actor, played Ellsworth on Deadwood David Beecroft (born 1955), actor Gregory Beecroft (born 1952), actor Madge Bellamy (1899–1990), actress Jeff Bennett (born 1962), voice actor, singer, Johnny Bravo Robby Benson (born 1956), actor, director, singer, The Legend of Prince Valiant, Ellen, Beauty and the Beast Robert Benton (born 1932), Academy Award-winning screenwriter and director, Kramer vs. Kramer, Places in the Heart Crystal Bernard (born 1961), actress and singer, television series Wings Angela Bettis (born 1973), actress Nicole Bilderback (born 1975), actress Francelia Billington (1895–1934), actress in silent films Gil Birmingham (born 1966), actor, Billy Black in The Twilight Saga Dustin Lance Black (born 1979), Academy Award-winning screenwriter, director, producer Patricia Blair (1933–2013), actress, Daniel Boone, The Rifleman, The Electric Horseman Justin Blanchard (born 1980), actor Alexis Bledel (born 1981), actress, starred in Gilmore Girls Dan Blocker (1928–1972), actor, played Hoss Cartwright on Bonanza Joan Blondell (1906–1979), Academy Award-nominated actress Don Bluth (born 1937), animator, studio owner, An American Tail, The Land Before Time Larry Blyden (1925–1975), actor, game-show host Spencer Boldman (born 1992), actor John Boles (1895–1969), actor Tiffany Bolton (born 1971), actress, model, talk-show host Matthew Bomer (born 1977), actor, Tru Calling, White Collar Kevin Booth (born 1961), film director, producer, lecturer, musician Powers Boothe (1948–2017), actor, Deadwood, Tombstone, Southern Comfort Jesse Borrego (born 1962), actor, Fame, 24, Dexter Michael Bowen (born 1953), actor, Jackie Brown, Magnolia, Lost Rob Bowman (born 1960), film and television director, The X-Files, Star Trek: The Next Generation Lombardo Boyar (born 1973), actor, The Bernie Mac Show Richard Bradford (1934–2016), actor, Man in a Suitcase, The Untouchables Abby Brammell (born 1979), actress, played Tiffy Gerhardt on The Unit Larry Brantley (born 1966), voice actor, comedian, radio spokesman Eve Brent (1929–2011), actress Mary Brian (1906–2002), actress James Brown (1920–1992), actor, The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin Tammie Brown (born 1980), actor, drag queen, musician Larry Buchanan (1923–2004), film director, producer, writer Samantha Buck (born 1974), actress, Law & Order: Criminal Intent Betty Buckley (born 1947), film and Tony Award-winning stage actress, singer Norman Buckley (born 1955), television director and editor Dennis Burkley (1945–2013), actor Carol Burnett (born 1933), actress, comedian, The Carol Burnett Show Brooke Burns (born 1978), actress, model Burnie Burns (born 1973), writer, actor, producer, comedian, host, director Marilyn Burns (1949–2014), actress, starred in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) Wendell Burton (1947–2017), actor, The Sterile Cuckoo Gary Busey (born 1944), Academy Award-nominated actor, The Buddy Holly Story, Under Siege C Kevin Cahoon (born 1971), actor, director, singer-songwriter Bill Camfield (1929–1991), radio and television host, writer, comedian Kate Capshaw (born 1953), actress, married to Steven Spielberg Gina Carano (born 1982), actress, television personality, mixed martial arts fighter Steve Cardenas (born 1974), martial artist and retired actor, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Power Rangers: Zeo Edwin Carewe (1883–1940), film director, actor, producer, writer Thomas Carter (born 1953), director, actor Allen Case (1934–1986), actor, singer John L. Cason (1918–1961), actor Don Castle (1917–1966), actor Darlene Cates (1947–2017), actress Derek Cecil (born 1973), actor, House of Cards Miguel Cervantes (born 1977), actor Duane Lee Chapman, II (born 1973), Dog the Bounty Hunter Leland Chapman (born 1976), Dog the Bounty Hunter Cyd Charisse (1922–2008), actress, dancer, Singin' in the Rain, The Band Wagon Ricardo Chavira (born 1971), actor, played Carlos Soli on Desperate Housewives Lois Chiles (born 1947), actress, model, Moonraker, The Great Gatsby, Broadcast News Thomas Haden Church (born 1961), Academy Award-nominated actor, Sideways, Spider-Man 3, All About Steve Victoria Clark (born 1959), Tony Award-winning actress, singer Jack Clay (1926–2019), acting teacher, actor, director Taylor Cole (born 1984), actress/model, Summerland, The Event Dabney Coleman (born 1932), actor, Buffalo Bill, 9 to 5, The Towering Inferno, Tootsie Jessica Collins (born 1983), actress, played Maggie on Rubicon Lynn Collins (born 1979), actress, X-Men Origins: Wolverine Marcus Collins (born 1974), actor, singer Shanna Collins (born 1983), actress, Swingtown Ellar Coltrane (born 1994), actor Chris Cooper (born 1951), actor; winner, Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Adaptation, Seabiscuit, The Bourne Identity, The Patriot, The Muppets Tamarie Cooper (born 1970), actress, playwright Barry Corbin (born 1940), actor, Urban Cowboy, Nothing in Common, Who's Harry Crumb? Alex Cord (1933–2021), actor, Airwolf, rancher Allen Coulter (born 1969), film and television director, The Sopranos David Crabb (born 1975), actor Yvonne Craig (1937–2015), actress Norma Crane (1928–1973), actress, Fiddler on the Roof Chace Crawford (born 1985), actor Joan Crawford (1908–1977), Academy Award-winning actress, Mildred Pierce, Johnny Guitar, What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? Catherine Crier (born 1954), television personality, judge Kathryn Crosby (born 1933), actress, Anatomy of a Murder, wife of Bing Crosby Shauna Cross (born 1974), screenwriter, author, roller derby athlete Brett Cullen (born 1956), actor, The Young Riders, Legacy, Ghost Rider Erin Cummings (born 1977), actress, Detroit 1-8-7 Bonnie Curtis (born 1966), film producer D–E Diana Danielle (born 1991), Malaysian actress, born in Houston Bebe Daniels (1901–1971), actress, singer, dancer, writer, producer Linda Darnell (1923–1965), actress, Forever Amber, A Letter to Three Wives Jim Dauterive (born 1957), producer and writer, King of the Hill Kennedy Davenport (Reuben Asberry Jr.) (born 1982), television personality, drag queen, dancer Madison Davenport (born 1996), actress Phyllis Davis (1940–2013), actress Eddie Dean (1907–1999), singer-songwriter, actor Lezlie Deane (born 1964), actress, singer Marjorie Deanne (1917–1994), actress, first winner of Miss Texas pageant Alana de la Garza (born 1976), actress, Law & Order, CSI: Miami, The Mountain Madison De La Garza (born 2001), teen actress, Desperate Housewives Bob Denver (1935–2005), actor, played Maynard G. Krebs in Dobie Gillis and title role in Gilligan's Island Elizabeth De Razzo (born 1980), actress, played Maria on Eastbound & Down Kaitlyn Dever (born 1996), teen actress, Last Man Standing, Justified Loretta Devine (born 1949), actress, Waiting to Exhale, Grey's Anatomy Dorothy Devore (1899–1976), actress, comedian Jenna Dewan (born 1980), actress, star of Step Up and Take the Lead Elliott Dexter (1870–1941), actor Shae D'lyn (born 1962), actress, Dharma and Greg Frank Q. Dobbs (1939–2006), screenwriter, director, producer Chris Donahue (born 1958), Academy Award-winning film producer Colby Donaldson (born 1974), actor Michael Dorn (born 1952), star of Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Jessica Drake (born 1974), porn star Haylie Duff (born 1985), actress Hilary Duff (born 1987), actress, singer Karen Dufilho-Rosen (born 1968), Academy Award-winning film producer Josh Duhon (born 1982), actor, played Logan Hayes on General Hospital Donnie Dunagan (born 1934), actor, voice actor Sandy Duncan (born 1946), actress, singer, The Sandy Duncan Show, The Hogan Family Kenton Duty (born 1995), teen actor, Shake It Up, Ctrl Shelley Duvall (born 1949), actress, The Shining, Annie Hall, Olive Oyl in film Popeye George Eads (born 1967), actor, plays Nick Stokes in television series CSI Greg Edmonson, music composer for television, movies and video games, King of the Hill, Firefly Shannon Elizabeth (born 1973), actress, American Pie Chris Elley (born 1977), film director, writer, producer Chris Ellis (born 1956), actor Ron Ely (born 1938), actor, Tarzan Mireille Enos (born 1975), actress Molly Erdman (born 1974), actress Bill Erwin (1914–2010), character actor Dale Evans (1912–2001), actress, singer-songwriter, married to Roy Rogers F–G Morgan Fairchild (born 1950), actress in Dallas television series (one of three actresses to play character "Jenna Wade") and Flamingo Road Parisa Fakhri (born 1975), voice actress, Dragon Ball GT, Fruits Basket Amy Farrington (born 1966), actress Farrah Fawcett (1947–2009), actress and artist, Charlie's Angels, The Burning Bed, Extremities, The Apostle Katie Featherston (born 1982), actress, Paranormal Activity Jay R. Ferguson (born 1974), actor Rosita Fernandez (1919–2006), actress, pop singer Tyra Ferrell (born 1962), actress, The Cape, City, The Bronx Zoo Margaret Field (1922–2011), actress, mother of actress Sally Field Miles Fisher (born 1983), actor Sean Patrick Flanery (born 1965), actor, The Boondock Saints Horton Foote (1916–2009), two-time Academy Award-winning screenwriter Michelle Forbes (born 1965), actress, Homicide: Life on the Street, 24, True Blood Tom Forman (1893–1926), actor, writer, producer Steve Forrest (1925–2013), actor, So Big, Mommie Dearest, North Dallas Forty Robert Foxworth (born 1941), actor, Falcon Crest, Six Feet Under Jamie Foxx (born 1967), Academy Award-winning actor, Ray, Any Given Sunday, Django Unchained James Frawley (1936–2019), director, actor, producer Gavin Free (born 1988), video cinematographer Al Freeman Jr. (1934–2012), actor, director, Finian's Rainbow, Malcolm X K. Todd Freeman (born 1965), actor Robert Fuller (born 1933), actor, rancher Chris Furrh (born 1974), actor Jennifer Garner (born 1972), actress, 13 Going on 30, Dallas Buyers Club, Draft Day, television series Alias Joy Garrett (1945–1993), actress, singer Greer Garson (1904–1996), Academy Award-winning actress Nancy Gates (1926–2019), actress Lynda Day George (born 1944), actress, television series Mission: Impossible Richard Gilliland (1950–2021), actor Peri Gilpin (born 1961), actress, Frasier Michael Gladis (born 1977), actor, Mad Men, Eagleheart Lesli Linka Glatter (born 1953), film director Summer Glau (born 1981), dancer and actress, Firefly Carlin Glynn (born 1940), actress, singer Dale Godboldo (born 1975), actor Renée Elise Goldsberry (born 1971), actress, singer-songwriter Mike Gomez (born 1951), actor Selena Gomez (born 1992), actress and singer, formed band Selena Gomez & The Scene Nicholas Gonzalez (born 1976), actor Pedro Gonzalez-Gonzalez (1925–2006), character actor Jill Goodacre (born 1965), actress, model YaYa Gosselin (born 2009), actress Mckenna Grace (born 2006), actress Brea Grant (born 1981), actress, played Daphne Millbrook on Heroes Teresa Graves (1948–2002), actress David Gordon Green (born 1975), filmmaker John Gremillion (born 1967), voice actor Nan Grey (1918–1993), actress Corinne Griffith (1894–1979), actress Kristin Griffith (born 1953), actress Texas Guinan (1884–1933), actress, singer, entrepreneur Tim Guinee (born 1962), actor Anne Gwynne (1918–2003), actress H Tommy Habeeb (born 1958), actor, writer, producer Sara Haden (1899–1981), actress Reed Hadley (1911–1974), actor, Racket Squad Sarah Hagan (born 1984), actress Emily Hagins (born 1992), film producer, writer, editor, director Larry Hagman (1931–2012), actor, I Dream of Jeannie, Dallas, son of actress Mary Martin Monte Hale (1919–2009), actor, country singer Jackie Earle Haley (born 1961), Academy Award-nominated actor, The Bad News Bears, Breaking Away, Little Children Bug Hall (born 1985), actor Irma P. Hall (born 1935), actress James Hall (1900–1940), actor Jerry Hall (born 1956), model, actress, former wife of Mick Jagger Hope Hampton (1897–1982), actress in silent films John Lee Hancock (born 1956), film director, The Blind Side Gunnar Hansen (1947–2015), actor, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Marcy Hanson (born 1952), actress, Playboy model Jerry Hardin (born 1929), actor Melora Hardin (born 1967), actress Ty Hardin (1930–2017), actor Ann Harding (1903–1981), actress Catherine Hardwicke (born 1955), film director, Twilight Mark Harelik (born 1951), actor, playwright Angie Harmon (born 1972), actress, Law & Order, Rizzoli & Isles William Jackson Harper (born 1980), actor James N. Harrell (1918–2000), actor Woody Harrelson (born 1961), actor, Cheers, Natural Born Killers, White Men Can't Jump, No Country for Old Men, True Detective Laura Harring (born 1964), actress, Mulholland Drive Fran Harris (born 1965), television host, life coach, professional basketball player Harriet Sansom Harris (born 1955), actress, Desperate Housewives, Frasier, It's All Relative, The 5 Mrs. Buchanans Chris Harrison (born 1971), television announcer James V. Hart (born 1960), screenwriter Lisa Hartman-Black (born 1956), actress, Knots Landing Ethan Hawke (born 1970), actor, Training Day, Before Midnight, Dead Poets Society John Hawkes (born 1959), Academy Award-nominated actor, Winter's Bone, Deadwood, The Sessions Brad Hawkins (born 1976), actor, VR Troopers Jerry Haynes (1927–2011), actor, children's television host Ted Healy (1896–1937), vaudeville performer, comedian, actor; created The Three Stooges Amber Heard (born 1986), actress, Friday Night Lights, Pineapple Express, Drive Angry Rick Hearst (born 1965), actor Katherine Helmond (1929–2019), actress, Soap Sherman Hemsley (1938–2012), actor, The Jeffersons, adopted El Paso as his hometown Josh Henderson (born 1981), actor, model, singer, Dallas, Desperate Housewives, Over There Logan Henderson (born 1989), actor and singer Tiffany Hendra (born 1971), actress, television personality Kim Henkel (born 1946), screenwriter, director, producer, actor Bill "Tex" Henson (1924–2002), animator Stephen Herek (born 1958), film director, 101 Dalmatians Jennifer Love Hewitt (born 1979), actress, Ghost Whisperer, The Client List Tamara Hext (born 1963), actress, winner of Miss Texas pageant Joel Heyman (born 1971), actor John Benjamin Hickey (born 1963), actor, It's All Relative, The Big C John Hillerman (1932–2017), actor, played English Major domo Higgins on Magnum, P.I. Jordan Hinson (born 1991), actress Junie Hoang (born 1971), actress and plaintiff in Hoang v. Amazon.com Gregory Hoblit (born 1944), television and film director Tommy Hollis (1954–2001), actor Tobe Hooper (1943–2017), director The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Poltergeist, Salem's Lot William Hootkins (1948–2005), actor, Batman, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Star Wars Roger Horchow (1928–2020), Broadway producer, catalog entrepreneur Lee Horsley (born 1955), actor, Matt Houston Larry Hovis (1936–2003), actor, Hogan's Heroes Susan Howard (born 1944), born in Marshall, longtime actress in Dallas television series Matt Hullum (born 1974), director, producer, writer, actor, visual effects supervisor Gayle Hunnicutt (born 1943), actress, Marlowe, The Legend of Hell House Paige Hurd (born 1992), actress, Everybody Hates Chris Tracy Hutson (born 1986), reality television personality Martha Hyer (1924–2014), Academy Award-nominated actress, Some Came Running, The Carpetbaggers, The Sons of Katie Elder I–J Judith Ivey (born 1951), film and Tony Award-winning stage actress, director John M. Jackson (born 1950), actor, played Rear Admiral A. J. Chegwidden on JAG Gary Jacobs (born 1952), television comedy writer, producer, author Dorothy Janis (1912–2010), actress in silent films Annalee Jefferies (born 1954), actress Rita Jenrette (born 1949), actress, television journalist, real-estate executive, model, princess Chane't Johnson (1976–2010), actress Dakota Johnson (born 1989), actress Janelle Johnson (1923–1995), actress; mother of The Monkees' Micky Dolenz Sandy Johnson (born 1954), actress, model Joe Johnston (born 1950), film director, Jumanji, Jurassic Park III, Captain America: The First Avenger Terra Jolé (born 1980), reality TV personality Nick Jonas (born 1992), singer, actor Alex Jones (born 1974), radio host, television host, film producer Angus T. Jones (born 1993), actor, Jake Harper on Two and a Half Men Ashley Jones (born 1976), actress, The Bold and the Beautiful, The Young and the Restless Caleb Landry Jones (born 1989), actor Carolyn Jones (1929–1983), actress, played Morticia Addams on The Addams Family Dick Jones (1927–2014), actor, starring role of Buffalo Bill, Jr. and voice of Pinocchio L. Q. Jones (born 1927), actor, The Wild Bunch, Casino, originally from Beaumont Margo Jones (1911–1955), theatre founder and director Mickey Jones (1941–2018), actor, musician, Home Improvement, Flo Preston Jones (1936–1979), playwright, actor, director Preston Jones (born 1983), actor Tommy Lee Jones (born 1946), Academy Award-winning actor, The Fugitive, Men in Black, Batman Forever, No Country for Old Men, Lincoln Glenn Jordan (born 1936), television director, producer Montana Jordan (born 2003), actor Jonathan Joss (born 1965), actor Mike Judge (born 1962), producer, animator and actor K–L Joseph Kahn (born 1972), music video, advertising, and feature film director Christian Kane (born 1974), actor, singer, played "Lindsay" on Angel, Close to Home Jon Keeyes (born 1969), film director, producer, screenwriter Allison Keith (born 1974), actor, voice actor Evelyn Keyes (1916–2008), actress, Gone With the Wind Callie Khouri (born 1957), Academy Award-winning screenwriter, director Guy Kibbee (1882–1956), actor Candice King (born 1987), actress best known as Caroline Forbes on The Vampire Diaries Charles King (1895–1957), actor Madison Kocian (born 1997), world- and Olympic-champion gymnast Liza Koshy (born 1996), actress, internet personality Bernard L. Kowalski (1929–2007), film and television director Berry Kroeger (1912–1991), actor Eric Ladin (born 1978), actor, The Killing Christine Lakin (born 1979), actress, Step by Step, Valentine's Day Paul Lambert (1922–1997), actor Sasha Lane (born 1995), actress Wallace Langham (born 1965), actor, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, The Larry Sanders Show, Veronica's Closet Brooke Langton (born 1970), actress Louise Latham (1922–2018), actress Jody Lawrance (1930–1986), actress Sheryl Leach (born 1952), creator of children's programming (Barney & Friends) Katie Leclerc (born 1986), actress Ruta Lee (born 1936), actress Brad Leland (born 1954), actor, Friday Night Lights Joshua Leonard (born 1975), actor, writer, director Hal LeSueur (1901?–1963), actor; brother of Joan Crawford Liana Liberato (born 1995), actress Lar Park Lincoln (born 1961), actress Amy Lindsay (born 1966), actress Rachel Lindsay (born 1985), reality television star, The Bachelorette Richard Lineback (born 1952), actor Richard Linklater (born 1961), director Slacker, Dazed and Confused, Before Sunrise, School of Rock, A Scanner Darkly Cody Linley (born 1989), actor, rapper, singer Lucien Littlefield (1895–1960), actor in silent films Tembi Locke (born 1970), actress, Eureka, Sliders Jacqueline Logan (1901–1983), actress in silent films Joshua Logan (1908–1988), stage and film director Eva Longoria (born 1975), actress, Desperate Housewives Trini Lopez (1937–2020), singer and actor, The Dirty Dozen Demi Lovato (born 1992), singer, actress Bessie Love (1898–1986), actress Deirdre Lovejoy (born 1962), actress, Rhonda Pearlman on The Wire Todd Lowe (born 1977), actor Shannon Lucio (born 1980), actress Allen Ludden (1917–1981), emcee, game show host Baruch Lumet (1898–1992), theatre actor, director, teacher M Donald MacDonald (1898–1959), actor Lydia Mackay (born 1977), voice actress Peter MacNicol (born 1954), Emmy Award-winning actor, Ally McBeal, Chicago Hope, Sophie's Choice Meredith MacRae (1944–2000), actress, Petticoat Junction Martha Madison (born 1977), actress Valerie Mahaffey (born 1953), actress Terrence Malick (born 1943), director Badlands, Days of Heaven, The Thin Red Line Kym Malin (born 1962), actress, model Irlene Mandrell (born 1956), actress, model David Mann (born 1966), actor, singer Tamela Mann (born 1966), actress, singer Stephanie March (born 1974), actress, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Amelia Marshall (born 1958), actress Mary Martin (1913–1990), Emmy Award- and Tony Award-winning actress, mother of actor Larry Hagman Steve Martin (born 1945), actor, The Jerk, Pennies from Heaven, Three Amigos, Planes, Trains and Automobiles, Father of the Bride, Parenthood, The Pink Panther Margo Martindale (born 1951), actress, The Riches, 100 Centre Street, The Millers Peter Masterson (1934–2018), actor, director, producer, writer Kimberly Matula (born 1988), actress Adam Mayfield (born 1976), actor Peter Mayhew (1944–2019), actor Tim McCanlies (born 1963), screenwriter, director Cameron McCasland (born 1981), filmmaker Mart McChesney (1954–1999), actor Matthew McConaughey (born 1969), Academy Award-winning actor, Dallas Buyers Club, A Time to Kill, The Lincoln Lawyer, Contact, Magic Mike, True Detective Carolyn McCormick (born 1959), actress, played Dr. Liz Olivet on Law & Order Jake McDorman (born 1986), actor Spanky McFarland (1928–1993), actor, played "Spanky" in the Our Gang comedies, aka The Little Rascals Bruce McGill (born 1950), actor, Animal House, The Legend of Bagger Vance, 61*, Lincoln Jay McGraw (born 1979), television producer and executive producer, author Kevin McHale (born 1988), actor Ben McKenzie (born 1978), actor, The O.C. Alex McLeod (born 1968), actress Scoot McNairy (born 1977), actor, producer, Halt and Catch Fire, 12 Years a Slave, Argo Terrence McNally (1939–2020), playwright William McNamara (born 1965), actor Leighton Meester (born 1986), actress, Gossip Girl Windell Middlebrooks (1979–2015), actor Liz Mikel (born 1963), actress, singer Ann Miller (1923–2004), actress, dancer Austin Miller (born 1976), actor, dancer, singer Billy Miller (born 1979), actor, The Young and the Restless, All My Children Carl Miller (1893–1979), actor Logan Miller (born 1992), actor, musician McKaley Miller (born 1996), actress, Hart of Dixie, Partners Valarie Rae Miller (born 1974), actress Don Mischer (born 1940), television producer, director Elizabeth Mitchell (born 1970), actress, Lost, V, ER Tom Mix (1880–1940), silent film actor Roger Mobley (born 1949), child actor, Christian pastor DeQuina Moore (born 1986), actress Belita Moreno (born 1949), actress Glenn Morshower (born 1959), actor, Agent Aaron Pierce on 24 Michael Muhney (born 1975), actor Mitchel Musso (born 1991), actor, singer, musician Megan Mylan (born 1969), Academy Award-winning documentary filmmaker N–P Jack Nance (1943–1996), actor Edwin Neal (born 1945), actor Tracey Needham (born 1967), actress, Life Goes On, JAG, The Division Pola Negri (1897–1987), silent film actress Austin Nichols (born 1980), actor, Julian Baker on One Tree Hill Derek Lee Nixon (born 1983), actor James Noble (1922–2016), actor, Benson Timothy Nolen (born 1941), Broadway actor/singer, opera singer Chuck Norris, actor, Walker, Texas Ranger Renee O'Connor (born 1971), actress John Baker "Texas Jack" Omohundro (1846–1880), actor, cowboy, frontier scout Ty O'Neal (born 1978), actor Lupe Ontiveros (1942–2012), actress Hayley Orrantia, singer, actress, The Goldbergs Peter Ostrum (born 1957), veterinarian, former child actor, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory Annette O'Toole (born 1955), actress, Superman III, Smallville Dan Hewitt Owens (born 1947), actor Lee Pace (born 1979), actor Jared Padalecki (born 1982), actor, Gilmore Girls, Supernatural Kevin Page (born 1959), actor, artist Greg Pak (born 1968), film director, comic-book writer Kay Panabaker (born 1990), television actress Fess Parker (1924–2010), actor, Daniel Boone, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Old Yeller Kathryn O'Rourke Parker (born 1948), television producer Suzy Parker (1932–2003), actress, model Hunter Parrish (born 1987), actor, Weeds Jim Parsons (born 1973), Emmy Award-winning actor, The Big Bang Theory Paul A. Partain (1946–2005), actor Tayla Parx (born 1993), actress Pedro Pascal (born 1975), actor Eric Patrick, filmmaker, animator, educator Hank Patterson (1888–1975), actor Bill Paxton (1955–2017), actor and director, Titanic, Apollo 13, Twister, Big Love Mark Payne (born 1965), make-up artist, filmmaker, author Evelyn Peirce (1908–1960), actress Eagle Pennell (1952–2002), film director Jack Pepper (1902–1979), vaudeville dancer, singer, comedian, actor, nightclub manager; first husband of Ginger Rogers Piper Perabo (born 1976), actress, Covert Affairs, The Prestige, Looper, Coyote Ugly Marco Perella (born c. 1949), actor Valerie Perrine (born 1943), Academy Award-nominated actress, Lenny, The Electric Horseman, Superman Lou Perryman (1941–2009), actor Madison Pettis (born 1998), actress Cindy Pickett (born 1947), actress, St. Elsewhere, Ferris Bueller's Day Off Arthur C. Pierce (1923–1987), screenwriter, film director Mary Kay Place (born 1947), actress, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman, The Big Chill, John Grisham's The Rainmaker Jesse Plemons (born 1988), actor Esteban Powell (born 1976), actor Joan Prather (born 1950), actress Ann Prentiss (1939–2010), actress Paula Prentiss (born 1938), actress, What's New Pussycat?, Where the Boys Are, Catch-22, The Stepford Wives Missi Pyle (born 1972), actress, singer, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, DodgeBall Q–R Dennis Quaid (born 1954), actor, Breaking Away, The Right Stuff, The Big Easy, Wyatt Earp, Everybody's All-American, Any Given Sunday Randy Quaid (born 1950), actor, The Last Picture Show, The Last Detail, National Lampoon's Vacation, Brokeback Mountain Molly Quinn (born 1993), actress, We're the Millers, Castle, Winx Club Kevin Rahm (born 1971), actor, Judging Amy, Desperate Housewives, Mad Men, Jesse Steve Railsback (born 1945), actor, Helter Skelter, The Stunt Man Dominic Rains (born 1982), actor Ethan Rains (born 1981), actor Sendhil Ramamurthy (born 1974), actor, Mohinder Suresh on Heroes Haley Ramm (born 1992), actress Ben Rappaport (born 1986), actor, Outsourced Phylicia Rashād (born 1948), actress, The Cosby Show Jackson Rathbone (born 1984), actor, musician Richard Rawlings (born 1969), reality-television star (Fast N' Loud), entrepreneur, auto mechanic, race car driver Allene Ray (1901–1979), actress Arthur Redcloud, actor Debbie Reynolds (1932–2016), Academy Award-nominated actress and singer, Singin' in the Rain, The Unsinkable Molly Brown, How the West Was Won, Mother, mother of Carrie Fisher Kevin Reynolds (born 1952), screenwriter, director, Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, Red Dawn Patricia Richardson (born 1951), actress, Jill Taylor on Home Improvement Shannon Richardson (born 1977), actress Noah Ringer (born 1998), actor Carlos Rivas (1925–2003), actor Emilio Rivera (born 1961), actor, Marcus Álvarez on Sons of Anarchy Dallas Roberts (born 1970), actor Gene Roddenberry (1921–1991), Star Trek creator, writer, director, producer Rod Roddy (1937–2003), radio and television announcer Holland Roden (born 1986), actress, Teen Wolf James Roday Rodriguez (born 1976), actor Michelle Rodriguez (born 1978), actress, Lost Raini Rodriguez (born 1993), actress, Paul Blart: Mall Cop Rico Rodriguez (born 1998), teen actor, Modern Family Robert Rodriguez (born 1968), director, producer, writer, composer Ginger Rogers (1911–1995), Academy Award-winning actress, singer, dancer Kylie Rogers (born 2004), child actress, The Whispers, Collateral Beauty, Miracles from Heaven Henry Roquemore (1886–1943), actor Thomas Rosales Jr. (born 1948), stunt man Ross Sisters, Betsy (1926–1996), Vickie (1927–2002), and Dixie (1929–1963), Broadway singers, dancers, contortionists Debby Ryan (born 1993), actress, singer, voice actress Irene Ryan (1902–1973), actress, "Granny" on The Beverly Hillbillies Melissa Rycroft (born 1983), reality television contestant S Mark Salling (1982–2018), actor Ajai Sanders (born 1967), actress, comedian Jay O. Sanders (born 1953), actor, Crime Story, AfterMASH, The Day After Tomorrow Stark Sands (born 1978), actor John Phillip Santos (born 1957), filmmaker, producer, journalist, author August Schellenberg (1936–2013), actor Robert Schenkkan (born 1953), actor, playwright, screenwriter Thomas Schlamme (born 1950), producer, director Julian Schnabel (born 1951), award-winning film director, visual artist Maïté Schwartz (born 1979), actress Tracy Scoggins (born 1953), actress, The Colbys, Lois & Clark, Babylon 5 Kimberly Scott (born 1961), actress Zachary Scott (1914–1965), actor, Mildred Pierce, Cass Timberlane Edward Sedgwick (1892–1953), film director, writer, actor, producer Eileen Sedgwick (1898–1991), actress in silent films Joan Severance (born 1958), actress, model Sarah Shahi (born 1980), actress, Life, Fairly Legal, The L Word Shangela, drag queen, reality television personality Andrew Shapter (born 1966), film director, producer, writer, photographer Karen Sharpe (born 1934), actress, The High and the Mighty Molly Louise Shepard (born 1960), playwright, screenwriter Ann Sheridan (1915–1967), actress, The Man Who Came to Dinner, Kings Row Jim Siedow (1920–2003), actor Trinidad Silva (1950–1988), actor Justin Simien (born 1983), filmmaker, actor, author Johnny Simmons (born 1986), actor Lori Singer (born 1957), actress, model, classical musician Marc Singer (born 1948), actor, Michael Donovan on V: The Original Miniseries, V: The Final Battle, and V: The Series Guru Singh (born 1980), actor J. Mack Slaughter Jr. (born 1983), actor Brian J. Smith (born 1981), actor, Stargate Universe, Sense8 Bubba Smith (1945–2011), actor, professional football player Jaclyn Smith (born 1947), actress, starred in Charlie's Angels Kimberly Kay Smith (born 1983), model, actress Gus Sorola (born 1978), actor, podcast host Eve Southern (1898–1972), actress Sissy Spacek (born 1949), Academy Award-winning actress, Coal Miner's Daughter, Carrie, Missing, cousin of Rip Torn Merrie Spaeth (born 1948), child and teen actress; now a business and political consultant and educator Aaron Spelling (1923–2006), television producer Georgina Spelvin (born 1936), adult film actress Brent Spiner (born 1949), actor, star of Star Trek: The Next Generation Kim Spradlin (born 1983), reality television personality, interior designer, business owner Andy Stahl (born 1952), actor, The Client, The Patriot, The Blind Side Nick Stahl (born 1979), actor, Sin City, The Man Without a Face, Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines Jimmy Starr (1904–1991), screenwriter, columnist Jack Starrett (1936–1989), actor, director Eddie Steeples (born 1973), actor Jennifer Stone (born 1993), actress Matt Stone (born 1971), animator, voice actor, cocreator of South Park with Trey Parker Gale Storm (1922–2009), actress, singer Glenn Strange (1899–1973), actor Sherry Stringfield (born 1967), actress David Sullivan (born 1977), actor Allison Sumrall (born 1979), voice actress Don Swayze (born 1958), actor Patrick Swayze (1952–2009), actor, Dirty Dancing, The Outsiders, Road House, Ghost Madylin Sweeten (born 1991), actress, Everybody Loves Raymond Clarence Swensen (1917–2009), actor Francie Swift (born 1968), actress, Gossip Girl T–U Ralph Tabakin (1921–2001), actor, Homicide: Life on the Street Margaret Tallichet (1914–1991), actress Sharon Tate (1943–1969), actress, Valley of the Dolls Jacqueline Taylor (born 1985), actress, Broadway and cabaret singer Regina Taylor (born 1960), actress, Molly Blane on The Unit; playwright Ron Taylor (1952–2002), actor Henry Thomas (born 1971), actor, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, Gangs of New York, All the Pretty Horses Jay Thomas (1948–2017), actor, Mr. Holland's Opus, Cheers Tiffany Thornton (born 1986), actress Stephen Tobolowsky (born 1951), actor, Bob Bishop on Heroes, Ned Ryerson in Groundhog Day Rip Torn (1931–2019), Academy Award-nominated actor, Cross Creek, Sweet Bird of Youth, The Cincinnati Kid, Defending Your Life, The Larry Sanders Show, cousin of Sissy Spacek Stacey Travis (born 1964), actress Jesús Salvador Treviño (born 1946), television director Barry Tubb (born 1963), actor, director Alan Tudyk (born 1971), actor Tommy Tune (born 1939), dancer, actor, Broadway director, choreographer Paola Turbay (born 1970), actress, model, The Secret Life of the American Teenager, Cane Janine Turner (born 1962), model, actress, author, radio talk show host Karri Turner (born 1966), actress Maidel Turner (1888–1953), film actress Meg Turney (born 1987), internet personality, cosplayer, model, vlogger Michael Urie (born 1980), actor, Ugly Betty V–Z Brenda Vaccaro (born 1939), Academy Award-nominated actress, Once Is Not Enough, Midnight Cowboy, Airport '77 Jack Valenti (1921–2007), president of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), 1966–2004; special assistant to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson Greg Vaughan (born 1973), actor, former fashion model, General Hospital, Days of Our Lives, Charmed Conrad Vernon (born 1968), voice actor, writer, director, the Shrek movies, the Madagascar movies, Monsters vs. Aliens Florence Vidor (1895–1977), actress King Vidor (1894–1982), film director, producer Libby Villari (born 1951), actress Tom Virtue (born 1957), actor, Even Stevens, Blades of Glory Elda Voelkel (1911–2001), actress; later documentary filmmaker (as Elda Hartley) Lenny Von Dohlen (born 1958), actor Helen Wagner (1918–2010), actress, played Nancy Hughes on As the World Turns for 54 years Charlotte Walker (1876–1958), actress Jordan Wall (born 1981), actor Isaiah Washington (born 1963), actor, Dr. Preston Burke on Grey's Anatomy Barry Watson (born 1974), actor Ann Wedgeworth (1934–2017), actress, Lana on Three's Company Debbie Weems (1950–1978), actress, singer, Captain Kangaroo Peter Weller (born 1947), actor, RoboCop, Star Trek Into Darkness Noël Wells (born 1986), actress, comedian Bob West (born 1956), actor, Barney & Friends Margaret West (1903–1963), vaudeville performer, radio hostess, heiress Lisa Whelchel (born 1963), actress, author Forest Whitaker (born 1961), Academy Award-winning actor and director, The Last King of Scotland, Bird, Good Morning, Vietnam, Panic Room, Lee Daniels' The Butler Johnny Whitworth (born 1975), actor, CSI: Miami Caroline Williams (born 1957), actress Guinn Williams (1899–1962), actor JoBeth Williams (born 1948), actress, Poltergeist, The Big Chill, Screen Actors Guild president Ryan Piers Williams (born 1981), actor, director, writer Van Williams (1934–2016), actor Noble Willingham (1931–2004), actor, Walker, Texas Ranger Travis Willingham (born 1981), actor, voice actor Chill Wills (1903–1978), Academy Award-nominated actor and singer Andrew Wilson (born 1964), actor Chandra Wilson (born 1969), actress, Miranda Bailey on Grey's Anatomy Dooley Wilson (1886–1953), actor, singer, played "Sam" in Casablanca Luke Wilson (born 1971), actor, Bottle Rocket, The Royal Tenenbaums, Idiocracy Owen Wilson (born 1968), actor, The Darjeeling Limited, Midnight in Paris, Cars Robert Wilson (born 1941), theatre director, playwright Trey Wilson (1948–1989), actor, Bull Durham, Raising Arizona William D. Wittliff (1940–2019), screenwriter, author, photographer Morgan Woodward (1925–2019), actor, Dallas, The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, Gunsmoke Doug Wright (born 1962), Pulitzer Prize- and Tony Award-winning playwright, screenwriter Robin Wright (born 1966), actress, The Princess Bride, House of Cards Natalie Zea (born 1975), actress, Justified, Dirty Sexy Money Nora Zehetner (born 1981), actress Renée Zellweger (born 1969), Academy Award-winning actress, Cold Mountain, Jerry Maguire, Chicago Craig Zisk (born 1950), television director, producer Randy Zisk (born 1959), television director, producer Comedians Aaron Aryanpur, stand-up comedian Rodney Carrington (born 1968), comedian Wyatt Cenac (born 1976), stand-up comedian, actor, writer Ryan Cownie, stand-up comedian Kambri Crews (born 1971), comedic storyteller, memoirist Jeff Dunham (born 1962), ventriloquist, stand-up comedian Jade Esteban Estrada (born 1975), comedian, actor Bill Engvall (born 1957), comedian, actor Jake Flores, stand-up comedian Jack Handey (born 1949), writer for Saturday Night Live Bill Hicks (1961–1994), comedian KevJumba (Kevin Wu) (born 1990), comedian, YouTube celebrity Lashonda Lester (died 2017), comedian Freddy Lockhart (born 1979), comedian, actor Steve Martin (born 1945), comedian, actor Rasika Mathur (born 1976), comedian, actress, Wild 'n Out Ralphie May (1972–2017), comedian Doug Mellard, stand-up comedian Grady Nutt (1934–1982), humorist, Baptist minister Alex Reymundo, comedian, actor Iliza Shlesinger (born 1983), comedian Shuckey Duckey (Cecil Armstrong) (born 1956), comedian, circus ringmaster Freddy Soto (1970–2005), comedian, actor Ryan Stout (born 1982), comedian Greg Travis (born 1958), actor, stand-up comedian Paul Varghese (born 1977), comedian Stephnie Weir (born 1967), comedian, actress, MADtv White Chocolate (born 1969), BET Comic View Ron White (born 1956), comedian, actor Harris Wittels (1984–2015), comedian, actor, writer, producer, musician Dustin Ybarra (born 1989), comedian, actor Magicians Jay Alexander (born 1958), magician J.B. Bobo (1910–1996), magician Richard Turner (born 1954), magician specializing in card manipulation Mark Wilson (1929–2021), magician Music A Dimebag Darrell Abbott (1966–2004), rock guitarist Jerry Abbott (born 1944), country songwriter, producer Dave Abbruzzese (born 1968), rock drummer Jacques Abram (1915–1998), classical pianist Kevin Abstract (Clifford Ian Simpson) (born 1996), rapper, singer-songwriter, director Yolanda Adams (born 1961), Grammy Award-winning gospel singer Samuel Adler (born 1928), composer, conductor, educator Pepe Aguilar (born 1968), ranchera/mariachi/pop singer-songwriter Hanan Alattar (born 1986), opera singer Don Albert (1908–1980), jazz trumpeter, bandleader Carter Albrecht (1973–2007), rock keyboardist, guitarist, classical pianist Victor Alessandro (1915–1976), conductor Alger "Texas" Alexander (1900–1954), blues singer Dave Alexander (aka Omar Sharriff) (1938–2012), blues singer, pianist Terry Allen (born 1943), musician Jerry Allison (born 1939), musician Joe Allison (1924–2002), country songwriter, producer Ruby Allmond (1923–2006), country songwriter, fiddler, guitarist Tommy Allsup (1931–2017), rock/country guitarist Nancy Ames (born 1937), pop/folk singer Trey Anastasio (born 1964), rock singer/guitarist Christopher M. Anderson, college band director Coffey Anderson (born 1978), country singer-songwriter Keith Anderson (born 1970), jazz saxophonist Ryan Anthony (1969–2020), trumpet player Clifford Antone (1949–2006), blues club owner, record producer, mentor to musicians Charlie Applewhite (1932–2001), singer, radio host Katie Armiger (born 1991), country singer Elaine Arnold (1911–2006), opera singer Lev Aronson (1912–1988), classical cellist and teacher Charline Arthur (1929–1987), boogie-woogie/blues singer Gil Askey (1925–2014), jazz/Motown trumpet player, composer Gene Austin (1900–1972), pop/jazz singer-songwriter James Austin (born 1937), classical trumpet player, educator Larry Austin (1930–2018), composer, educator Gene Autry (1907–1998), country music singer John Axelrod (born 1966), classical conductor Pedro Ayala (1911–1990), conjunto accordionist-songwriter Ba–Bm Harry Babasin (1921–1988), jazz bassist Erykah Badu (born 1971), R&B and hip hop singer Zuill Bailey (born 1972), classical cellist Wilfred Bain (1908–1997), music educator Zac Baird (born 1971), rock keyboardist Sam Baker (born 1954), folk singer-songwriter, survived a terrorist bombing attack by Shining Path Marcia Ball (born 1949), blues singer Clint Ballard Jr. (1931–2008), songwriter Smith Ballew (1902–1984), singer, bandleader, actor Moe Bandy (born 1944), country singer Kirko Bangz (born 1989), southern hip hop music and R&B singer Joseph Banowetz (born 1936), classical pianist, teacher Stephen Barber (born 1952), symphonic/pop/rock composer, arranger Danny Barnes (born 1961), country/jazz/punk banjo player and guitarist Les Baxter (1922–1996), composer of lounge music and exotica Frank Beard (born 1949), drummer in ZZ Top George Beauchamp (1899–1941), maker and inventor of violins and guitars Jim Beck (1916–1956), country music talent agent, record promoter, recording studio owner, A&R engineer, record producer, music publisher Leila Bela, musician, writer, actress (born in Tehran, Iran, immigrated to Austin) Archie Bell (born 1944), singer (Archie Bell & the Drells) Jesse Belvin (1932–1960), R&B pianist, singer-songwriter Tex Beneke (1914–2000), big-band saxophonist, singer, bandleader Ray Benson (born 1951), Western swing singer-songwriter, producer, Asleep at the Wheel Buster Benton (1932–1996), blues guitarist, singer Taz Bentley, rock drummer (Burden Brothers) Shelly Berg (born 1955), jazz pianist and educator David Berman (born 1967), alt-rock singer-songwriter (Silver Jews) Big Moe (Kenneth Moore) (1974–2007), rapper Bill Smith Combo, aka Tommy & The Tom Toms, DFW rock 'n roll group Ryan Bingham (born 1981), country singer-songwriter Scott H. Biram (born 1974), blues, punk, country, heavy metal musician Cedric Bixler-Zavala (born 1974), dub, salsa and progressive rock musician Black Ace (Babe Kyro Lemon Turner) (1907–1972), blues singer, guitarist Clint Black (born 1962), country music singer, raised in Houston Robert Black (1950–1993), classical conductor, pianist, composer William Black (1952–2003), classical pianist, educator Zach Blair (born 1973), guitarist of Rise Against Clay Blaker (born 1950), country singer-songwriter William Blankenship (1928–2017), opera singer, educator Jules Bledsoe (1898–1943), Broadway singer Julien Paul Blitz (1885–1951), conductor, cellist Bn–Bz Craig Bohmler (born 1956), opera/musical-theatre composer Zuzu Bollin (1922–1990), blues guitarist Juke Boy Bonner (1932–1978), blues musician Emanuel Borok (1944–2020), classical violinist Brent Bourgeois (born 1958), rock singer, producer Jane Bowers (1921–2000), folk singer-songwriter Euday L. Bowman (1887–1949), ragtime/blues pianist, composer Euel Box (1928–2017), music producer, composer, arranger, trumpeter Boxcar Willie (Lecil Travis Martin) (1931–1999), country singer Bill Boyd (1910–1977), country singer, guitarist Craig Wayne Boyd (born 1978), country singer and winner of NBC's The Voice season 7 Calvin Boze (1916–1970), jazz/R&B trumpeter Danielle Bradbery (born 1996), country singer Jeff Bradetich (born 1957), classical double bass player and educator Bobby Bradford (born 1934), jazz trumpeter, cornetist, bandleader, composer Doyle Bramhall (1949–2011), blues singer-songwriter, drummer Doyle Bramhall II (born 1968), blues/rock guitarist Zachary Breaux (1960–1997), jazz guitarist David Breeden (1946–2005), classical clarinetist Leon Breeden (1921–2010), jazz bandleader, musician, educator Edie Brickell (born 1966), singer, married to Paul Simon Leon Bridges (born 1989), soul singer-songwriter Billy Briggs (born 1977), independent musician-songwriter Houston Bright (1916–1970), choral composer Ally Brooke (born 1993), pop singer Karen Brooks (born 1954), country singer Cecil Brower (1914–1965), country fiddler The 5 Browns (born 1979, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1986), classical pianist siblings born in Texas, raised in Texas and Utah Charles Brown (1922–1999), blues singer, pianist Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown (1924–2005), blues instrumentalist Jewel Brown (born 1937), jazz/blues singer Lacey Brown (born 1985), folk/pop singer Milton Brown (1903–1936), Western swing singer, bandleader Rex Brown (born 1964), musician Cliff Bruner (1915–2000), western swing fiddler, bandleader Anshel Brusilow (1928–2018), orchestra conductor and violinist Stephen Bruton (1948–2009), country musician Mike Buck (born 1952), blues/rock drummer Betty Buckley (born 1947), actress, singer Teddy Buckner (1909–1994), jazz/Dixieland trumpeter Bun B (Bernard Freeman) (born 1973), rapper T-Bone Burnett (born 1948), rock/country songwriter, musician, producer Gerald Busby (born 1935), classical and film composer Johnny Bush (1935–2020), country singer-songwriter William Butler (born 1982), member of Arcade Fire Win Butler (born 1980), lead singer of Canadian indie-rock band Arcade Fire Ca–Cm Ryan Cabrera (born 1982), singer-songwriter Ernie Caceres (1911–1971), jazz instrumentalist Chris Cagle (born 1968), country music artist Kimberly Caldwell (born 1982), pop singer, actress Tevin Campbell (born 1976), musician Tony Campise (1943–2010), jazz woodwind player Laura Canales (1954–2005), Tejano singer Hayes Carll (born 1976), country singer-songwriter Chris Carmichael (born 1962), pop/country string instrumentalist, arranger Vikki Carr (born 1941), jazz, pop, country and Latin music singer Zachary Carrettin (born 1972), classical conductor, composer, violinist Georgia Carroll (1919–2011), big-band singer, actress, model Johnny Carroll (1937–1995), rockabilly singer, guitarist John Carter (1929–1991), jazz instrumentalist, composer, club owner Kristopher Carter (born 1972), classical and Emmy Award-winning film composer Cindy Cashdollar (born 1955), Western swing/bluegrass steel guitarist AJ Castillo (born 1986), Tejano singer Joyce Castle (born 1939), opera singer Jason Castro (born 1987), pop singer/guitarist Hollie Cavanagh (born 1993), pop singer John Cerminaro (born 1947), classical horn player Chamillionaire (born 1979), rapper Greyson Chance (born 1997), pop/rock singer, pianist John Barnes Chance (1932–1972), classical composer, timpanist Bruce Channel (born 1940), rock and roll singer Gary Chapman (born 1957), contemporary Christian singer-songwriter Mark Chesnutt (born 1963), country singer-songwriter Chingo Bling (Pedro Herrera III) (born 1979), rapper, producer Harry Choates (1922–1951), Cajun fiddler Charlie Christian (1916–1942), swing/jazz guitarist Chungha (Kim Chan-mi) (born February 9, 1996), South Korean musician Ciara (Ciara Harris) (born 1985), musician Gary Clark Jr. (born 1984), Texas blues musician Guy Clark (1941–2016), country singer-songwriter Lakrea Clark (born 1991), singer-songwriter Victoria Clark (born 1959), singer, Tony Award-winning actress Kelly Clarkson (born 1982), singer, American Idol winner Cynthia Clawson (born 1948), Grammy Award-winning gospel singer James Clay (1935–1995), jazz instrumentalist Sonny Clay (1899–1973), jazz pianist, drummer, bandleader Laura Claycomb (born 1968), operatic soprano Van Cliburn (1934–2013), pianist (born in Louisiana, raised in Texas) Cn–Cz Arnett Cobb (1918–1989), jazz saxophonist Eddie Coker (born 1960), singer-songwriter of music for children Henry Coker (1919–1979), jazz trombonist Gary B.B. Coleman (1947–1994), soul/blues guitarist, singer-songwriter, producer Jerry "Bo" Coleman, (born 1936) radio disc jockey; KDAV in Lubbock Ornette Coleman (1930–2015), jazz saxophonist John Ford Coley (born 1948), rock musician (England Dan & John Ford Coley) Bill Collings (1948–2017), guitar maker Albert Collins (1932–1993), blues musician Jim Collins (born 1956), country singer-songwriter Eugene Conley (1908–1981), opera singer Barbara Smith Conrad (1940–2017), opera singer David Cook (born 1982), rock singer-songwriter (born in Houston, raised in Missouri) Nick Cooper (born 1968), drummer, record producer, composer, filmmaker, social activist Johnny Copeland (1937–1997), blues guitarist, singer Larry Coryell (1943–2017), jazz fusion guitarist James Cotton (1935–2017), blues harmonica player, singer-songwriter Josie Cotton (Kathleen Josey) (born 1956), rock singer Orville Couch (1935–2002), country singer-songwriter Cowboy Troy (born 1970), rap singer-songwriter Bryan-Michael Cox (born 1977), record producer, songwriter Cindy Cox (born 1961), classical composer Pee Wee Crayton (1914–1985), R&B/blues guitarist, singer Roger Creager (born 1971), country singer Dash Crofts (born 1940), soft-rock musician (Seals and Crofts) Christopher Cross (born 1951), singer Randy Crouch (born 1952), country instrumentalist Wayne Crouse (1924–2000), violist Rodney Crowell (born 1950), country singer-songwriter Lella Cuberli (born 1945), opera singer Henry Cuesta (1931–2003), jazz/big-band clarinetist Jim Cullum Jr. (1941–2019), Dixieland/jazz cornetist and bandleader Jeff Current, lead singer for Against All Will Mac Curtis (1939–2013), rockabilly musician Sonny Curtis (born 1937), country/pop singer-songwriter D Ted Daffan (1912–1996), country guitarist, songwriter Pappy Daily (1902–1987), country music record producer Floyd Dakil (1945–2010), pop guitarist-songwriter Vernon Dalhart (Marion Slaughter) (1883–1948), country singer-songwriter Chris Dave (born 1973), jazz/gospel/hip hop drummer, composer, bandleader Ivan Davis (1932–2018), classical pianist Mac Davis (1942–2020), musician Monte Hill Davis (1932–2018), classical pianist Ronnie Dawson (1939–2003), rockabilly musician Bobby Day (Robert James Byrd, Sr.) (1928–1990), rock and roll/R&B singer-songwriter, instrumentalist, producer Eddie Dean (1907–1999), country singer-songwriter Jimmy Dean (1928–2010), country singer, television personality, businessman Bill Dees (1939–2012), country songwriter, "Oh, Pretty Woman" Ryan Delahoussaye (born 1976), rock instrumentalist Tim DeLaughter (born 1965), rock singer Brett Deubner (born 1968), classical violist Lindsay Deutsch (born 1984), classical violinist Al Dexter (1905–1984), country singer Mike Dillon, rock drummer-singer-songwriter Floyd Dixon (1929–2006), R&B pianist, singer Jessy Dixon (1938–2011), gospel singer DJ Screw (Robert Earl Davis, Jr.) (1971–2000), hip-hop artist The D.O.C. (born 1968), rapper Deryl Dodd (born 1964), country music singer-songwriter Helen Donath (born 1940), operatic soprano Kenny Dorham (1924–1972), jazz trumpeter, singer, composer Bob Dorough (1923–2018), jazz vocalist, pianist, composer, songwriter, arranger, producer Dorrough (born 1986), rapper Amber Dotson (born 1973), country singer Bobby Doyle (1939–2006), jazz singer Damita Jo DuBlanc (1930–1998), lounge singer, actress, comedian Sherman H. Dudley (1872–1940), vaudeville and black musical performer and producer Hilary Duff (born 1987), singer Ted Dunbar (1937–1998), jazz guitarist, composer, educator Johnny Duncan (1938–2006), country singer Tommy Duncan (1911–1967), Western swing singer-songwriter Bob Dunn (1908–1971), jazz trombonist, Western swing steel guitarist Holly Dunn (1957–2016), country singer Ronnie Dunn (born 1953), country singer Chauntelle DuPree (born 1981), rock/pop guitarist (Eisley) Garron DuPree (born 1989), rock/pop bass guitarist (Eisley) Sherri DuPree (born 1983), rock/pop singer, guitarist, lyricist (Eisley) Stacy DuPree (born 1988), rock/pop keyboardist, singer (Eisley) Weston DuPree (born 1986), rock/pop drummer (Eisley) Eddie Durham (1906–1987), jazz guitarist, trombonist, composer, arranger E Robert Ealey (1925–2001), blues singer Steve Earle (born 1955), singer-songwriter, musician Reed Easterwood (born 1967), rock guitarist Roger Edens (1905–1970), film composer Emily Elbert (born 1988), folk/soul/jazz/pop singer-songwriter Willard Somers Elliot (1926–2000), classical bassoonist Herb Ellis (1921–2010), jazz guitarist Merrill Leroy Ellis (1916–1981), classical composer Robert Ellis (born 1988), country/rock singer-songwriter Terry Ellis (born 1966), R&B singer (En Vogue) Paul Ellison (born 1941), classical bassist and teacher Joe Ely (born 1947), singer-songwriter, guitarist Ralna English (born 1942), singer from The Lawrence Welk Show Roky Erickson (1947–2019), rock singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Booker Ervin (1930–1970), jazz saxophonist Alejandro Escovedo (born 1951), rock guitarist, singer-songwriter Dale Evans (1912–2001), country singer-songwriter, guitarist Herschel Evans (1909–1939), jazz saxophonist Roberto Eyzaguirre (1923–2004), classical pianist and teacher F Terry Fator (born 1965), singer, ventriloquist, impersonator Fat Pat (Patrick Hawkins) (1970–1998), rapper Jimmy Lee Fautheree (1934–2004), rockabilly singer José Feghali (1961–2014), classical pianist and teacher Wilton Felder (1940–2015), jazz saxophonist, bassist Nathan Felix (born 1981), classical composer Freddy Fender (1937–2006), musician Keith Ferguson (1946–1997), blues/rock bass guitarist, The Fabulous Thunderbirds Rosita Fernandez (1919–2006), Tejano/pop singer, actress Ernie Fields (c. 1904 – 1997), jazz trombonist Carl Finch (born 1951), polka musician, founder of Brave Combo Charles Finger (1867–1941), music teacher, conservatory administrator; later a noted author of children's literature Sonny Fisher (1931–2005), rockabilly singer-songwriter, guitarist Rosie Flores (born 1950), country singer Carlisle Floyd (1926–2021), opera composer George Floyd (1974–2020), rapper, died in Minneapolis Police custody Jim Bob Floyd (born 1929), classical pianist, composer Blaze Foley (Michael Fuller) (1949–1989), folk singer-songwriter Bruce Ford (born 1956), operatic tenor Radney Foster (born 1959), country music singer-songwriter Ruthie Foster (born 1964), blues/folk singer-songwriter Kevin Fowler (born 1966), country singer Curly Fox (1910–1995), country fiddler James Francies (born 1995), jazz pianist, composer Kirk Franklin (born 1970), gospel singer Denny Freeman (1944–2021), blues instrumentalist, songwriter Eddie Freeman (1909–1987), jazz/flamenco guitarist, arranger, teacher Walter Fried (1877–1925), violinist and conductor Kinky Friedman (born 1944), singer-songwriter, novelist, columnist, candidate for governor of Texas Lefty Frizzell (1928–1975), country singer Steven Fromholz (1945–2014), singer-songwriter Akiko Fujimoto, orchestra conductor Bobby Fuller (1942–1966), rock singer and guitarist Marjorie Fulton (1909–1962), classical violinist and teacher Anson Funderburgh (born 1954), blues guitarist, bandleader Justin Furstenfeld (born 1975), rock singer and guitarist G Kyle Gann (born 1955), composer, musicologist, music critic Red Garland (1923–1984), jazz pianist Travis Garland (born 1989), singer-songwriter Joy Garrett (1945–1993), big-band singer, actress Henry Garza (born 1978), Los Lonely Boys lead guitarist of San Angelo, 2005 Grammy Award winner Jojo Garza (born 1980), Los Lonely Boys bass of San Angelo, 2005 Grammy Award winner Ringo Garza (born 1981), Los Lonely Boys drummer of San Angelo, 2005 Grammy Award winner Larry Gatlin (born 1948), singer-songwriter, member of the Gatlin Brothers Zelma Watson George (1903–1994), opera singer, musicologist Richard Giangiulio (born 1942), classical trumpet player and conductor Billy Gibbons (born 1949), guitarist in ZZ Top Mickey Gilley (born 1936), country musician Don Gillis (1912–1978), composer, conductor, producer, educator Everett M. Gilmore (1935–2005), classical tubist Jimmie Dale Gilmore (born 1945), singer-songwriter Johnny Gimble (1926–2015), country fiddler John Giordano (born 1937), orchestra conductor Jimmy Giuffre (1921–2008), jazz composer, arranger, clarinetist and saxophonist Robert Glasper (born 1978), jazz pianist Jack Glatzer (born 1939), concert violinist Terry Glaze (born 1964), country/heavy-metal singer, guitarist Darrell Glenn (1935–1990), country singer Lloyd Glenn (1909–1985), R&B pianist, bandleader, arranger Tyree Glenn (1912–1974), big band/jazz trombonist Lillian Glinn (1902–1978), blues singer-songwriter David Gockley (born 1943), opera company administrator Renée Elise Goldsberry (born 1971), singer-songwriter, actress Tomasz Golka (born 1975), classical conductor, composer, violinist David Golub (1950–2000), classical pianist, conductor Selena Gomez (born 1992), actress and singer Allie Gonino (born 1990), actress and pop singer Floyd Graham (1902–1974), bandleader, educator Larry Graham (born 1946), soul, R&B, and funk musician Susan Graham (born 1960), opera singer Donald Grantham (born 1947), classical composer and music educator Mitchell 'Mitch' Grassi (born 1992), a cappella singer Dobie Gray (1940–2011), soul singer-songwriter Jerry Gray (1915–1976), swing-era arranger and bandleader Pat Green (born 1972), country singer-songwriter Thurman Green (1940–1997), jazz trombonist Art Greenhaw (born 1954), Grammy Award-winning recording artist, producer, engineer Nanci Griffith (1953–2021), singer-songwriter Larry Groce (born 1948), singer-songwriter of country music, children's songs; radio host Dewey Groom (1918–1997), country singer Texas Guinan (1884–1933), western singer, actress David Wendel Guion (1892–1981), composer, arranger of folk tunes Guitar Shorty (David Kearney) (born 1939), blues guitarist Woody Guthrie (1912–1967), folk singer-songwriter (spent several years in Pampa, during the formative period of his youth) Billy Guy (Frank Phillips, Jr.) (1936–2002), R&B/rock and roll singer (The Coasters) H–I Marcus Haddock (born 1957), opera singer Monte Hale (1919–2009), country singer, actor Robert Hale (born 1933), opera singer Gene Hall (1913–1993), jazz saxophonist, music educator Tommy Hall (born 1943), rock electric jug player Stuart Hamblen (1908–1989), country singer, candidate for U.S. President Ed Hamell, punk-rock singer-songwriter, guitarist Bob Hames (1920–1998), jazz guitarist Butch Hancock (born 1945), country/folk singer-songwriter Gerre Hancock (1934–2012), organist, composer Tommy Hancock (1929–2020), country singer, bandleader John Handy (born 1933), jazz saxophonist John Hardee (1919–1984), jazz saxophonist Glen Hardin (born 1939), rock and roll piano player Maud Cuney Hare (1874–1936), music historian, civil rights activist Roy Hargrove (1969–2018), jazz trumpet player Eric Harland (born 1976), jazz drummer Everette Harp (born 1961), jazz saxophonist Lynn Harrell (1944–2020), concert cellist raised in Texas Mack Harrell (1909–1960), operatic baritone Peppermint Harris (Harrison Nelson, Jr.) (1925–1999), R&B singer, guitarist R. H. Harris (1916–2000), gospel singer Daniel Hart (born 1976), indie pop singer-songwriter, violinist Earl Harvin, rock drummer Bess Lomax Hawes (1921–2009), folk musician, folklorist Nelly (real name Cornell Haynes) (born 1974), rapper, singer-songwriter, entrepreneur, investor, and occasional actor Gibby Haynes (born 1957), lead singer of the Butthole Surfers Cedric Haywood (1914–1969), jazz pianist Roy Head (1941–2020), Roy Head and The Traits Sundance Head (born 1979), country singer-songwriter, contestant from American Idol season 6 and winner of NBC's The Voice season 11 Chet Helms (1942–2005), music promoter, called father of the Summer of Love Julius Hemphill (1938–1995), jazz composer, saxophonist Bugs Henderson (1943–2012), blues guitarist Tom Hendricks, rock/blues guitarist, magazine writer, editor Terri Hendrix (born 1968), contemporary folk singer-songwriter Don Henley (born 1947), musician with rock group the Eagles Shifty Henry (1921–1958), R&B/jazz instrumentalist, songwriter Walter Herbert (1898–1975), opera conductor and administrator Ally Brooke Hernandez (born 1993), pop singer Anna Goodman Hertzberg (1864–1937), pianist, civic leader, philanthropist Casey Hess, rock guitarist (Burden Brothers) Carolyn Hester (born 1937), folk singer-songwriter Sara Hickman (born 1963), rock/pop singer-songwriter Johnnie High (1929–2010), country musician and impresario Ray Hildebrand (born 1940), pop singer, Paul & Paula Dusty Hill (1945–2021), bass guitarist in ZZ Top Z. Z. Hill (1935–1984), blues singer Tish Hinojosa (born 1955), Mexican-American folk singer James William Hipp (born 1934), classical trumpet player, educator, music administrator Desmond Hoebig (born 1961), classical cellist and teacher Ernst Hoffmann (c. 1899 – 1956), orchestra conductor Adolph Hofner (1916–2000), western swing bandleader Smokey Hogg (1914–1960), country blues singer, guitarist John Holiday (born 1985), opera singer Jennifer Holliday (born 1960), Grammy Award-winning singer, actress Buddy Holly (1936–1959), singer-songwriter Steve Holy (born 1972), country singer Stix Hooper (born 1938), jazz drummer Sam Lightnin' Hopkins (1912–1982), blues musician Jazzmeia Horn (born 1991), jazz singer-songwriter Johnny Horton (1925–1960), country singer Brad Houser (born 1960), rock instrumentalist Scott Hoying (born 1991), a cappella singer Frank Huang (born 1978), concert violinist Ray Wylie Hubbard (born 1946), country singer-songwriter Bill Hughes (1930–2018), jazz trombonist, bandleader Joe "Guitar" Hughes (1937–2003), blues singer, guitarist Bobbi Humphrey (born 1950), jazz flutist Jerry Hunt (1943–1993), avant-garde composer Ivory Joe Hunter (1914–1974), R&B singer-songwriter, pianist Long John Hunter (1931–2016), blues guitarist, singer-songwriter Willie Hutch (1944–2005), blues/R&B singer-songwriter, instrumentalist, record producer Clarence Hutchenrider (1908–1991), jazz clarinetist Walter Hyatt (1949–1996), folk singer, guitarist Jack Ingram (born 1970), country singer-songwriter J Jill Jackson (born 1942), pop singer, Paul & Paula Melvin Jackson (1915–1976), blues guitarist Ronald Shannon Jackson (1940–2013), jazz drummer Illinois Jacquet (1922–2004), jazz saxophonist, bassoonist Russell Jacquet (1917–1990), jazz trumpeter Sarah Jaffe (born 1986), folk/rock singer-songwriter Casey James (born 1983), pop/country singer, guitarist Harry James (1916–1983), jazz/big band trumpeter (lived and worked in Beaumont as an adolescent) Sarah Jarosz (born 1991), Americana/bluegrass singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Blind Lemon Jefferson (1897–1929), blues musician Speight Jenkins (born 1937), opera administrator, producer Waylon Jennings (1937–2002), country singer Michael Jerome (born 1967), rock drummer Flaco Jiménez (born 1939), Tejano accordionist Santiago Jiménez Jr. (born 1961), conjunto accordionist Kari Jobe (born 1981), Christian singer-songwriter Evan Johns (1956–2017), rockabilly guitarist Blind Willie Johnson (1897–1945), blues/spirituals singer, guitarist Budd Johnson (1910–1984), jazz saxophonist Conrad O. Johnson (1915–2008), music educator David N. Johnson (1922–1987), classical organist, composer, educator Eric Johnson (born 1954), rock/jazz/country guitarist Gus Johnson (1913–2000), jazz drummer Keg Johnson (1908–1967), jazz trombonist Money Johnson (1918–1978), jazz trumpeter Virgil L. Johnson (1935–2013), musician, The Velvets Willie Neal Johnson (1935–2001), gospel singer Daniel Johnston (1961–2019), rock singer-songwriter Nicholas Jonas (born 1992), singer, guitarist of the Jonas Brothers George Jones (1931–2013), country singer Little Hat Jones (1899–1981), blues singer, guitarist Maggie Jones (1894–unknown), blues singer, pianist, known as "The Texas Nightingale" Mike Jones (born 1981), rapper Norah Jones (born 1979), soul/folk singer-songwriter, born in New York City but raised in Texas Tom Jones (born 1928), lyricist of musical theater Janis Joplin (1943–1970), blues/rock singer Scott Joplin (c. 1867 – 1917), ragtime musician and composer Esteban Jordan (1939–2010), conjunto/Tejano accordionist Jimmy Joy (1902–1962), jazz/big-band saxophonist, clarinetist K Kurt Kaiser (1934–2018), church music composer Benjamin Kamins (born 1952), classical bassoonist Milton Katims (1909–2006), concert violist and conductor Robert Earl Keen (born 1957), singer-songwriter Bobby Keys (1943–2014), rock/jazz saxophonist, played with The Rolling Stones Peck Kelley (1898–1980), jazz pianist and bandleader Kent Kennan (1913–2003), classical composer King Curtis (Curtis Ousley) (1934–1971), R&B/pop saxophonist Freddie King (1934–1976), blues guitarist and singer Joseph King, rock singer-songwriter Ralph Kirshbaum (born 1946), cellist Beyoncé (born 1981), R&B singer, actress John Knowles (born 1942), popular/classical guitarist, composer, arranger, music educator, physicist Solange Knowles (born 1986), R&B singer-songwriter, actress, model, dancer Buddy Knox (1933–1999), rockabilly singer-songwriter Normani Kordei (born 1996), pop singer, dancer Karl Korte (born 1928), composer, music educator Lili Kraus (1903–1986), classical pianist Hans Kreissig (1857–1929), conductor, pianist, educator; created Dallas Symphony Orchestra Kris Kristofferson (born 1936), singer-songwriter, actor Philip Krumm (born 1941), composer L Fredell Lack (1922–2017), concert violinist and teacher Eugene Lacritz (1929–2012), classical/Broadway clarinetist, saxophonist, conductor Jimmy LaFave (1955–2017), folk/country/rock singer-songwriter Gary Lakes (born 1950), opera singer Alex Lambert (born 1990), pop singer-songwriter Miranda Lambert (born 1983), country music singer-songwriter Harold Land (1928–2001), bop saxophonist Kasey Lansdale (born 1988), country singer-songwriter Shelly Lares (born 1971), Tejano singer-songwriter Milt Larkin (1910–1996), jazz trumpeter, bandleader Prince Lasha (1929–2008), jazz instrumentalist William P. Latham (1917–2004), classical composer Melissa Lawson (born 1976), country singer Lead Belly (Huddie Ledbetter) (1888–1949), blues musician Paul Leary (born 1957), rock guitarist Johnny Lee (born 1946), country singer Will Lee (born 1952), jazz/rock bassist William Franklin Lee III (1929–2011), jazz pianist, composer, arranger, author, music educator Paul Leim (born 1950), country/rock/pop drummer Raymond Lewenthal (1923–1988), concert pianist Vaden Todd Lewis (born 1965), grunge singer-guitarist (The Toadies, Burden Brothers) Willie Lewis (1905–1971), jazz clarinetist, bandleader Lil Flip (Wesley Weston Jr.) (born 1981), rapper Mance Lipscomb (1895–1976), Blues singer, guitarist Robert Lipsett (born 1947), concert violinist and master teacher Bill Lister (1923–2009), country singer Andrew Litton (born 1959), orchestra conductor Lizzo (Melissa Jefferson) (born 1988), rapper, singer-songwriter Lisa Loeb (born 1968), singer-songwriter, actress Hannibal Lokumbe (born Marvin Peterson) (born 1948), jazz trumpet player, composer Alan Lomax (1915–2002), folk singer, guitarist, ethnomusicologist, folklorist John London (1942–2000), pop/rock guitarist, songwriter; television production crew Jim Long (born 1943), music producer, publisher; entrepreneur Isidro López (1929–2004), Tejano bandleader Trini Lopez (1937–2020), Hispanic musician, singer Demi Lovato (born 1992), singer, actress Lyle Lovett (born 1957), singer-songwriter David Lowery (born 1960), rock guitarist, singer-songwriter Josephine Lucchese (1893–1974), opera singer LeToya Luckett (born 1981), singer Bob Luman (1937–1978), country/rockabilly singer Anne Lundy (born 1954), classical conductor, music educator Lunic (Kaitee Page) (born 1985), electropop singer, multi-instrumentalist Ray Lynch (born 1943), classical guitarist and lutenist Ma–Mm Machine Gun Kelly (Colson Baker) (born 1990), rapper Michael Madden (born 1979), bassist for Maroon 5 Clif Magness (born 1957), pop songwriter, producer Martie Maguire (born 1969), country singer-songwriter (The Dixie Chicks) Austin Mahone (born 1996), pop singer Martin Mailman (1932–2000), classical composer and educator Lloyd Maines (born 1951), musician, producer Natalie Maines (born 1974), musician Major (Major R. Johnson Finley) (born 1984), pop/soul singer-songwriter Petronel Malan (born 1974), concert pianist Kirstin 'Kirstie' Maldonado (born 1992), a cappella singer Post Malone (born 1995), rap singer-songwriter Barbara Mandrell (born 1948), country singer Louise Mandrell (born 1954), country singer David Mann (born 1966), gospel singer, actor Tamela Mann (born 1966), gospel singer, actress Chris Marion (born 1962), rock musician member of Little River Band Tina Marsh (1954–2009), jazz singer, composer David Martin (1937–1987) rock musician, member of Sam The Sham & The Pharaohs, Tommy & The Tom Toms Mary Martin (1913–1990), Broadway singer, actress Narciso Martínez (1911–1992), conjunto singer, accordionist Óscar Martínez (born 1934), Tejano musician, songwriter Rhema Marvanne (born 2002), gospel singer Eduardo Mata (1942–1995), orchestra conductor Johnny Mathis (born 1935), singer Johnny "Country" Mathis (1930–2011), country singer-songwriter Rich Matteson (1929–1993), jazz brass player, bandleader, educator Joe B. Mauldin (1940–2015), rock and roll bass player Pete Mayes (1938–2008), blues singer-songwriter, guitarist Sally Mayes (born 1959), Broadway singer and actress, jazz/rock singer Timothy McAllister (born 1972), classical saxophonist Leon McAuliffe (1917–1988), Western swing guitarist W. Francis McBeth (1933–2012), composer, music educator Erin McCarley (born 1979), alternative music singer-songwriter Delbert McClinton (born 1940), singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Mary McCormic (1889–1981), opera singer, educator Neal McCoy (born 1958), country singer David McEnery (1914–2002), country/Christian singer-songwriter, guitarist Nikki McKibbin (1978–2020), rock singer-songwriter Ray McKinley (1910–1995), jazz drummer, singer, bandleader Eliza Jane McKissack (1828–1900), music educator and administrator, singer, pianist Ian McLagan (1945–2014), rock keyboardist Cosmé McMoon (1901–1980), classical pianist, accompanied Florence Foster Jenkins James McMurtry (born 1962), folk-rock singer-songwriter, son of novelist Larry McMurtry Cindy McTee (born 1953), classical composer Meat Loaf (1951–2022), singer, actor David Meece (born 1952), contemporary Christian singer, pianist William B. Meeks Jr. (1921–1999), producer, composer, arranger of radio jingles; woodwind player Lydia Mendoza (1916–2007), Tejano singer Tom Merriman (1924–2009), commercial/jazz composer, arranger, producer, bandleader, educator Tift Merritt (born 1975), rock/country singer-songwriter Augie Meyers (born 1940), rock/Tejano keyboard player Louis Meyers (1955–2016), co-founder of South by Southwest music and media festival, multi-instrumentalist Bunny Michael, visual artist, musician, and rapper Aryn Michelle (born 1983), Christian pop/rock singer-songwriter Liz Mikel (born 1963), jazz singer, actress Amos Milburn (1927–1980), R&B singer, pianist Buddy Miles (1947–2008), rock drummer Frankie Miller (born 1931), country musician Julie Miller (born 1956), country singer-songwriter Rhett Miller (born 1970), alt-country singer Roger Miller (1936–1992), singer-songwriter Steve Miller (born 1943), blues/rock guitarist Mary Mills (born 1964), opera singer Mn–Mz Charles Moffett (1929–1997), jazz drummer Bill Moffit (1926–2008), marching-band director, music arranger and composer Margarita Monet (born 1990), rock singer, pianist, composer, actress Bob Montgomery (1937–2014), rockabilly singer-songwriter, producer Johnny Moore (1906–1969), blues singer, guitarist Latonia Moore (born 1979), opera singer Oscar Moore (1916–1981), jazz/blues guitarist Tiny Moore (1920–1987), western swing instrumentalist Whistlin' Alex Moore (1899–1989), blues pianist, singer, whistler Michael Morales (born 1963), rock/pop singer-songwriter Jason Moran (born 1975), jazz pianist Mike Moreno (born 1978), jazz guitarist Mike Morgan (born 1959), blues guitarist, harmonica player, singer-songwriter Craig Morris (born 1968), classical trumpet player, educator Gary Morris (born 1948), country singer, actor Harold Morris (1890–1964), classical pianist, composer, educator Jay Hunter Morris (born 1963), opera singer Maren Morris (born 1990), country singer-songwriter Ella Mae Morse (1924–1999), blues/jazz/pop singer Mark Morton (born 1960), classical double bass player Lacey Mosley (born 1981), lead singer of alternative metal band Flyleaf Moon Mullican (1909–1967), country singer-songwriter, pianist Michael Martin Murphey (born 1945), country singer-songwriter Kacey Musgraves (born 1988), country singer-songwriter Mason Musso (born 1989), pop/rock singer-songwriter Sam Myers (1936–2006), blues singer, instrumentalist N–O Johnny Nash (1940–2020), pop singer-songwriter Emilio Navaira (1962–2016), Latin pop/country musician Sam Neely (1948–2006), country singer, guitarist Nelly (born 1978), rapper Jimmy Nelson (1928–2007), blues singer-songwriter Steady Nelson (1913–1988), jazz/swing trumpeter Willie Nelson (born 1933), country singer-songwriter Michael Nesmith (1942–2021), singer with The Monkees Mickey Newbury (1940–2002), country/folk singer-songwriter David "Fathead" Newman (1933–2009), jazz saxophonist Johnny Nicholas (born 1948), blues singer, pianist Elena Nikolaidi (1909–2002), opera singer and teacher John Nitzinger (born 1948), rock guitarist, songwriter Timothy Nolen (born 1941), opera singer, Broadway singer and actor Normani (born 1996), pop singer Daron Norwood (1965–2015), country singer Salim Nourallah (born 1967), alt-country singer-songwriter Darrell Nulisch (born 1952), blues singer Gary P. Nunn (born 1945), country singer-songwriter Phil Ochs (1940–1976), folk singer-songwriter W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel (1890–1969), country-western singer-songwriter, Texas governor, and U.S. senator Adolfo Odnoposoff (1917–1992), classical cellist and teacher O.G. Style (Eric Woods) (1970–2008), rapper Paul Olefsky (1926–2013), classical cellist and teacher Pauline Oliveros (1932–2016), avant-garde composer, performance artist Gene O'Quin (1932–1978), country singer Roy Orbison (1936–1988), singer-songwriter K. T. Oslin (born 1941), country singer-songwriter Tommy Overstreet (1937–2015), country singer Buck Owens (1929–2006), country singer P–Q Hot Lips Page (1908–1954), jazz trumpeter, bandleader Knocky Parker (1918–1986), country/jazz pianist Dean Parks (born 1946), studio musician Vinnie Paul (Abbott) (1964–2018), rock drummer, producer Glen Payne (1926–1999), gospel singer Leon Payne (1917–1969), country singer-songwriter Maurice Peress (1930–2017), classical conductor, educator Paul Peress (born 1959), jazz/world music drummer, composer, producer Chris Pérez (born 1969), rock guitarist, singer-songwriter Jay Perez (born 1963), Tejano singer-songwriter Jack Petersen (born 1933), jazz guitarist, educator Ray Peterson (1939–2005), pop singer Esther Phillips (1935–1984), R&B/jazz/pop/country singer Washington Phillips (1880–1954), gospel singer, instrumentalist Buster Pickens (1916–1964), blues pianist Patrice Pike (born 1970), rock/soul singer-songwriter-guitarist Ben J. Pierce (born 1999), YouTuber, singer-songwriter, actor Pimp C (Chad Butler) (1973–2007), rapper Mark Pirro (born 1970), rock bass player Harvey Pittel (born 1943), classical saxophonist Howard Pollack (born 1952), classical pianist, musicologist, author, professor Joe Poovey (1941–1998), rockabilly singer-songwriter The Powell Brothers (Taylor Powell and Blake Powell), country musicians Billy Preston (1946–2006), soul musician Johnny Preston (1939–2011), pop singer Ray Price (1926–2013), country singer Sammy Price (1908–1992), jazz/blues pianist, bandleader Toni Price (born 1961), country/blues singer Charley Pride (1938–2020), country singer P. J. Proby (born 1938), singer-songwriter, actor Chris Purdy (born 1972), pop/rock singer-songwriter Wynne Pyle (1881–1971), classical pianist Queen Ida (Ida Lewis Guillory) (born 1929), Creole/zydeco accordionist Abraham Quintanilla (born 1939), Tejano singer-songwriter, producer R Ezra Rachlin (1915–1995), orchestra conductor, pianist RaeLynn (Racheal Lynn Woodward) (born 1994), country singer Gene Ramey (1913–1984), jazz double bassist Richard Ramirez, noise musician Willis Alan Ramsey (born 1951), country singer-songwriter Jon Randall (born 1969), country singer-songwriter Mickey Raphael (born 1951), country/rock harmonica player Leon Rausch (1927–2019), Western swing singer Tha Realest (Jevon Jones) (born 1974), rapper Jaret Reddick (born 1972), punk singer-songwriter, guitarist, Bowling for Soup Dewey Redman (1931–2006), jazz saxophonist Goebel Reeves (1899–1959), folk singer Jim Reeves (1923–1964), country/pop singer-songwriter Claire Raphael Reis (1888–1978), classical music promoter, musicologist, educator Max Reiter (1905–1950), classical orchestra conductor Nicola Rescigno (1916–2008), opera conductor Timothy Rhea (born 1967), conductor, music educator Sonny Rhodes (born Clarence Edward Smith) (born 1940), blues singer, guitar player John Rich (born 1974), country music singer-songwriter J.P. (The Big Bopper) Richardson (1930–1959), singer Jim Riggs (born 1941), saxophonist, educator Jeannie C. Riley (born 1945), country singer LeAnn Rimes (born 1982), country singer; born in Mississippi, but grew up in Garland Cowboy Slim Rinehart (1911–1948), country singer Tex Ritter (1905–1974), singer/ actor, father of actor John Ritter LaTavia Roberson (born 1981), singer Eck Robertson (1887–1975), country fiddler Don Robey (1903–1975), blues songwriter, record producer Hal Robinson (born 1952), classical string bass player Sharon Robinson (born 1949), concert cellist Emily Robison (born 1972), country singer-songwriter (The Dixie Chicks) Jimmie Rodgers (1897–1933), country singer Carrie Rodriguez (born 1978), folk singer-songwriter, fiddler Danny Rodriguez (1967–1990), Christian rapper David Rodriguez (1952–2015), folk singer-songwriter Johnny Rodriguez (born 1951), country singer Omar Rodríguez-López (born 1975), Dub and Progressive rock musician Robert Xavier Rodríguez (born 1946), classical composer Herbert Rogers (1929–1983), classical pianist and teacher Kenny Rogers (1938–2020), country singer-songwriter Randy Rogers, country singer Gene Roland (1921–1982), jazz composer, musician A. Clyde Roller (1914–2005), conductor and music educator Moreland Kortkamp Roller (1916–2006), classical pianist and teacher Lulu Roman (born 1947), country/gospel singer, comedian Kelly Rowland (born 1981), R&B singer-songwriter, dancer, actress Corey Rozzoni (born 1973), rock guitarist (Burden Brothers) Nancy Rumbel (born 1951), classical/new-age oboist, ocarina player, won Grammy Award Tim Rushlow (born 1966), country musician Sa–Sm Doug Sahm (1941–1999), Tejano musician-songwriter Carl St. Clair (born 1952), orchestra conductor Sandra St. Victor (born 1963), R&B/soul/jazz singer-songwriter St. Vincent (Annie Clark) (born 1982), pop singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Olga Samaroff (1880–1948), classical pianist and teacher Joe Sample (1939–2014), jazz pianist, composer Domingo "Sam" Samudio (born 1937), rock 'n' roll musician, bandleader, entertainer ("Sam the Sham") George Sanger (born 1957), video-game music composer Stephanie Sant'Ambrogio (born 1960), violinist Simon Sargon (born 1938), classical composer, pianist, conductor Ray Sasaki (born 1948), trumpet player, educator Leslie Satcher (born 1962), country and bluegrass singer Billy Jack Saucier (1931–1987), country fiddler Boz Scaggs (born 1944), singer-songwriter Tony Scalzo (born 1964), pop/rock singer-songwriter, guitarist Scarface (born 1970), rapper Haley Scarnato (born 1982), American Idol (season 6) finalist (8th place) Harvey Schmidt (1929–2018), musical theatre composer (The Fantasticks) Eduard Schmieder (born 1948), classical violinist, teacher David Schnaufer (1952–2006), folk dulcimer player, music educator Emil Schuhmann (1856–1937), accordionist, bandleader, folk artist Jerry Scoggins (1911–2004), country singer Kendrick Scott (born 1980), jazz drummer, bandleader, composer Travis Scott (Jacques Webster Jr.) (born 1992), hip hop recording artist, music producer Joe Scruggs (born 1951), retired children's and folk singer-songwriter Dan Seals (1948–2009), rock/country musician (England Dan & John Ford Coley) Jim Seals (born 1941), soft-rock musician (Seals and Crofts) Lynn Seaton (born 1957), jazz bassist, educator Selena (Selena Quintanilla) (1971–1995), Tejano/pop singer Jason Sellers (born 1971), country singer-songwriter Arban Severin (born 1976), composer of electronic music, film scores; producer Charlie Sexton (born 1968), rock guitarist, singer-songwriter Allen Shamblin (born 1959), country songwriter Ray Sharpe (born 1938), rockabilly singer-songwriter, guitarist Billy Joe Shaver (1939–2020), country singer-songwriter Robert Shaw (1908–1985), blues pianist Bob (1909–1983), Joe (1911–1980), and Merle Shelton (1917–1982), country musicians, The Shelton Brothers Chad Shelton (born 1971), opera singer Harry Sheppard (born 1928), jazz vibraphonist John Sheridan (born 1946), jazz pianist Amanda Shires (born 1982), country singer-songwriter, fiddler Michelle Shocked (born 1962), singer-songwriter, musician Jade Simmons (born 1977), classical pianist; was also Miss Illinois Ashlee Simpson (born 1984), singer Jessica Simpson (born 1980), singer Frankie Lee Sims (1917–1970), blues singer-songwriter, guitarist Lori Singer (born 1957), classical cellist (better known as actress) Thomas Sleeper (born 1956), classical composer, conductor Slim Thug (born 1980), rapper Brinton Averil Smith (born 1969), classical cellist Buster Smith (1904–1991), jazz saxophonist Chris "Frenchie" Smith, pop/rock record producer, guitarist, songwriter Elliott Smith (1969–2003), rock singer-songwriter Granger Smith (born 1979), country singer-songwriter Julia Smith (1905–1989), composer, pianist, author Ruby Jane Smith (born 1994), bluegrass fiddler, singer-songwriter Tim Smith, rock instrumentalist Walter Smith III (born 1980), jazz saxophonist, composer Sn–Sz Doak Snead (born 1949), singer-songwriter Ed Soph (born 1945), jazz drummer, educator J. D. Souther (born 1945), country/rock singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Billie Jo Spears (1937–2011), country singer Victoria Spivey (1906–1976), blues singer-songwriter SPM (Carlos Coy) (born 1970), Chicano rapper Terry Stafford (1941–1996), country/pop singer-songwriter Kay Starr (1922–2016), pop/jazz singer Lanny Steele (1933–1994), jazz pianist, music educator, composer, jazz festival promoter Daniel Sternberg (1913–2000), classical conductor, composer, educator B. W. Stevenson (1949–1998), country/pop singer-songwriter Stephen Stills (born 1945), singer-songwriter Sly Stone (Sylvester Stewart) (born 1943), soul/funk singer-songwriter (Sly and the Family Stone) George Strait (born 1952), country singer Nikki Stringfield (born 1990), guitarist for The Iron Maidens and Before the Mourning Steven Stucky (1949–2016), Pulitzer Prize-winning classical composer Eric Stuer (1953–2008), drummer Lacey Nicole Sturm (born 1981), Alternative metal, Post-grunge, Hard rock Flyleaf Deanna Summers (born 1940), songwriter, born in Mississippi Gene Summers (1939–2021), rock 'n roll singer ("School of Rock 'n Roll", "Big Blue Diamonds") Helen Sung (born 1970), jazz pianist Doug Supernaw (1960–2020), country singer-songwriter Jeffrey Swann (born 1951), classical pianist Sunny Sweeney (born 1976), country music singer T–V Horace Tapscott (1934–1999), jazz pianist, composer Buddy Tate (1913–2001), jazz saxophonist Jacqueline Taylor (born 1985), Broadway/cabaret singer, actress Johnnie Taylor (1937–2000), soul/pop singer, DJ Will Taylor (born 1968), jazz/rock/pop/country violist, violinist, arranger, composer, producer, guitarist Charlie Teagarden (1913–1984), jazz trumpeter Jack Teagarden (1905–1964), jazz trombonist and bandleader Norma Teagarden (1911–1996), jazz pianist Alfred Teltschik (1918–2009), classical pianist and teacher Owen Temple (born 1976), folk/country singer-songwriter, instrumentalist Joe Tex (Joseph Arrington Jr.) (1935–1982), soul singer-songwriter Texas Ruby (Ruby Owens) (1908–1963), country singer Christopher Theofanidis (born 1967), classical composer B. J. Thomas (1942–2021), country singer-songwriter George W. Thomas (1885 – c. 1930), jazz pianist, songwriter Henry Thomas (1874 – c. 1950), blues/ragtime singer-songwriter Hersal Thomas (1906–1926), blues pianist, composer Benny Thomasson (1909–1984), country fiddler Hank Thompson (1925–2007), country singer-songwriter William Ennis Thomson (1927–2019), music educator Big Mama Thornton (1926–1984), R&B singer-songwriter Frank Ticheli (born 1958), classical composer Neal Tiemann (born 1982), David Cook's rock band guitarist Floyd Tillman (1914–2003), country guitarist, singer Louise Tobin (born 1918), jazz singer Matt Tolentino (born 1985), musician specializing in pre-swing music Chris Tomlin (born 1972), singer-songwriter Tommy & The Tom Toms, aka Bill Smith Combo, DFW rock 'n roll group Tone (Tony Chung) (born 1983), pop guitarist (Cool Silly) Mitchell Torok (born 1929), country singer-songwriter Don Tosti (1923–2004), Latin, R&B, swing, jazz, classical bassist, pianist Alphonse Trent (1905–1959), jazz pianist, bandleader Michael Trimble (born 1938), opera singer, teacher Robyn Troup (born 1988), R&B/pop/soul singer Ernest Tubb (1914–1984), country singer-songwriter Justin Tubb (1935–1998), country singer-songwriter Tanya Tucker (born 1958), country singer Fisher Tull (1934–1994), composer and educator "Blue" Gene Tyranny (born 1945), avant-garde composer Steve Tyrell (born 1944), pop singer, music producer Alexander Uninsky (1910–1972), concert pianist and teacher Tim Urban (born 1989), pop singer Usher (Usher Raymond IV) (born 1978), R&B and pop singer Mary Jeanne van Appledorn (1927–2014), composer and educator Frank Van der Stucken (1858–1929), conductor, composer; founder of Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra Vanilla Ice (born 1968), rapper Paul van Katwijk (1885–1974), pianist, conductor, composer, educator Viola Van Katwijk (1894–1980), pianist, composer, educator Townes Van Zandt (1944–1997), country singer-songwriter Jimmie Vaughan (born 1951), blues/rock guitarist, singer Stevie Ray Vaughan (1954–1990), musician Jaci Velasquez (born 1979), Contemporary Christian Latin pop singer Carl Venth (1860–1938), composer, conductor, violinist, music educator William VerMeulen (born 1961), classical horn player Rita Vidaurri (1924–2019), Tejana singer Tiffany Villarreal, R&B and hip hop singer Eddie Vinson (1917–1988), blues saxophonist Emmett Vokes (1928–2019), classical pianist and teacher W–Z Billy Walker (1929–2006), country singer-songwriter Charlie Walker (1926–2008), country singer-songwriter Chris Walker, R&B/jazz singer, bass guitarist Cindy Walker (1918–2006), country singer-songwriter Django Walker (born 1981), country/rock singer-songwriter Esther Walker (1894–1943), blues singer, musical comedy actress Jerry Jeff Walker (1942–2020), country singer-songwriter T-Bone Walker (1910–1975), blues musician William Walker (1931–2010), opera singer Paul Wall (born 1980), rapper Sippie Wallace (1898–1986), blues singer-songwriter Don Walser (1934–2006), country singer, guitarist Cedar Walton (1934–2013), jazz pianist Mercy Dee Walton (1915–1962), blues pianist, singer-songwriter Jonathan Ware (born 1984), classical pianist Chris Waters, country singer-songwriter Dale Watson (born 1962), country singer Gene Watson (born 1943), country singer Johnny "Guitar" Watson (1935–1996), blues guitarist, singer WC (born 1970), rapper from Westside Connection Katie Webster (1936–1999), blues pianist Julius Weiss (c. 1841–19??), music professor, mentor to Scott Joplin Michael Weiss (born 1958), jazz composer and pianist Dan Welcher (born 1948), composer, music educator, bassoonist Emily Wells (born 1981), hip-hop/classical violinist James Westfall (born 1981), jazz vibraphonist, keytarist William Westney (born 1947), classical pianist, teacher Barry White (1944–2003), soul singer and record producer J. White Did It (born 1984), hip hop record producer, songwriter, and DJ Michael White (1933–2016), jazz violinist Chris Whitley (1960–2005), blues singer-songwriter, guitarist Buddy Whittington (born 1956), blues/rock guitarist Mike Wiebe, musician (The Riverboat Gamblers), actor, and stand-up comedian Rusty Wier (1944–2009), country/folk singer-songwriter Marijohn Wilkin (1920–2006), country songwriter Slim Willet (Winston Moore) (1919–1966), country singer-songwriter, DJ Willie D (William Dennis) (born 1966), rapper Clifton Williams (1923–1976), composer, educator Dave Williams (1972–2002), rock singer Don Williams (1939–2017), country singer-songwriter Lew Williams (1934–2019), rockabilly singer-songwriter Otis Williams (born 1941), singer with The Temptations Richard Williams (1931–1985), jazz trumpeter Roosevelt Williams (1903–1996), blues pianist Zane Williams (born 1977), country singer-songwriter Bob Wills (1905–1975), country singer with The Texas Playboys Johnnie Lee Wills (1912–1984), Western swing fiddler Dooley Wilson (1886 or 1894–1953), blues/jazz pianist, bandleader; actor Hop Wilson (1927–1975), blues steel guitarist J. Frank Wilson (1941–1991), pop singer, J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers Kim Wilson (born 1951), blues singer, harmonica player, The Fabulous Thunderbirds Teddy Wilson (1912–1986), jazz pianist U.P. Wilson (1934–2004), blues guitarist, singer Edgar Winter (born 1946), jazz/blues/rock musician Johnny Winter (1944–2014), blues guitarist Jonathan M. Wolfert (born 1952), composer, producer of radio jingles Lee Ann Womack (born 1966), country singer-songwriter Darren Keith Woods (born 1958), opera company director, singer Lammar Wright, Sr. (1907–1973), jazz trumpeter Leo Wright (1933–1991), jazz instrumentalist Roger Wright (born 1974), classical pianist Jimmy Wyble (1922–2010), jazz/swing guitarist Cindy Yen (born 1986), pop singer-songwriter Sydney Youngblood (born 1960), dance/funk singer Camille Zamora (born 1970), classical singer Nancy Zhou (born 1993), classical violinist Jessica Zhu (born 1986), classical pianist Beauty pageant winners Shirley Cothran (born 1955), Miss America 1975 Candice Crawford (born 1986), beauty queen, winner of Miss Missouri USA, competed in the Miss Texas Teen USA pageant and the Miss USA pageant Brooke Daniels (born 1986), Miss Texas USA 2009 Jo-Carroll Dennison (1923–2021), Miss America 1942 Danielle Doty (born 1993), Miss Teen USA 2011 Alyssa Edwards (Justin Johnson) (born 1980), drag performer, Miss Gay USofA 2006, Miss Gay America 2010 Magen Ellis (born 1986), Miss Texas USA, Miss Texas Teen USA Christy Fichtner (born 1962), Miss USA 1986 Phyllis George (1949–2020), Miss America 1971 Courtney Gibbs (born 1966), Miss USA 1988 Kandace Krueger (born 1976), Miss USA 2001 Debra Maffett (born 1956), Miss America 1983 Melissa Marse (born 1974), Texas' Junior Miss 1991, concert pianist Laura Martinez-Harring (born 1964), Miss USA 1985 Asia O'Hara (born 1982), drag performer, Miss Gay America 2016 Gretchen Polhemus (born 1965), Miss USA 1989 Michelle Royer (born 1966), Miss USA 1987 Jade Simmons (born 1977), classical pianist; was also Miss Illinois Chelsi Smith (1973–2018), Miss USA 1995 and Miss Universe 1995 Candice Stewart (born 1984), Miss American Teen, Miss Louisiana Teen USA, Miss Louisiana USA Crystle Stewart (born 1981), Miss USA 2008 Linda Stouffer (born 1970), Texas' Junior Miss 1988, television journalist Kimberly Tomes (born 1956), Miss USA 1977 Paola Turbay (born 1970), Miss Colombia, first runner-up for Miss Universe, model, actress Christie Lee Woods (born 1977), Miss Teen USA 1996 Cindy Yen (born 1986), Miss Chinatown USA 2009 Other Barbette (Vander Clyde Broadway) (1899–1973), female impersonator, aerialist Sportspeople Baseball A–F Matt Albers (born 1983), relief pitcher for the Chicago White Sox Brandon Allen (born 1986), infielder for the Tampa Bay Rays Brett Anderson (born 1988), starting pitcher for the Colorado Rockies Jake Arrieta (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Chicago Cubs Scott Atchison (born 1976), relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox Homer Bailey (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds Anthony Banda (born 1993), starting pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks Jeff Banister (born 1964), former catcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, current manager for the Texas Rangers Ernie Banks (1931–2015), Baseball Hall of Famer Daniel Bard (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox Blake Beavan (born 1989), starting pitcher for the Seattle Mariners Chad Beck (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Josh Beckett (born 1980), baseball, Los Angeles Dodgers, pitcher, MVP of the 2003 World Series Lance Berkman (born 1976), first baseman and outfielder Michael Bourn (born 1982), center fielder for the Atlanta Braves Drake Britton (born 1989), relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox Zach Britton (born 1987), relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Jay Bruce (born 1987), outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies Clay Buchholz (born 1984), baseball, Arizona Diamondbacks, pitcher, threw a no hitter in just his second MLB start Jorge Cantú (born 1982), infielder for the San Diego Padres Matt Carpenter (born 1985), infielder for the St. Louis Cardinals Norm Cash (1934–1986), MLB first baseman, primarily for the Detroit Tigers Andrew Cashner (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Texas Rangers Randy Choate (born 1975), relief pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals Preston Claiborne (born 1988), relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Roger Clemens (born 1962), baseball pitcher, seven-time Cy Young Award winner Andy Cohen (1904–1988), baseball second baseman and coach Clay Condrey (born 1975), relief pitcher for the Minnesota Twins Carl Crawford (born 1981), outfielder for the Los Angeles Dodgers John Danks (born 1985), starting pitcher for the Chicago White Sox Chris Davis (born 1986), first baseman for the Baltimore Orioles Sam Demel (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks Doug Drabek (born 1962), former Cy Young-winning MLB pitcher Kyle Drabek (born 1987), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Justin Duchscherer (born 1977), starting pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles Dave Duncan (born 1945), pitching coach for the St. Louis Cardinals Adam Dunn (born 1979), All-Star player for the Chicago White Sox Tyler Duffey (born 1990), relief pitcher for the Minnesota Twins Zach Duke (born 1983), relief pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals Jon Edwards (born 1988), relief pitcher for the San Diego Padres Nathan Eovaldi (born 1990), starting pitcher for the New York Yankees Taylor Featherston (born 1989), infielder for the Los Angeles Angels Brandon Finnegan (born 1993), relief pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds Bill Foster (1904–1978), Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher Steve Foster (born 1966), bullpen coach for the Kansas City Royals Sam Freeman (born 1987), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves David Freese (born 1983), third baseman for the Los Angeles Dodgers G–M Yovani Gallardo (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Texas Rangers Ron Gant (born 1965), former MLB outfielder and second baseman Jaime García (born 1986), starting pitcher for the New York Yankees Cito Gaston (born 1944), former MLB center fielder and manager for the Toronto Blue Jays Evan Gattis (born 1986), player for the Houston Astros John Gibbons (born 1962), manager for the Toronto Blue Jays Ryan Goins (born 1988), infielder for the Toronto Blue Jays Paul Goldschmidt (born 1987), first baseman for the Arizona Diamondbacks Greg Golson (born 1985), former MLB outfielder Michael Gonzalez (born 1978), relief pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles Brian Gordon (born 1978), former MLB starting pitcher Jeff Gray (born 1981), former MLB relief pitcher Will Harris (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Houston Astros Brad Hawpe (born 1979), former MLB outfielder Danny Heep (born 1957), former MLB outfielder who played with several teams Chris Herrmann (born 1987), catcher, outfielder, and first baseman for the Arizona Diamondbacks Jordan Hicks (born 1996), pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals Trey Hillman (born 1963), bench coach for the Houston Astros Bryan Holaday (born 1987), catcher for the Texas Rangers Brock Holt (born 1988), utility player for the Boston Red Sox Joe Horlen (born 1937), All Star starting pitcher Rogers Hornsby (1896–1963), Hall of Fame infielder, manager; .358 career batting average, two-time NL MVP, earned two Triple Crowns, All-Century Team, first-team MLB All-Time Team Aubrey Huff (born 1976), former MLB infielder and outfielder Chad Huffman (born 1985), outfielder for the Cleveland Indians Philip Humber (born 1982), starting pitcher for the Oakland Athletics Jason Hursh (born 1991), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Austin Jackson (born 1987), center fielder for the Cleveland Indians Conor Jackson (born 1982), former MLB outfielder Paul Janish (born 1982), shortstop for the Baltimore Orioles Kelly Johnson (born 1982), utility player for the New York Mets Gary Jones (born 1960), third base and infield coach for the Chicago Cubs Nate Karns (born 1987), starting pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Scott Kazmir (born 1984), starting pitcher for the Houston Astros Ty Kelly (born 1988), American-Israeli utility player Steve Kemp (born 1954), former outfielder, primarily with the Detroit Tigers Kyle Kendrick (born 1984), starting pitcher for the Colorado Rockies Clayton Kershaw (born 1988), starting pitcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers Corey Kluber (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Cleveland Indians Chuck Knoblauch (born 1968), former second baseman, played primarily with the Minnesota Twins and the New York Yankees John Lackey (born 1978), starting pitcher for the Chicago Cubs Ryan Langerhans (born 1980), outfielder for the Seattle Mariners Scott Linebrink (born 1976), former MLB pitcher Grady Little (born 1950), former baseball manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Boston Red Sox Boone Logan (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Cleveland Indians James Loney (born 1984), first baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays Mark Lowe (born 1983), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Tyler Lyons (born 1988), relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Greg Maddux (born 1966), Hall of Fame pitcher, primarily with the Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves Jeff Manship (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Cleveland Indians Robert Manuel (born 1983), relief pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Red Sox Chris Martin (born 1986), relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Dustin May (born 1997), relief pitcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers Andrew McKirahan (born 1990), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Jon Meloan (born 1984), former MLB pitcher Ryan Merritt (born 1992), starting pitcher for the Cleveland Indians Shelby Miller (born 1990), pitcher for the Arizona Diamondbacks Hoby Milner (born 1991), pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays A. J. Minter (born 1993), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Adam Moore (born 1984), catcher for the Cleveland Indians Jim Morris (born 1964), MLB player and oldest rookie Max Muncy (born 1990), infielder for the Los Angeles Dodgers David Murphy (born 1981), left fielder for the Cleveland Indians N–R Tyler Naquin (born 1991), outfielder for the Cleveland Indians Joe Nathan (born 1974), relief pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Jeff Newman (born 1948), MLB All-Star baseball player for the Oakland A's and Boston Red Sox and manager Jeff Niemann (born 1983), starting pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Jayson Nix (born 1982), utility player for the New York Yankees Logan Ondrusek (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds Troy Patton (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles Hunter Pence (born 1983), right fielder for the San Francisco Giants Cliff Pennington (born 1984), infielder for the Toronto Blue Jays Andy Pettitte (born 1972), former starting pitcher for the New York Yankees and Houston Astros Colin Poche (born 1994), relief pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Ryan Pressly (born 1988), pitcher for the Houston Astros David Purcey (born 1982), relief pitcher for the Detroit Tigers Robert Ray (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Anthony Rendon (born 1990), infielder for the Washington Nationals Craig Reynolds (born 1952), former MLB shortstop, primarily with the Houston Astros Arthur Rhodes (born 1969), former MLB pitcher Will Rhymes (born 1983), second baseman for the Tampa Bay Rays Frank Robinson (1935–2019), won Triple Crown in both National League and American League, hit 586 career home runs, and was the first black manager in the Major Leagues Fernando Rodriguez (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Oakland Athletics David Rollins (born 1989), relief pitcher for the Seattle Mariners Chance Ruffin (born 1988), former MLB relief pitcher for the Seattle Mariners and Detroit Tigers Justin Ruggiano (born 1982), outfielder for the Seattle Mariners Nick Rumbelow (born 1991), relief pitcher for the New York Yankees Nolan Ryan (born 1947), Baseball Hall of Famer Reid Ryan (born 1971), president of the Houston Astros, son of Nolan Ryan S–Z Bo Schultz (born 1985), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Kelly Shoppach (born 1980), former MLB catcher for several teams Matthew Silverman (born 1976), general manager and President for Baseball Operations for the Tampa Bay Rays Kevin Slowey (born 1984), former MLB starting pitcher for the Minnesota Twins and Miami Marlins Burch Smith (born 1990), pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Carson Smith (born 1989), closer for the Seattle Mariners Chris Snyder (born 1981), former MLB catcher Kyle Snyder (born 1977), pitching coach for the Tampa Bay Rays Zach Stewart (born 1986), former MLB pitcher Monty Stratton (1912–1982), pitcher for the Chicago White Sox Huston Street (born 1983), closer for the Los Angeles Angels Ross Stripling (born 1989), relief pitcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers Drew Stubbs (born 1984), center fielder for the Texas Rangers Blake Swihart (born 1992), catcher for the Boston Red Sox Jordan Tata (born 1981), former MLB pitcher Taylor Teagarden (born 1983), catcher for the Chicago Cubs Garry Templeton (born 1956), former MLB shortstop Ryan Tepera (born 1987), relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays Jess Todd (born 1986), former MLB pitcher Shawn Tolleson (born 1988), closer for the Texas Rangers Josh Tomlin (born 1984), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Anthony Vasquez (born 1986), starting pitcher for the Seattle Mariners Randy Velarde (born 1962), former MLB infielder and utility player, primarily with the New York Yankees Jordan Walden (born 1987), pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals Vernon Wells (born 1978), three-time All-Star outfielder for the Toronto Blue Jays Austen Williams (born 1992), pitcher for the Washington Nationals Smokey Joe Williams (1886–1951), baseball great Chris Withrow (born 1989), relief pitcher for the Atlanta Braves Brandon Wood (born 1985), third baseman and shortstop for the Los Angeles Angels Kerry Wood (born 1977), former MLB relief pitcher Brandon Workman (born 1988), starting pitcher for the Boston Red Sox Anthony Young (born 1966), former MLB pitcher Chris Young (born 1979), pitcher for the Kansas City Royals Chris Young (born 1983), outfielder for the New York Yankees Basketball A–M Quincy Acy (born 1990), forward for the Dallas Mavericks LaMarcus Aldridge (born 1985), NBA player, San Antonio Spurs, power forward Chris Andersen (born 1978), power forward/center for the Miami Heat Darrell Arthur (born 1988), power forward for the Denver Nuggets Maceo Baston (born 1976), former professional basketball player, power forward Tony Battie (born 1976), former NBA power forward/center Bill Blakeley (1934–2010), Head Coach, Dallas Chaparrals, University of North Texas Mookie Blaylock (born 1967), former NBA point guard Chris Bosh (born 1984), NBA player, Miami Heat, power forward J'Covan Brown (born 1990), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Jimmy Butler (born 1989), small forward/shooting guard for the Philadelphia 76ers Kaleb Canales (born 1978), assistant coach for the Dallas Mavericks T. J. Cline (born 1994), American-Israeli basketball player Michael Cobbins (born 1992), basketball player for Maccabi Haifa of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Jody Conradt (born 1941), head coach for UT's Lady Longhorns Christian Cunningham (born 1997), forward in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Clyde Drexler (born 1962), Hall of Fame swingman for the Portland Trail Blazers and the Houston Rockets Mike Dunleavy, Jr. (born 1980), small forward/shooting guard for the Chicago Bulls Ndudi Ebi (born 1984), Nigerian basketball player Carsen Edwards (born 1998), player for the Boston Celtics Keenan Evans (born 1996), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League T. J. Ford (born 1983), former NBA point guard Jeff Foster (born 1977), former NBA player Daniel Gibson (born 1986), point guard for the Cleveland Cavaliers Gerald Green (born 1986), shooting guard/small forward for the Houston Rockets Brittney Griner (born 1990), WNBA basketball player James Gulley (born 1965), professional basketball player for Ironi Ramat Gan in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Terrel Harris (born 1987), guard for the Bakersfield Jam Grant Hill (born 1971), former seven-time NBA All-Star small forward Josh Huestis (born 1991), small forward for the Oklahoma City Thunder Stephen Jackson (born 1978), shooting guard/small forward for the San Antonio Spurs Wesley Johnson (born 1987), small forward/power forward for the Los Angeles Lakers Chris Jones (born 1993), basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League DeAndre Jordan (born 1988), center for the Los Angeles Clippers Luke Kornet (born 1995), player for the Chicago Bulls Michale Kyser (born 1991), player for Hapoel Holon in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Monica Lamb-Powell (born 1964), player for Houston Comets Dave Lattin (born 1943), player for San Francisco Warriors/Phoenix Suns/Pittsburgh Condors/Memphis Tams Guy Lewis (1922–2015), Hall of Fame college basketball coach Rashard Lewis (born 1979), forward for the Miami Heat John Lucas III (born 1982), point guard for the Utah Jazz Slater Martin (1925–2012), NBA player, elected to Basketball Hall of Fame Wesley Matthews (born 1986), shooting guard for the Dallas Mavericks Jason Maxiell (born 1983), power forward for the Charlotte Hornets Taj McWilliams-Franklin (born 1970), WNBA basketball player, gold medalist, New York Liberty C. J. Miles (born 1987), forward for the Cleveland Cavaliers Eric Moreland (born 1991), power forward and center for the Toronto Raptors Randolph Morris (born 1986), center for the Beijing Ducks Gerald Myers (born 1945), basketball coach 1971–1991; athletic director, Texas Tech University N–Z Eduardo Nájera (born 1976), former NBA player Le'Bryan Nash (born 1992), player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Josh Nebo (born 1997), player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Emeka Okafor (born 1982), player for the Phoenix Suns Ike Ofoegbu (born 1984), American-Nigerian Israeli Premier Basketball League player Kevin Ollie (born 1972), former NBA point guard Shaquille O'Neal (born 1972), former NBA 15-time All-Star center Kendrick Perkins (born 1984), center for the Oklahoma City Thunder Dexter Pittman (born 1988), center for the Atlanta Hawks Ronnie Price (born 1983), point guard for the Orlando Magic Taurean Prince (born 1994), small forward for the Brooklyn Nets André Roberson (born 1991), player for the Oklahoma City Thunder Taylor Rochestie (born 1985) American-Montenegrin player for Hapoel Haifa of the Israel Basketball Premier League Dennis Rodman (born 1961), former NBA forward, played primarily with the Detroit Pistons and Chicago Bulls Quinton Ross (born 1981), former NBA player Jason Siggers (born 1985), basketball player in the Israel Basketball Premier League Xavier Silas (born 1988), player for the Maccabi Ashdod B.C. Jonathon Simmons (born 1989), player for the San Antonio Spurs Odyssey Sims (born 1992), player for Baylor Lady Bears basketball Donald Sloan (born 1988), guard for the Indiana Pacers Ken Spain (1946–1990), player for Chicago Bulls/Pittsburgh Condors Sheryl Swoopes (born 1971), WNBA, Olympic gold medalist Elijah Thomas (born 1996), basketball player for Bnei Herzliya in the Israeli Basketball Premier League Kurt Thomas (born 1972), former NBA player Wayman Tisdale (1964–2009), NBA power forward Ben Uzoh (born 1988), point guard for the Canton Charge Willie Warren (born 1989), player for the Szolnoki Olaj KK Deron Williams (born 1984), point guard for the Dallas Mavericks Sean Williams (born 1986), power forward/center for the Selçuk Üniversitesi BK Tex Winter (1922–2018), former basketball coach, innovator of the triangle offense, Hall of Fame inductee Bracey Wright, basketball player, guard for the Minnesota Timberwolves, Israeli Basketball Premier League Bodybuilding Heather Armbrust (born 1977), IFBB professional bodybuilder Tina Chandler (born 1974), IFBB professional bodybuilder Ronnie Coleman (born 1964), eight-time Mr. Olympia IFBB professional bodybuilder Laura Creavalle (born 1959), Guyanese-born Canadian/American professional bodybuilder Vickie Gates (born 1962), IFBB professional bodybuilder Kristy Hawkins (born 1980), IFBB professional bodybuilder Iris Kyle (born 1974), ten-time overall Ms. Olympia professional bodybuilder Colette Nelson (born 1974), IFBB professional bodybuilder Yaxeni Oriquen-Garcia (born 1966), IFBB professional bodybuilder Betty Pariso (born 1956), IFBB professional bodybuilder Denise Rutkowski (born 1961), IFBB professional bodybuilder Alana Shipp (born 1982), American-Israeli IFBB professional bodybuilder Boxing Mike Ayala (born 1959), boxer Paulie Ayala (born 1970), world-champion boxer Tony Ayala, Jr. (1963–2015), boxer Ruben Castillo (born 1957 in Lubbock), boxer Randall "Tex" Cobb (born 1950), boxer, fought for world heavyweight title Curtis Cokes (1937–2020), world champion boxer Bruce Curry (born 1956), world-champion boxer Donald Curry (born 1961), world-champion boxer Juan Díaz (born 1983), world-champion boxer Oscar Díaz (1982–2015), boxer Troy Dorsey (born 1962), world-champion boxer and kickboxer George Foreman (born 1949), heavyweight champion boxer, entrepreneur, Christian ordained minister Gene Hatcher (born 1958), world-champion boxer Jack Johnson (1878–1946), boxer, first black heavyweight champion Quincy Taylor (born 1963), world-champion boxer Football A–B Emmanuel Acho (born 1990), linebacker for Philadelphia Eagles Sam Acho (born 1988), linebacker for Arizona Cardinals Joseph Addai (born 1983), running back for Indianapolis Colts Eric Alexander (born 1982), linebacker for Jacksonville Jaguars Jared Allen (born 1982), defensive end for Chicago Bears Danny Amendola (born 1985), wide receiver, kickoff returner for New England Patriots Adrian Awasom (born 1983), defensive end for New York Giants, Minnesota Vikings Remi Ayodele (born 1983), defensive tackle for Minnesota Vikings Jonathan Babineaux (born 1981), defensive tackle for Atlanta Falcons Jordan Babineaux (born 1982), defensive back for Seattle Seahawks Stephen Baker (born 1964), wide receiver for New York Giants Joplo Bartu (born 1989), linebacker for Atlanta Falcons Arnaz Battle (born 1980), wide receiver for Pittsburgh Steelers Jackie Battle (born 1983), running back for Kansas City Chiefs Sammy Baugh (1914–2008), Hall of Fame quarterback, primarily with Washington Redskins Kelvin Beachum (born 1989), offensive lineman for Pittsburgh Steelers Cole Beasley (born 1989), wide receiver, return specialist for Buffalo Bills Byron Bell (born 1989), offensive tackle for Carolina Panthers Emory Bellard (1927–2011), college football coach Martellus Bennett (born 1987), tight end for New England Patriots Michael Bennett (born 1985), defensive end for Seattle Seahawks Cedric Benson (1982–2019), running back for Chicago Bears, Cincinnati Bengals Rocky Bernard (born 1979), defensive tackle for New York Giants Justin Blalock (born 1983), offensive guard for Atlanta Falcons Rhett Bomar (born 1985), quarterback for New York Giants David Boston (born 1978), NFL wide receiver Kyle Bosworth (born 1986), outside linebacker for Dallas Cowboys Bobby Boyd (1937–2017), All-Pro defensive back, Baltimore Colts, Oklahoma Sooners Drew Brees (born 1979), quarterback for New Orleans Saints Mike Brisiel (born 1983), guard for Oakland Raiders Michael Brockers (born 1990), defensive tackle for St. Louis Rams Aaron Brown (born 1985), running back, return specialist for Detroit Lions Chykie Brown (born 1986), cornerback for Baltimore Ravens Kris Brown (born 1976), placekicker for San Diego Chargers Malcom Brown (born 1994), defensive tackle for New England Patriots Tarell Brown (born 1985), cornerback for San Francisco 49ers Dez Bryant (born 1988), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Matt Bryant (born 1975), placekicker for Atlanta Falcons Red Bryant (born 1984), defensive lineman for Jacksonville Jaguars Maury Buford (born 1960), NFL punter Melvin Bullitt (born 1984), defensive back for Indianapolis Colts Rex Burkhead (born 1990), running back for the New England Patriots C–F Earl Campbell (born 1955), Pro Football Hall of Famer, Heisman Trophy winner Marcus Cannon (born 1988), offensive tackle for New England Patriots Rock Cartwright (born 1979), running back for Washington Redskins James Casey (born 1984), tight end for Philadelphia Eagles Juan Castillo (born 1959), defensive coordinator for Philadelphia Eagles Scott Chandler (born 1985), tight end for Buffalo Bills Jamaal Charles (born 1986), running back for Kansas City Chiefs Jeromey Clary (born 1983), offensive guard for San Diego Chargers Keenan Clayton (born 1987), outside linebacker for Oakland Raiders Perrish Cox (born 1987), cornerback, return specialist for San Francisco 49ers Michael Crabtree (born 1987), wide receiver for San Francisco 49ers Patrick Crayton (born 1979), wide receiver for San Diego Chargers Mason Crosby (born 1984), placekicker for Green Bay Packers John David Crow (1935–2015), athletic director for Texas A&M; NFL player and coach Andy Dalton (born 1987), quarterback for Cincinnati Bengals Chase Daniel (born 1986), quarterback for New Orleans Saints, Kansas City Chiefs Cody Davis (born 1989), safety for St. Louis Rams Knile Davis (born 1991), running back for Kansas City Chiefs Leonard Davis (born 1978), guard for Dallas Cowboys Phil Dawson (born 1975), placekicker for San Francisco 49ers Quintin Demps (born 1985), safety for New York Giants Ty Detmer (born 1967), NFL quarterback Eric Dickerson (born 1960), NFL running back and Pro Football Hall of Famer Zac Diles (born 1985), linebacker for Houston Texans Derrick Dockery (born 1980), guard for Dallas Cowboys Donald Driver (born 1975), wide receiver for Green Bay Packers Ron Edwards (born 1979), defensive tackle for Carolina Panthers Ikemefuna Enemkpali (born 1991), linebacker for Buffalo Bills Thomas Everett (born 1964), NFL safety and College Football Hall of Famer Jermichael Finley (born 1987), tight end for Green Bay Packers Cameron Fleming (born 1992), offensive tackle for New England Patriots Jamell Fleming (born 1989), cornerback for Kansas City Chiefs Larry Flowers (born 1958), NFL safety, primarily with New York Giants Matt Flynn (born 1985), quarterback for Green Bay Packers Nick Foles (born 1989), quarterback for Philadelphia Eagles, St. Louis Rams Justin Forsett (born 1985), running back for Seattle Seahawks Barry Foster (born 1968), NFL running back Jason Curtis Fox (born 1988), offensive tackle for Miami Dolphins Robert Francois (born 1985), linebacker for Green Bay Packers Jerrell Freeman (born 1986), linebacker for Indianapolis Colts G–I Taylor Gabriel (born 1991), wide receiver for Atlanta Falcons Dylan Gandy (born 1982), center for Detroit Lions Roberto Garza (born 1979), guard for Chicago Bears Crockett Gillmore (born 1991), tight end for Baltimore Ravens Chris Givens (born 1989), wide receiver for Baltimore Ravens Bill Glass (born 1935), defensive end, Detroit Lions, Cleveland Browns Cody Glenn (born 1986), linebacker for Indianapolis Colts Charles Godfrey (born 1985), safety/nickelback for Carolina Panthers Mike Goodson (born 1987), running back/kick returner for Oakland Raiders Marquise Goodwin (born 1990), wide receiver, kickoff returner for Buffalo Bills Josh Gordon (born 1991), wide receiver for New England Patriots Jakeem Grant (born 1992), wide receiver for Miami Dolphins "Mean Joe" Greene (born 1946), College and Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive tackle for Pittsburgh Steelers Jabari Greer (born 1982), cornerback for New Orleans Saints Forrest Gregg (1933–2019), Hall of Fame offensive tackle and head coach Robert Griffin III (born 1990), Heisman Trophy-winning NFL quarterback Andre Gurode (born 1978), center for Baltimore Ravens Bryce Hager (born 1992), linebacker for St. Louis Rams Ahmard Hall (born 1979), fullback for Tennessee Titans Casey Hampton (born 1977), nose tackle for Pittsburgh Steelers Phil Handler (1908–1968), NFL football player and coach Geoff Hangartner (born 1982), center and guard for Carolina Panthers Caleb Hanie (born 1985), quarterback for Chicago Bears Merton Hanks (born 1968), safety for San Francisco 49ers James Hanna (born 1989), tight end for Dallas Cowboys Graham Harrell (born 1985), quarterback for the Green Bay Packers Tommie Harris (born 1983), defensive tackle for Chicago Bears Garrett Hartley (born 1986), placekicker for New Orleans Saints David Hawthorne (born 1985), linebacker for New Orleans Saints Kellen Heard (born 1985), defensive end for Buffalo Bills Johnnie Lee Higgins (born 1983), wide receiver for Oakland Raiders Tony Hills (born 1984), offensive tackle for Dallas Cowboys Ellis Hobbs (born 1983), cornerback for Philadelphia Eagles Montrae Holland (born 1980), guard for Dallas Cowboys Ziggy Hood (born 1987), defensive end for Pittsburgh Steelers Rob Housler (born 1988), tight end for Arizona Cardinals Chris Houston (born 1984), cornerback for Atlanta Falcons Ken Houston (born 1944), Hall of Fame safety for Houston Oilers, Washington Redskins Thomas Howard (born 1983), linebacker for Oakland Raiders Josh Huff (born 1991), wide receiver for Philadelphia Eagles Michael Huff (born 1983), free safety for Oakland Raiders Jerry Hughes (born 1988), defensive end for Buffalo Bills Byron Hunt (born 1958), linebacker for New York Giants Phillip Hunt (born 1986), defensive end for Philadelphia Eagles Kendall Hunter (born 1988), running back for San Francisco 49ers Sam Hurd (born 1985), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Demontre Hurst (born 1991), cornerback for Chicago Bears Brian Iwuh (born 1984), linebacker for Chicago Bears J–L Fred Jackson (born 1981), running back for Buffalo Bills Quentin Jammer (born 1979), cornerback for San Diego Chargers Tony Jerod-Eddie (born 1990), defensive end for San Francisco 49ers Luke Joeckel (born 1991), offensive tackle for Jacksonville Jaguars Charlie Johnson (born 1984), offensive tackle for Indianapolis Colts Chris Johnson (born 1979), cornerback for Baltimore Ravens Derrick Johnson (born 1982), linebacker for Kansas City Chiefs D. J. Johnson (born 1985), cornerback for New York Giants Jimmy Johnson (born 1943), NCAA and NFL head coach for Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins, TV personality Lane Johnson (born 1990), offensive tackle for Philadelphia Eagles Manuel Johnson (born 1986), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Michael Johnson (born 1984), safety for New York Giants Johnny Jolly (born 1983), defensive end for Green Bay Packers Colin Jones (born 1987), safety for Carolina Panthers Darlene Jones, commissioner of Lone Star Football League Case Keenum (born 1988), quarterback for Minnesota Vikings, Houston Texans and St. Louis/Los Angeles Rams Sergio Kindle (born 1987), linebacker for Baltimore Ravens David King (born 1989), defensive end for Kansas City Chiefs Johnny Knox (born 1986), wide receiver for Chicago Bears Kevin Kolb (born 1984), quarterback for Arizona Cardinals Gary Kubiak (born 1961), quarterback and head coach for Denver Broncos Jacob Lacey (born 1987), cornerback for Indianapolis Colts Ernie Ladd (1938–2007), college and pro football player, professional wrestler Brandon LaFell (born 1986), wide receiver for New England Patriots Tom Landry (1924–2000), Hall of Fame head coach, Dallas Cowboys Dick "Night Train" Lane (1927–2002), Pro Football Hall of Fame cornerback Jeremy Lane (born 1990), cornerback for Seattle Seahawks Yale Lary (1930–2017), NFL Hall of Fame defensive back, punter for Detroit Lions; politician Shane Lechler (born 1976), punter for Oakland Raiders Bob Lilly (born 1939), Hall of Fame defensive tackle for Dallas Cowboys Carl "Spider" Lockhart (1943–1986), defensive back for New York Giants Andrew Luck (born 1989), quarterback for Indianapolis Colts M–O Ryan Mallett (born 1988), quarterback for Baltimore Ravens, New England Patriots Danieal Manning (born 1982), free safety for Chicago Bears Bradley Marquez (born 1992), wide receiver for St. Louis Rams Jake Matthews (born 1992), offensive tackle for Atlanta Falcons Brett Maxie (born 1962), defensive back, secondary coach for Dallas Cowboys Taylor Mays (born 1988), safety Trumaine McBride (born 1985), cornerback for New York Giants Brice McCain (born 1986), cornerback for Miami Dolphins Luke McCown (born 1981), quarterback for Atlanta Falcons Colt McCoy (born 1986), quarterback for Washington Redskins, Cleveland Browns Danny McCray (born 1988), defensive back, special teamer for Dallas Cowboys Vance McDonald (born 1990), tight end for San Francisco 49ers Stephen McGee (born 1985), quarterback for Dallas Cowboys Bo McMillin (1895–1952), NFL quarterback, head coach and College Football Hall of Famer Henry Melton (born 1986), defensive tackle for Dallas Cowboys "Dandy" Don Meredith (1938–2010), quarterback for Dallas Cowboys; actor and TV personality Christine Michael (born 1990), running back for Dallas Cowboys Roy Miller (born 1987), defensive tackle for Jacksonville Jaguars Von Miller (born 1989), outside linebacker for Denver Broncos Keavon Milton (born 1990), offensive lineman for Seattle Seahawks Earl Mitchell (born 1987), defensive tackle for Miami Dolphins Damontre Moore (born 1992), defensive end for New York Giants Denarius Moore (born 1988), wide receiver for Oakland Raiders Mike Morgan (born 1988), linebacker for Seattle Seahawks Sammy Morris (born 1977), running back for New England Patriots Mitch Morse (born 1992), center for Kansas City Chiefs Thomas Morstead (born 1986), punter for New Orleans Saints Marcus Murphy (born 1991), running back for New Orleans Saints Dimitri Nance (born 1988), running back for Green Bay Packers Corey Nelson (born 1992), linebacker for Denver Broncos David Nelson (born 1986), wide receiver for Buffalo Bills Marshall Newhouse (born 1988), offensive tackle for New England Patriots Robert Newhouse (1950–2014), fullback for Dallas Cowboys Tommy Nobis (1943–2017), linebacker for Atlanta Falcons and College Football Hall of Famer Moran Norris (born 1978), fullback for San Francisco 49ers Cyril Obiozor (born 1986), linebacker for San Diego Chargers Alex Okafor (born 1991), linebacker for Arizona Cardinals Frank Okam (born 1985), defensive tackle for Houston Texans Russell Okung (born 1987), offensive tackle for Seattle Seahawks Igor Olshansky (born 1982), National Football League player Brian Orakpo (born 1986), linebacker for Washington Redskins Zach Orr (born 1992), linebacker for Baltimore Ravens Kelechi Osemele (born 1989), offensive lineman for Baltimore Ravens P–R Juqua Parker (born 1978), defensive end for Philadelphia Eagles Tyler Patmon (born 1991), cornerback for Dallas Cowboys Elvis Patterson (born 1960), NFL defensive back Charlie Peprah (born 1983), safety for Green Bay Packers Mac Percival (born 1940), placekicker for Dallas Cowboys and Chicago Bears Jason Peters (born 1982), offensive tackle for Philadelphia Eagles Adrian Peterson (born 1985), NFL running back for Minnesota Vikings, currently Washington Football Team Brandon Pettigrew (born 1985), tight end for Detroit Lions Bum Phillips (1923–2013), NFL head coach of Houston Oilers, New Orleans Saints Wade Phillips (born 1947), defensive coordinator of Los Angeles Rams, head coach of Denver Broncos, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Cowboys Christian Ponder (born 1988), quarterback for Minnesota Vikings Manny Ramirez (born 1983), guard/center for Denver Broncos Gary Reasons (born 1962), linebacker, primarily for New York Giants Cory Redding (born 1980), defensive end for Indianapolis Colts Weston Richburg (born 1991), offensive lineman for New York Giants Elandon Roberts (born 1994), linebacker for New England Patriots Aldrick Robinson (born 1988), wide receiver for Atlanta Falcons Khiry Robinson (born 1989), running back for New Orleans Saints Bradley Roby (born 1992), cornerback for Denver Broncos Jacquizz Rodgers (born 1990), running back for Atlanta Falcons Shaun Rogers (born 1979), defensive tackle for New Orleans Saints Aaron Ross (born 1982), cornerback for Jacksonville Jaguars Kyle Rote (1928–2002), All-American running back at SMU, NFL New York Giants wide receiver Stanford Routt (born 1983), NFL cornerback Eric Rowe (born 1992), cornerback for New England Patriots Ryan Russell (born 1992), defensive end for Dallas Cowboys S–T Emmanuel Sanders (born 1987), wide receiver for Denver Broncos Josh Scobee (born 1982), placekicker for Jacksonville Jaguars Jonathan Scott (born 1983), offensive tackle for Pittsburgh Steelers Derrick Shelby (born 1989), defensive end for Miami Dolphins Del Shofner (1934–2020), wide receiver for New York Giants, Los Angeles Rams; MVP of 1957 Sugar Bowl Ozzie Simmons (1914–2001), one of first black All-American players in 1930s John Skelton (born 1988), quarterback for Arizona Cardinals Bubba Smith (1945–2011), defensive end with Baltimore Colts, Oakland Raiders, Houston Oilers and actor Hunter Smith (born 1977), punter for Washington Redskins Kevin Smith (born 1970), cornerback for Dallas Cowboys Lovie Smith (born 1958), head coach for Chicago Bears, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, University of Illinois Wade Smith (born 1981), guard and center for Houston Texans Justin Snow (born 1976), long snapper for Indianapolis Colts Matthew Stafford (born 1988), quarterback for Detroit Lions Jarrett Stidham (born 1996), quarterback for New England Patriots Matt Stover (born 1968), placekicker for Indianapolis Colts Michael Strahan (born 1971), Hall of Fame defensive end for New York Giants; TV personality, Good Morning America, NFL on FOX, The $100,000 Pyramid Travis Swanson (born 1991), center for Detroit Lions Aqib Talib (born 1986), cornerback for Tampa Bay Buccaneers Ryan Tannehill (born 1988), quarterback for Miami Dolphins Phillip Tanner (born 1988), running back for Dallas Cowboys Stepfan Taylor (born 1991), running back for Arizona Cardinals David Thomas (born 1983), tight end for New Orleans Saints Earl Thomas (born 1989), safety for Seattle Seahawks Michael Thomas (born 1989), safety for Miami Dolphins Mike Thomas (born 1987), wide receiver for Jacksonville Jaguars Ted Thompson (1953–2021), general manager of Green Bay Packers Y. A. Tittle (1926–2017), Hall of Fame quarterback, primarily with San Francisco 49ers, New York Giants LaDainian Tomlinson (born 1979), NFL running back and College Football Hall of Famer Michael Toudouze (born 1983), offensive tackle for Indianapolis Colts Jeremiah Trotter (born 1977), linebacker for Philadelphia Eagles Justin Tucker (born 1989), placekicker for Baltimore Ravens Bulldog Turner (1919–1998), Hall of Fame center and linebacker for Chicago Bears Rob Turner (born 1984), former NFL player U–Z Tony Ugoh (born 1983), offensive tackle for Indianapolis Colts Gene Upshaw (1945–2008), Hall of Fame guard for Oakland Raiders Kenny Vaccaro (born 1991), safety for New Orleans Saints Louis Vasquez (born 1987), offensive guard for Denver Broncos Dustin Vaughan (born 1991), quarterback for Dallas Cowboys Lawrence Vickers (born 1983), fullback for Dallas Cowboys Trevin Wade (born 1989), cornerback for New York Giants LaAdrian Waddle (born 1991), offensive tackle for New England Patriots Doak Walker (1927–1998), College and Hall of Fame player for SMU and Detroit Lions, winner of Heisman Trophy Jamar Wall (born 1988), cornerback for Philadelphia Eagles J. D. Walton (born 1987), center for New York Giants John Washington (born 1963), defensive end for New York Giants Brian Waters (born 1977), offensive guard for New England Patriots Armani Watts (born 1996), safety for Kansas City Chiefs J'Marcus Webb (born 1988), offensive tackle for Chicago Bears Sean Weatherspoon (born 1987), linebacker for Arizona Cardinals Scott Wells (born 1981), center for St. Louis Rams DeAndrew White (born 1991), wide receiver for San Francisco 49ers Melvin White (born 1990), cornerback for Carolina Panthers Nikita Whitlock (born 1991), fullback for New York Giants Fozzy Whittaker (born 1989), running back, kick returner, Carolina Panthers Aaron Williams (born 1990), safety for Buffalo Bills Bobbie Williams (born 1976), guard for Baltimore Ravens Brandon Williams (born 1986), linebacker for Dallas Cowboys Brian Williams (born 1972), NFL linebacker Byron Williams (born 1960), NFL and WLAF wide receiver Connor Williams (born 1997), offensive guard for the Dallas Cowboys Daryl Williams (born 1992), offensive tackle for Carolina Panthers D. J. Williams (born 1988), tight end for Green Bay Packers Malcolm Williams (born 1987), defensive back for New England Patriots Roy Williams (born 1981), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Teddy Williams (born 1988), cornerback for Carolina Panthers Terrance Williams (born 1989), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Trent Williams (born 1988), offensive tackle for Washington Redskins Josh Wilson (born 1985), cornerback for Atlanta Falcons Wade Wilson (1959–2019), quarterback for Minnesota Vikings; quarterbacks coach for Dallas Cowboys Eric Winston (born 1983), offensive tackle for Houston Texans Will Witherspoon (born 1980), linebacker for Tennessee Titans Kendall Wright (born 1989), wide receiver for the Chicago Bears Vince Young (born 1983), quarterback for Texas Longhorns and Philadelphia Eagles, MVP of 2005 and 2006 Rose Bowl Golf Rich Beem (born 1970), professional golfer Harry Cooper (1904–2000), professional golfer Bettye Danoff (1923–2011), golfer, one of founding members of LPGA Lee Elder (1934–2021), golfer, first African American to play in the Masters Tournament Ben Hogan (1912–1997), golfer Betty Jameson (1919–2009), golfer Tom Kite (born 1949), golfer Byron Nelson (1912–2006), professional golfer Corey Pavin (born 1959), professional golfer Harvey Penick (1904–1995), golfer, golf coach, elected to World Golf Hall of Fame Jordan Spieth (born 1993), golfer, achieved No. 1 world ranking at age 22 Lee Trevino (born 1939), golfer Kathy Whitworth (born 1939), golfer in World Golf Hall of Fame Babe Didrikson Zaharias (1911–1956), athlete, won 82 amateur and professional golf tournaments, including five major professional championships Motorsports Brandon Bernstein (born 1972) drag racer, NHRA top fuel driver, son of Kenny Bernstein Kenny Bernstein (born 1944), drag racer, six-time NHRA champion, father of Brandon Bernstein Chris Buescher (born 1992), NASCAR driver James Buescher (born 1990), former NASCAR driver Colin Braun (born 1988), professional race car driver Joie Chitwood (1912–1988), professional race car driver Brad Coleman (born 1988), former NASCAR driver Bayley Currey (born 1996), NASCAR driver A. J. Foyt (born 1935), race car driver Bobby Labonte (born 1964), NASCAR driver, 2000 Winston Cup Champion, younger brother of Terry Labonte Terry Labonte (born 1956), NASCAR driver, NASCAR Hall of Fame inductee, 1996 Winston Cup Champion Carroll Shelby (1923–2012), race car driver and designer of the Shelby Cobra and other automobiles David Starr (born 1967), NASCAR driver Professional wrestling Toni Adams (1964–2010), wrestling manager and valet Stone Cold Steve Austin (born 1964), WWE wrestler and actor Texas Tank Bernard Tully Blanchard (born 1954), NWA wrestler, original Four Horsemen member Celeste Bonin (born 1986), WWE wrestler known as Kaitlyn Mark Calaway (born 1965), WWE wrestler known as The Undertaker Dixie Carter (born 1964), President of TNA Wrestling Bobby Duncum, Jr. (1965–2000), former WCW wrestler Dory Funk Sr. (1919–1973), wrestler, trainer, and promoter Dory Funk Jr. (born 1941), NWA wrestler and trainer Terry Funk (born 1944) NWA and ECW champion, one of the first hardcore wrestlers Nidia Guenard (born 1979), former WWE wrestler and 2001 WWE Tough Enough Co-winner Eddie Guerrero (1967–2005), WWE champion Chavo Guerrero Sr. (1949–2017), former NWA champion Chavo Guerrero Jr. (born 1970), WCW and WWE wrestler Vickie Guerrero (born 1968), WWE personality Stan Hansen (born 1949), AJPW wrestler Mark Henry (born 1971), WWE wrestler Shawn Hernandez (born 1973), TNA wrestler Lance Hoyt (born 1977), TNA wrestler Booker Huffman (born 1965), WCW and WWE wrestler known as Booker T Lash Huffman (born 1958), WCW wrestler John Layfield (born 1966), former WWE champion JBL/Bradshaw Shawn Michaels (born 1965), former WWE wrestler and champion Jacqueline Moore (born 1964), former WWE women's champion Blackjack Mulligan (1942–2016), former NWA wrestler Dick Murdoch (1946–1996), former NWA wrestler Bruce Prichard (born 1963), Brother Love in the WWE Tom Prichard (born 1959), WWE wrestler Scott Putski (born 1966), former WCW and WWE wrestler Dustin Rhodes (born 1969), WWE wrestler Goldust Dusty Rhodes (1945–2015), WWE wrestler Wendi Richter (born 1961), WWE wrestler Jake "The Snake" Roberts (born 1955), former WWE wrestler Tito Santana (born 1953), former WWE wrestler Jesse Sorensen (born 1989), TNA wrestler Robert Swenson (1957–1997), former WCW wrestler and actor Von Erich Family, wrestling family which competed in various Texas and southern promotions Erik Watts (born 1967), former WCW wrestler Alicia Webb (born 1979), former WWE star Ryan Shamrock Barry Windham (born 1960), former NWA and WCW wrestler Kendall Windham (born 1967), former NWA and WCW wrestler Soccer Jeff Agoos (born 1968), Swiss-born American soccer defender, Hall of Fame Clint Dempsey (born 1983), soccer player, plays for Fulham FC and United States Men's National Soccer Team Nick Garcia (born 1979), soccer player Omar Gonzalez (born 1988), soccer player Weston McKennie (born 1998), soccer player, plays for Schalke 04 and United States Men's National Soccer Team Hassan Nazari (born 1956), soccer player, coach, youth club founder Lee Nguyen (born 1986), soccer player Swimming Cammile Adams (born 1991), Olympic swimmer Shaine Casas (born 1999), competitive swimmer Madisyn Cox (born 1995), competitive swimmer Josh Davis (born 1972), Olympic gold and silver medalist in freestyle swimming Jimmy Feigen (born 1989), Olympic swimmer and gold medalist Natalie Hinds (born 1993), Olympic swimmer Micah Lawrence (born 1990), Olympic swimmer Simone Manuel (born 1996), Olympic swimmer and gold medalist Katie Meili (born 1991), Olympic swimmer and bronze medalist Dana Vollmer (born 1987), swimmer, gold medalist at 2004 Olympics Tennis Zina Garrison (born 1963), tennis player Karl Kamrath (1911–1988), tennis player, architect Cliff Richey (born 1946), tennis player, achieved world number-six ranking Nancy Richey (born 1942), tennis player, won six major championships in singles and doubles, achieved world number-two ranking Michael Russell (born 1978), tennis player Dick Savitt (born 1927), tennis player ranked number two in the world Anne Smith (born 1959), tennis player, ten major championships in doubles, ranked world number one in doubles Track and field Brigetta Barrett (born 1990), high jumper Matthew S. Brown (born 1976), track and field champion at 2007 Parapan American Games in Rio de Janeiro Cameron Burrell (1994–2021), sprinter Dave Clark (1936–2018), Olympic pole vaulter Melissa González (born 1994), hurdler Carlette Guidry-White (born 1968), sprinter Ariana Ince (born 1989), javelin thrower Michael Johnson (born 1967), sprinter, Olympic gold medalist, world record holder Maggie Malone (born 1993), javelin thrower Louise Ritter (born 1958), Olympic gold medalist in high jump Raevyn Rogers (born 1996), middle-distance runner, Olympic medalist Tom Tellez (born 1933), collegiate track and field coach Jeremy Wariner (born 1984), track & field Olympic gold medalist Mal Whitfield (1924–2015), Olympic gold medalist in the 800-meter run Darold Williamson (born 1983), Olympic gold medalist in track & field Babe Didrikson Zaharias (1914–1956), track & field gold medalist 1932 Olympics, golfer in World Golf Hall of Fame Mind sports Amarillo Slim (Thomas Preston, Jr.) (1928–2012), poker champion Doyle Brunson (born 1933), professional poker player Johnny Chan (born 1957), professional poker player Bobby Goldman (1938–1999), bridge player Bob Hamman (born 1938), bridge player James Jacoby (1933–1991), bridge player Oswald Jacoby (1902–1984), bridge player Ruifeng Li (born 2001), chess grandmaster Johnny Moss (1907–1995), professional poker player Robert Salaburu (born 1985), poker player David Williams (born 1980), poker player Trey Wright (born 1974), U.S. national Scrabble champion, classical concert pianist Other Terence Anderson (born c. 1946), sport shooter Lance Armstrong (born 1971), cyclist, disqualified champion of Tour de France Del Ballard, Jr. (born 1963), professional bowler Richard Bass (1929–2015), mountaineer, first person to climb the "Seven Summits"; business owner Kyle Bennett (1979–2012), bicycle motocross racer Evan Bernstein (born 1960), Israeli Olympic wrestler Simone Biles (born 1997), world- and Olympic-champion gymnast Aimee Boorman (born 1973), gymnastics coach Aimee Buchanan (born 1993), American-born Olympic figure skater for Israel Tervel Dlagnev (born 1985), Olympic Greco-Roman wrestler, bronze medalist at 2012 Summer Olympics Cowboy Morgan Evans (1903–1969), rodeo, steer wrestling champion 1928 Jennifer Gutierrez (born 1967), triathlete Heath Herring (born 1978), mixed martial artist Seth Jones (born 1994), ice hockey player for the Columbus Blue Jackets Courtney Kupets (born 1986), world and U.S. champion gymnast, silver medalist in 2004 Summer Olympics Rafael A. Lecuona (1928–2014), Cuban-American gymnast, 1948–1956 Brian Leetch (born 1968), Hall of Fame hockey defenseman, primarily with the New York Rangers Tara Lipinski (born 1982), figure skater, Olympic gold medalist Nastia Liukin (born 1989), 2008 Olympic gymnastics all-around gold medalist Patricia McCormick (1929–2013), bullfighter Bubba McDaniel (born 1983), mixed martial artist Tamyra Mensah-Stock (born 1992), sport wrestler; world champion, Olympic gold medalist Delaney Miller (born 1995), rock climber Robert Mosbacher (1927–2010), yacht racer, businessman, politician Cat Osterman (born 1983), softball pitcher Carly Patterson (born 1988), 2004 Olympic gymnastics all-around gold medalist Bill Pickett (1870–1932), cowboy and rodeo performer Todd Pletcher (born 1967), horse trainer Alex Puccio (born 1989), climber Tex Rickard (1870–1929), sports promoter Keith Sanderson (born 1975), sport shooter Willie Shoemaker (1931–2003), jockey Brandon Slay (born 1975), Olympic freestyle wrestler, gold medalist at 2000 Olympics Hollie Vise (born 1987), world-champion gymnast Walel Watson (born 1984), mixed martial artist Kaitlyn Weaver (born 1989), ice dancer, competes for Canada Chip Woolley (born 1963), racehorse trainer Business A–E Nahim Abraham (1885–1965), businessman and philanthropist in Canadian; native of Lebanon Tom Abraham (1910–2007), businessman and philanthropist in Canadian, Texas; native of Lebanon Red Adair (1915–2004), offshore oil field firefighter Joe Allbritton (1924–2012), banker, publisher, philanthropist John S. Armstrong (1850–1908), Dallas-area real estate developer, founded Oak Cliff, Highland Park, the State Fair of Texas Mary Kay Ash (1918–2001), businesswoman and founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics George Ballas (1925–2011), entrepreneur, invented Weed Eater Ed Bass (born 1945), businessman, financier, philanthropist, environmentalist Harry W. Bass Jr. (1927–1998), oil business, philanthropist Harry W. Bass Sr. (1895–1970), oil business Richard Bass (1929–2015), owner of Snowbird Ski Resort; pioneering mountaineer Robert Bass (born 1948), billionaire philanthropist, chairman of Oak Hill Capital, conservationist Sid Bass (born 1942), billionaire investor and oil magnate from Fort Worth Andrew Beal (born 1952), banker, businessman, investor, poker player, mathematician; billionaire Benny Binion (1904–1989), Las Vegas casino owner; previously an organized-crime boss Jack Binion (born 1937), businessman Jack S. Blanton (1927–2013), oil industry executive, civic leader, philanthropist Ghulam Bombaywala (born 1973), restaurateur George Washington Brackenridge (1832–1920), banker, business executive, philanthropist, social activist, university regent Nancy Brinker (born 1946), business executive, ambassador Norman Brinker (1931–2009), restaurateur George R. Brown (1898–1983), construction company founder, entrepreneur, philanthropist Samuel Burk Burnett (1849–1922), cattleman, rancher Charles Butt (born 1938), CEO of H-E-B supermarket chain, billionaire Howard Edward Butt Sr. (1895–1991), businessman, philanthropist; founded H-E-B grocery store chain David Harold Byrd (1900–1986), oilman, founder of Civil Air Patrol Frank Kell Cahoon (1934–2013), oilman, natural gas entrepreneur, state representative Joseph Campisi (1918–1990), restaurateur Don Carter (1933–2018), investor, businessman; owned professional sports teams Eddie Chiles (1910–1993), oil business founder and executive; major-league baseball team owner Sarah Horton Cockrell (1819–1892), businesswoman, millionaire Carr Collins Sr. (1892–1980), insurance magnate, philanthropist Brad Corbett (1937–2012), oil business, owned the Texas Rangers baseball team Helen Corbitt (1906–1978), chef, cookbook author Carl G. Cromwell (1889–1931), oil driller and aviation pioneer Harlan Crow (born 1949), real estate developer Trammell Crow (1914–2009), commercial real estate developer Mary C. Crowley (1915–1986), business executive Sherwood Cryer (1927–2009), entrepreneur, co-owned and operated Gilley's honky-tonk nightclub Mark Cuban (born 1958), billionaire entrepreneur, owner of Dallas Mavericks basketball team Joseph S. Cullinan (1860–1937), oil industrialist, founder of Texaco Robert B. Cullum (1912–1981), founder of Tom Thumb supermarket chain Ray Davis, business executive, baseball team owner Robert Decherd (born 1951), businessman; Chairman, President, and CEO of A. H. Belo Michael Dell (born 1965), founder of Dell Inc. Clara Driscoll (1881–1945), businesswoman, philanthropist, historic preservationist Angelo Drossos (1928–1997), stockbroker, owner of San Antonio Spurs Thomas Dundon (born 1972), financial businessman F–J William Stamps Farish II (1881–1942), president of Standard Oil, founder and president of American Petroleum Institute Dean Fearing (born 1955), chef, restaurateur Tilman J. Fertitta (born 1957), CEO of Landry's Restaurants, billionaire Carly Fiorina (born 1954), CEO of Hewlett-Packard, senior vice president at AT&T, and Ted Cruz's running mate in the 2016 election Don Flynn (1934–2010), oil and gas industry executive, professional football player Buddy Fogelson (1900–1987), oilman, lawyer, horse breeder, philanthropist; husband of Greer Garson Robert Folsom (1927–2017), real estate investor and developer; mayor of Dallas Walter Fondren, Sr. (1877–1939), oilman, co-founder of Humble Oil (which would become ExxonMobil), philanthropist Gerald J. Ford (born 1944), business executive, banker, billionaire, philanthropist Joe B. Foster (1934–2020), oil business, philanthropist Andrew Friedman (born 1976), banker, Major League Baseball executive William Delbert Gann (1878–1955), finance trader, analyst William H. Gaston (1840–1927), co-founder, with Aaron C. Camp, of the first banking house in Dallas Jim Goode (1944–2016), restaurateur Charles Goodnight (1836–1929), legendary Texas cattleman Bette Nesmith Graham (1924–1980), inventor, founder of Liquid Paper Corporation, mother of The Monkees' Mike Nesmith Eunice Gray (1880–1962), hotel and brothel owner Bennett Greenspan (born 1952), entrepreneur, founder of Family Tree DNA Carl Hilmar Guenther (1826–1902), miller Patrick E. Haggerty (1914–1980), co-founder, president, and chairman of Texas Instruments Najeeb Halaby (1915–2003), FAA administrator, chairman and CEO of Pan Am, father of Queen Noor of Jordan Ebby Halliday (1911–2015), Realtor, entrepreneur Thomas Britton Harris IV (born 1958), investment officer Jim Hasslocher (1922–2015), restaurateur William R. Hawn (1910–1995), businessman, philanthropist, racehorse breeder Pattillo Higgins (1863–1955), oil pioneer and businessman, known as the "Prophet of Spindletop" Barron Hilton (1927–2019), billionaire socialite, businessman, heir to Hilton Hotels fortune Conrad Hilton (1887–1979), hotel-chain founder Conrad Hilton Jr. (1926–1969), socialite, businessman, heir to Hilton Hotels fortune Eric Hilton (1933–2016), hotelier, philanthropist Gerald D. Hines (1925–2020), real-estate developer Timothy Dwight Hobart (1855–1935), landowner, surveyor, rancher, mayor of Pampa Roger Horchow (1928–2020), catalog entrepreneur, Broadway producer Thomas William House, Sr. (1814–1880), early Houston cotton shipper, founder of Houston's first private bank and first public utility Howard Hughes (1905–1976), aviator, filmmaker, eccentric billionaire Howard R. Hughes, Sr. (1869–1924), entrepreneur, oilman; father of Howard Hughes Earl H. Hulsey (1880–1961), businessman, movie-theatre operator Caroline Rose Hunt (1923–2018), hotelier, author, philanthropist, heiress Clark Hunt (born 1965), Chairman and CEO of the Kansas City Chiefs H. L. Hunt (1889–1974), oil tycoon, patriarch of Dallas family of legendary wealth and power Lamar Hunt (1932–2006), founder of American Football League, Major League Soccer, North American Soccer League Nelson Bunker Hunt (1926–2014), oilman, investor, horse breeder Ray Lee Hunt (born 1943), oilman Columbus Marion "Dad" Joiner (1860–1947), oilman Jerry Jones (born 1942), billionaire entrepreneur, oilman, owner of Dallas Cowboys football team Jerry Jones, Jr. (born 1969), Dallas Cowboys executive Stephen Jones (born 1964), Dallas Cowboys executive J. Erik Jonsson (1901–1995), co-founder and president of Texas Instruments, mayor of Dallas K–M Herb Kelleher (1931–2019), founder and CEO of Southwest Airlines Gary C. Kelly (born 1955), CEO, Southwest Airlines Isaac Herbert Kempner (1873–1967), founder of Imperial Sugar, mayor of Galveston Kay Kimbell (1886–1964), entrepreneur, philanthropist; endowed Kimbell Art Museum Richard King (1824–1885), entrepreneur, founder of the legendary King Ranch Rollin King (1931–2014), businessman, investment consultant, co-founder of Southwest Airlines John Henry Kirby (1860–1940), businessman, founder of the Kirby Petroleum Company Robert J. Kleberg, Jr. (1853–1932), managed the King Ranch Fred C. Koch (1900–1967), chemical engineer and entrepreneur who founded the oil refinery firm that later became Koch Industries Harry Koch (1867–1942), railroad founder, newspaper founder Eugene Lacritz (1929–2012), retail executive, classical musician Ninfa Laurenzo (1924–2001), restaurateur Rodney Lewis (born 1954), oil and natural gas industrialist and rancher; second wealthiest individual in San Antonio John Lilly, venture capitalist David Litman (born 1957), founder of hotels.com and getaroom.com James Ling (1922–2004), founder of business conglomerate Ling-Temco-Vought Tim Love (born 1971), chef, restaurateur Sam Lucchese (1868–1929), businessman, bootmaker, theater impresario Gerald Lyda (1923–2005), construction CEO, owner of La Escalera Ranch in Sierra County, New Mexico James E. Lyon (1927–1993), real estate developer, banker, and Republican politician in Houston John Mackey (born 1953), CEO, Whole Foods Market Herbert Marcus (1878–1950), co-founder and CEO of Neiman Marcus Minnie Lichtenstein Marcus (1882–1979), vice president of Neiman Marcus, horticulturist Stanley Marcus (1905–2002), president and CEO of Neiman Marcus Thomas Marsalis (1852–1919), Dallas-area developer Irving Allen Mathews (1917–1994), retail executive, Federal Reserve Bank board chairman Glenn McCarthy (1907–1988), oil tycoon, entrepreneur; inspired the character Jett Rink in Giant Red McCombs (born 1927), businessman, has owned several professional sports franchises Eugene McDermott (1899–1973), founder of Texas Instruments, geophysicist, philanthropist William Johnson McDonald (1844–1926), banker, philanthropist Jim McIngvale (born 1951), businessman, owns furniture-store chain Algur H. Meadows (1899–1978), oilman, philanthropist John W. Mecom, Sr. (1911–1981), oilman George P. Mitchell (1919–2013), billionaire oilman, real estate developer, philanthropist Mohamed Elhassan Mohamed (born 1961), entrepreneur; political, religious, cultural activist; father of Ahmed Mohamed John T. Montford (born 1943), businessman in San Antonio, former chancellor of the Texas Tech University System, former state senator and district attorney from Lubbock Shearn Moody, Jr. (1933–1996), financier, entrepreneur, philanthropist William Lewis Moody, Jr. (1865–1954), financier, entrepreneur John Moores (born 1944), entrepreneur, philanthropist; owner of professional sports teams Robert Mosbacher (1927–2010), businessman, yacht racer, politician Barry Munitz (born 1941), corporation and foundation executive, university administrator Clint Murchison, Jr. (1923–1987), oil businessman; founder/owner of Dallas Cowboys football team Clint Murchison, Sr. (1895–1969), oil magnate N–R Raymond Nasher (1921–2007), real estate developer (NorthPark Center), art collector Abraham Lincoln Neiman (1875–1970), co-founder of Neiman Marcus Carrie Marcus Neiman (1883–1953), co-founder and CEO of Neiman Marcus Bill Noël (1914–1987), oil industrialist and philanthropist from Odessa Mary Moody Northen (1892–1986), financier, philanthropist Jim Novy (1896–1971), businessman, entrepreneur, philanthropist, supported career of Lyndon B. Johnson; nicknamed "First Jew of Texas" Peter O'Donnell (1924–2021), investor, philanthropist, Republican state party chairman, 1962–1969; leader of the Draft Goldwater Committee in 1963–1964 R.J. O'Donnell (1891–1959), businessman, theatre-chain manager, philanthropist William O'Neil (born 1933), entrepreneur, stockbroker, writer, founded Investor's Business Daily Marc Ostrofsky (born 1961), venture capitalist, entrepreneur, investor, author Ross Perot (1930–2019), entrepreneur; founder of EDS and Perot Systems; 1992 U.S. presidential candidate Bob J. Perry (1932–2013), homebuilder, political supporter Stephen Samuel Perry (1825–1874), manager of Peach Point Plantation, preserved historical manuscripts T. Boone Pickens (1928–2019), energy entrepreneur, philanthropist Lonnie "Bo" Pilgrim (1928–2017), founder, chairman, and principal owner of Pilgrim's Pride Bernard Rapoport (1917–2012), entrepreneur, philanthropist, author, business executive Kent Rathbun (born 1961), chef, restaurateur William Marsh Rice (1816–1900), merchant, investor, multimillionaire, philanthropist; namesake of Rice University Sid W. Richardson (1891–1959), oilman, cattleman, philanthropist Rich Riley (born 1973), Senior Vice President and managing director of Yahoo! EMEA Corbin Robertson (born 1947), business executive Phil Romano (born 1939), restaurateur Willy O. Rossel (1921–2015), chef Marvin Travis Runyon (1924–2004), business executive, U.S. Postmaster General Reid Ryan (born 1971), Major League Baseball executive, former player S–T Fayez Sarofim (born 1929), stock-fund manager, part owner of Houston Texans, philanthropist, billionaire Tom Scaperlanda (1895–1971), jeweler, circus historian and collector of circusana Julius Schepps (1895–1971), business owner, civic leader and philanthropist Arthur A. Seeligson Jr. (1920–2001), oilman, rancher, Thoroughbred racehorse owner/breeder Daniel R. Scoggin (born 1937), founder of TGI Friday's, Inc., restaurateur Frank Sharp (1906–1993), land developer Walter Benona Sharp (1870–1912), oilman, innovator, philanthropist Anna Shelton (1861–1939), real-estate developer, founder of women's clubs Harold Simmons (1931–2013), billionaire businessman, banker, philanthropist; developed concept of leveraged buyout Bob R. Simpson, business executive, baseball team owner Henry Singleton (1916–1999), electrical engineer, co-founder of Teledyne Technologies Bill Sinkin (1913–2014), banker, community activist Tom Slick (1916–1962), inventor, businessman, adventurer, entrepreneur, philanthropist Merrie Spaeth (born 1948), business public relations consultant, political consultant, educator, former actress John Sparks (1843–1908), cattle rancher, Texas Ranger, became governor of Nevada A. Latham Staples (born 1977), CEO of EXUSMED, Inc., civil rights activist, and founder/Chairman of Empowering Spirits Foundation Felix Stehling (1927–2012), businessman, restaurateur, founded Taco Cabana John M. Stemmons (1909–2001), real estate developer, civic leader Leslie Stemmons (1876–1939), businessman Frank Sterling (1869–1938), oil business Ross S. Sterling (1875–1949), founder of Humble Oil (which would become ExxonMobil), Governor of Texas David Tallichet (1922–2007), developed the theme restaurant concept Anne Valliant Burnett Tandy (1900–1980), rancher, horsebreeder, philanthropist, art collector Charles D. Tandy (1918–1978), chairman, president, and CEO of Tandy Corporation Ben Taub (1889–1982), businessman, philanthropist Rich Templeton (born 1958), president, chairman, and CEO of Texas Instruments Robert L. Thornton (1880–1964), founder and president of Mercantile Bank in Dallas, mayor and civic leader of Dallas Tex Thornton (1913–1981), founder of Litton Industries Felix Tijerina (1905–1965), restaurateur Rex Tillerson (born 1952), chairman, president and CEO of ExxonMobil Kenny Troutt (born 1948), telecommunications company founder, racehorse owner, billionaire U–Z Daniel Waggoner (1828–1902), rancher, businessman, banker E. Paul Waggoner (1889–1967), rancher, horsebreeder Guy Waggoner (1883–1950), rancher, business executive William Thomas Waggoner (1852–1934), rancher, oilman, banker, horsebreeder, philanthropist Kelcy Warren (born 1955), chairman and CEO of Energy Transfer Partners Sherron Watkins (born 1959), Vice President at the Enron Corporation, whistleblower who helped uncover the Enron scandal George Washington West (1851–1926), rancher James Marion West, Jr. (1903–1957), oilman James Marion West, Sr. (1871–1941), business tycoon Edward Whitacre, Jr. (born 1941), chairman of the board and CEO of General Motors, chairman of the board and CEO of AT&T Inc. Clayton Wheat Williams, Jr. (1931–2020), oilman; Republican gubernatorial nominee, 1990 Gus Sessions Wortham (1891–1976), businessman, philanthropist Charles Wyly (1933–2011), entrepreneur, businessman, philanthropist, civic leader Sam Wyly (born 1934), entrepreneur, businessman, philanthropist Angus G. Wynne (1914–1979), founder of Six Flags Over Texas and subsequent corporate theme parks Benjamin Franklin Yoakum (1859–1929), railroad executive H.B. Zachry (1901–1984), construction business executive Zig Ziglar (1926–2012), salesman, motivational speaker, author Andrew Jackson Zilker (1858–1934), businessman, civic leader, philanthropist in Austin Law and jurisprudence James A. Baker, Jr. (1892–1973), attorney Captain James A. Baker (1857–1941), attorney for William Marsh Rice, banker Judge James A. Baker (1821–1897), jurist, politician Roy Bean (c. 1825 – 1903), Justice of the Peace, called himself "The Law West of the Pecos" Nandita Berry (born 1968), Secretary of State of Texas (2014–2015); Houston lawyer Robert Lee Bobbitt (1888–1972), Speaker of the Texas House of Representatives (1927–1929), state attorney general (1929–1930) Jean Hudson Boyd (born 1954), district court judge who sentenced Ethan Couch to probation based on "affluenza" defense Ruth Virginia Brazzil (1889–1976), lawyer Tony Buzbee (born 1968), trial lawyer Norma V. Cantu (born 1954), civil rights lawyer, educator Ronald H. Clark (born 1953), judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, based in Beaumont; former member of the Texas House of Representatives from Sherman Tom C. Clark (1899–1977), United States Attorney General and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Linda Coffee (born 1942), attorney for Norma McCorvey in Roe v. Wade Elma Salinas Ender (born 1953), first Hispanic female to serve on a state district court in Texas; judge of the 341st Judicial District, based in Laredo, 1983–2012 Percy Foreman (1902–1988), criminal defense attorney Hans Peter Mareus Neilsen Gammel (1854–1931), editor and publisher of The Laws of Texas 1822–1897 Mike Godwin (born 1956), attorney, author Alberto Gonzales (born 1955), United States Attorney General Richard "Racehorse" Haynes (1927–2017), defense attorney, author Randy Hendricks (born 1945), sports lawyer, author Hattie Leah Henenberg (1893–1974), lawyer Harry Hertzberg (1883–1940), attorney, Texas state senator, civic leader Barbara Hines, immigration rights attorney Joe Jamail (1925–2015), attorney, billionaire Leon Jaworski (1905–1982), attorney, was special prosecutor during the Watergate scandal hearings Jim Mattox (1943–2008), U.S. representative and attorney general of Texas Harry McPherson (1929–2012), special counsel to President Lyndon Johnson, lawyer, lobbyist Harriet Miers (born 1945), attorney, White House Counsel, nominated for U.S. Supreme Court Sandra Day O'Connor (born 1930), former associate justice of the United States Supreme Court; first woman on the high court John O'Quinn (1941–2009), attorney Jack Pope (1913–2017), Chief Justice of Texas Supreme Court Louise Raggio (1919–2011), attorney, first female prosecutor in Texas Nellie Gray Robertson (1894–1955), lawyer David McAdams Sibley (born 1948), attorney-lobbyist, former Texas state senator (1991–2002) and mayor of Waco (1987–1988) Ken Starr (born 1946), attorney, federal judge, Solicitor General, and Independent Counsel during the Clinton Administration Stephen Susman (1941–2020), plaintiffs attorney and a founding partner of Susman Godfrey Carol Vance (born 1933), district attorney, head of Texas Board of Criminal Justice Dale Wainwright (born 1961), Justice, Texas Supreme Court Hortense Sparks Ward (1872–1944), lawyer, women's rights activist Craig Watkins (born 1967), first African-American district attorney in Texas, Dallas Morning News Texan of the Year 2008 Edith Wilmans (1882–1966), lawyer, state legislator Will Wilson (1912–2005), Attorney General of Texas, Texas Supreme Court justice Jared Woodfill (born 1968), attorney, political activist Mark Yudof (born 1944), law professor, university chancellor Kathleen Zellner, attorney Law enforcement David Brown (born 1960), chief of Dallas Police Department James B. Gillett (1856–1937), lawman, member of Texas Ranger Hall of Fame TJ Goree (1835–1905), superintendent of penitentiaries in Texas, namesake of the Goree Unit of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice; Confederate Army captain, attorney Frank Hamer (1884–1955), Texas Ranger, led raid in which Bonnie and Clyde were killed Roy Hazelwood (1938–2016), FBI profiler Ted Hinton (1904–1977), deputy sheriff involved in raid in which Bonnie and Clyde were killed Joaquin Jackson (1935–2016), Texas Ranger, author, actor John B. Jones (1834–1881), captain of Texas Rangers Frontier Battalion Jim Leavelle (1920–2019), Dallas Police detective who was escorting Lee Harvey Oswald when Oswald was shot Darrell Lunsford (1943–1991), was murdered while arresting drug suspects Ramiro Martinez (born 1937), police officer involved in killing of sniper Charles Whitman David Atlee Phillips (1922–1988), officer for the CIA, recipient of the Career Intelligence Medal Phil Ryan (born 1945), Texas Ranger who arrested serial killer Henry Lee Lucas Charlie Siringo (1855–1928), Wild West lawman Ben Thompson (1843–1884), Old West lawman, gunman, gambler J. D. Tippit (1924–1963), Dallas police officer who questioned Lee Harvey Oswald following the assassination of John F. Kennedy and was subsequently killed by Oswald Charles Winstead (1891–1973), FBI Agent in the 1930s–1940s; one of the agents who shot and killed John Dillinger Art, photography, architecture A–K Walter W. Ahlschlager (1887–1965), architect Larry D. Alexander (born 1953), visual artist Natalia Anciso (born 1985), visual artist José Arpa (1858–1952), painter Tex Avery (1908–1980), animator, cartoonist, director Atlee Ayres (1873–1969), architect Robert M. Ayres (1898–1977), architect Bill Barminski (born 1962), artist, designer, filmmaker Donald Barthelme (1907–1996), architect Arthello Beck (1941–2004), visual artist Bobby Berk (born 1981), interior designer, television personality John T. Biggers (1924–2001), muralist, established art department at Texas Southern University Electra Waggoner Biggs (1912–2001), sculptor Melinda Bordelon (1949–1995), painter, illustrator Berkeley Breathed (born 1957), Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist, author/illustrator, director, screenwriter Susan Budge (born 1959), ceramic sculptor Harold Dow Bugbee (1900–1963), artist John Cassaday (born 1971), comic book artist Keith Carter (born 1948), photographer, educator, artist John S. Chase (1925–2012), architect Mel Chin (born 1951), conceptual visual artist Harold F. Clayton (1954–2015), sculptor Nicholas Joseph Clayton (1840–1916), architect Matchett Herring Coe (1907–1999), sculptor Pompeo Coppini (1870–1957), sculptor, teacher George Dahl (1894–1987), architect Dawson Dawson-Watson (1864–1939), impressionist painter Charles August Albert Dellschau (1830–1923), outsider artist Neil Denari (born 1957), architect Richard Dominguez (born 1960), comic book artist Brian Adam Douglas (born 1972), visual artist Dan Dunn (born 1957), speed painter, cartoonist, caricaturist Emily Edwards (1888–1980), artist, historian, conservationist, teacher, civic leader Charles Fincher (born 1945), cartoonist, lawyer Joseph Finger (1887–1953), architect Alfred C. Finn (1883–1964), architect O'Neil Ford (1905–1982), architect Jim Franklin (born 1943), artist, illustrator, underground cartoonist Alfred Giles (1853–1920), architect Francois P. Giraud (1818–1877), architect, surveyor, mayor of San Antonio Rolando Gomez (born 1962), photographer Xavier Gonzalez (1898–1993), muralist, sculptor, teacher Glenna Goodacre (1939–2020), sculptor, designed obverse of Sacagawea dollar James Riely Gordon (1863–1937), architect Herbert M. Greene (1871–1932), architect Priscilla Hamby (born 1982), illustrator, comic-book artist Trenton Doyle Hancock (born 1974), visual artist Wyatt C. Hedrick (1888–1964), architect Wolf Hilbertz (1938–2007), architect, inventor, marine scientist, educator Barbara Hines (born 1950), artist Armando Hinojosa (born 1944), sculptor Alexandre Hogue (1898–1994), realist painter Dorothy Hood (1919–2000), Modernist painter Carl Hoppe (1897–1981), painter Louis Hoppe (fl. 1860s), 19th-century folk artist Lance Hosey, architect Robert H.H. Hugman (1902–1980), architect, designed San Antonio River Walk Walter Iooss (born 1943), photographer Natalie Irish (born 1982), multimedia artist, pioneer of the lip print technique James Ivey (born 1967), artist, painter, carnival surrealism Elisa Jimenez (born 1963), interdisciplinary artist, fashion designer Luis Jiménez (1940–2006), sculptor Raoul Josset (1899–1957), sculptor Donald Judd (1928–1994), sculptor Karl Kamrath (1911–1988), architect, tennis player Cheryl Kelley, photorealist painter George Kessler (1862–1923), landscape architect, city planner John F. Knott (1878–1963), political cartoonist, illustrator, art educator L–Z Thomas C. Lea, III (1907–2001), muralist, illustrator, artist, war correspondent, novelist, historian Harold LeDoux (1926–2015), cartoonist, Judge Parker Rick Lowe (born 1961), visual artist, social activist, educator, MacArthur Fellow Hermann Lungkwitz (1813–1891), landscape artist, photographer Bob Mader (1943–2005), photographer Stanley Marsh 3 (1938–2014), millionaire artist and philanthropist Florence McClung (1894–1992), painter, printmaker, art teacher Marion Koogler McNay (1883–1950), artist, teacher, art collector, museum founder, philanthropist Alex McVey (born 1978), illustrator Michael Mehaffy (born 1955), architectural theorist Jesús Moroles (1950–2015), sculptor Elisabet Ney (1833–1907), sculptor Diane O'Leary (1939–2013), multimedia artist Lovie Olivia, multidisciplinary visual artist Julian Onderdonk (1882–1922), painter Robert Jenkins Onderdonk (1852–1917), painter Graydon Parrish (born 1970), realist painter Harry D. Payne (1891–1987), architect John Picacio (born 1969), science fiction-fantasy artist, illustrator Dan Piraro (born 1958), painter, illustrator, cartoonist Thomas M. Price (1916–1998), architect Don Ivan Punchatz (1936–2009), science fiction-fantasy artist, illustrator Gregor Punchatz (born 1967), artist/sculptor for video games Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008), painter, sculptor, graphic artist Frank Reaugh (1860–1945), painter Everette Dixie Reese (1923–1955), photographer, photojournalist Ace Reid (1925–1991), cartoonist and humorist Lucy Wilson Rice (1874–1963), painter Joe Riley (1964–2007), visual and plastic artist Dario Robleto (born 1972), conceptual artist Elizabeth Barlow Rogers (born 1936), landscape designer, landscape preservationist, writer Jermaine Rogers (born 1972), poster artist Nancy Rubins (born 1952), sculptor, installation artist Verónica Ruiz de Velasco (born 1968), painter Robh Ruppel (born c. 1963), illustrator Porfirio Salinas (1910–1973), landscape painter Julian Schnabel (born 1951), artist, film director Emil Schuhmann (1856–1937), folk artist, accordionist, bandleader Zachary Selig (1949–2016), artist, painter, writer Mark Seliger (born 1959), photographer Gilbert Shelton (born 1940), cartoonist Erwin E. Smith (1886–1947), photographer Justin Storms (born 1981), artist, musician, and creator of coloring book The Whaletopian Coloring Book James Surls (born 1943), modernist sculptor Masaru Takiguchi (born 1941), sculptor, arts educator Waldine Tauch (1892–1986), sculptor Karen T. Taylor (born 1952), forensic and portrait artist Frank Teich (1856–1939), sculptor Wilhelm Thielepape (1814–1904), architect, lithographer, photographer, surveyor, attorney, mayor of San Antonio Charles Umlauf (1911–1994), sculptor, art educator Vincent Valdez (born 1977), artist Bob Wade (1943–2019), artist, sculptor in "Cosmic Cowboy" genre William Ward Watkin (1886–1952), architect, founder of Rice University Department of Architecture Mack White (born 1952), comic book artist Verner Moore White (1863–1923), landscape and portrait artist Robert Whiteside (1950–2006), jewelry and craft maker and designer, polymath George Rodney Willis (1879–1960), architect Laura Wilson (born 1939), photographer Robert William Wood (1889–1979), landscape painter Literature A–G Jeff Abbott (born 1963), mystery novelist Susan Wittig Albert (born 1940), mystery writer Karle Wilson Baker (1878–1960), poet, author Wendy Barker (born 1942), poet, educator Neal Barrett Jr. (1929–2014), science fiction-fantasy writer Barbara Barrie (born 1931), author of children's books Rick Bass (born 1958), writer, environmentalist Roy Bedichek (1878–1959), writer, naturalist, educator Raymond Benson (born 1955), novelist Sarah Bird (born 1949), novelist, screenwriter, journalist Cheryl Bolen (born 1946), novelist, journalist J. Mason Brewer (1896–1975), folklorist, scholar, writer Sandra Brown (born 1948), novelist James Lee Burke (born 1936), mystery writer Hector Cantú (born 1961), writer, editor, newspaper comic strip creator Oscar Casares (born 1964), writer, educator Kathryn Casey, mystery and true crime author Katherine Center (born 1972), author of chick lit, mommy lit Pat Choate (born 1941), author, economist Susan Choi (born 1969), novelist Sandra Cisneros (born 1954), author and poet Tamarie Cooper (born 1970), playwright, actress Bill Crider (1941–2018), mystery writer Deborah Crombie (born 1952), mystery writer Justin Cronin (born 1962), novelist Grace Noll Crowell (1877–1969), poet James Crumley (1939–2008), crime novelist Jan de Hartog (1914–2002), Nobel Prize-nominated author, Tony Award-winning playwright, social activist, philanthropist Jim Dent (born 1953), author, sportswriter Adina Emilia De Zavala (1861–1955), writer, historian, educator J. Frank Dobie (1888–1964), folklorist and writer about open-range days Carole Nelson Douglas (1944–2021), mystery writer Robert M. Edsel (born 1956), nonfiction writer, oil company founder and innovator Kurt Eichenwald (born 1961), author, journalist John R. Erickson (born 1943), cowboy, author, songwriter, voice actor, wrote Hank the Cowdog series Jill Alexander Essbaum (born 1971), poet, writer, professor B. H. Fairchild (born 1942), poet Kitty Ferguson (born 1941), science writer Robert Flynn (born 1932), novelist Horton Foote (1916–2009), author and playwright Carrie Fountain, poet Hans Peter Mareus Neilsen Gammel (1854–1931), editor and publisher of The Laws of Texas 1822–1897 Julian S. Garcia, writer of Chicano literature Bryan A. Garner (born 1958), lexicographer, grammarian, author, educator Fred Gipson (1908–1973), novelist, author of Old Yeller John Graves (1920–2013), author Jesse Edward Grinstead (1866–1948), author of Western fiction H–M Christine Hà (born 1979), writer, poet, editor; chef who won MasterChef cooking competition in 2012 Hardy Haberman (born 1950), author, filmmaker, educator, figure in BDSM culture Elizabeth Forsythe Hailey (born 1938), novelist, journalist, playwright J. Evetts Haley (1901–1995), historian and political activist Harry H. Halsell (1860–1957), rancher, wrote books about ranching life Stephen Harrigan (born 1948), novelist, journalist Stanley Hauerwas (born 1940), theologian, philosopher Bobbie Louise Hawkins (1930–2018), short story writer, monologist, and poet Allison Hedge Coke (born 1958), poet and writer Patricia Highsmith (1921–1995), novelist, author of Strangers on a Train and The Talented Mr. Ripley Rolando Hinojosa-Smith (born 1929), novelist, essayist, poet, educator Thomas Elisha Hogg (1842–1880), poet, writer, editor Mary Austin Holley (1784–1846), wrote first English-language history of Texas Robert E. Howard (1906–1936), author of Conan the Barbarian stories and other pulp adventure tales William Humphrey (1924–1997), novelist Bret Anthony Johnston (born 1971), author, director of creative writing program at Harvard University Mary Karr (born 1955), poet, essayist, memoirist Elmer Kelton (1926–2009), journalist, western novelist Larry L. King (1929–2012), playwright, journalist, novelist, The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas Kevin Kwan (born 1950), novelist Joe R. Lansdale (born 1951), author of crime thrillers, Hap and Leonard novels Jenny Lawson (born 1973), journalist, humorist, blogger Kate Lehrer (born 1939), writer, novelist, reviewer Warren Leslie (1927–2011), author, journalist, screenwriter, business executive David Liss (born 1966), writer Janette Sebring Lowrey (1892–1986), author of children's books, including The Poky Little Puppy Max Lucado (born 1955), best-selling Christian author Cathy Luchetti (born 1945), author of books about American frontier Kirk Lynn (born 1972), playwright, novelist Corey Marks (born 1970), poet, educator Larry McMurtry (1936–2021), Pulitzer Prize-winning author of Lonesome Dove Philipp Meyer (born 1974), novelist Michael Moorcock (born 1939), literary and fantasy novelist, musician, journalist Frances Mossiker (1906–1985), author of historical novels N–Z Naomi Shihab Nye (born 1952), poet, songwriter, novelist Marc Ostrofsky (born 1961), author, entrepreneur, investor William A. Owens (1905–1990), author, folklorist, educator Greg Pak (born 1968), comic-book writer, film director Americo Paredes (1915–1999), author of books on life along U.S.–Mexican border Deborah Paredez (born 1970), poet David M. Parsons (born 1943), poet, educator, 2011 Texas State Poet Laureate Stanley G. Payne (born 1934), historian of modern Spain and European Fascism George Sessions Perry (1910–1956), novelist, correspondent Rachel Plummer (1818–1839), wrote a sensational account of her captivity among Comanches Julie Powell (born 1973), author, blogger, subject of film Julie & Julia Hugh Prather (1938–2010), writer, minister, counselor Deanna Raybourn (born 1968), author of historical fiction and historical mysteries James Reasoner (born 1953), writer Rick Riordan (born 1964), novelist Lou Halsell Rodenberger (1926–2009), author, educator, journalist Jane Gilmore Rushing (1925–1997), novelist, journalist Dorothy Scarborough (1878–1935), author, folklorist Robert Schenkkan (born 1953), playwright, screenwriter, actor Shea Serrano (born 1981), author, journalist Cynthia Leitich Smith (born 1967), author of fiction for children and young adults Terry Southern (1924–1995), author, screenwriter Suzy Spencer (born 1954), true crime author, journalist John Steakley (1951–2010), science-fiction and fantasy writer Carmen Tafolla (born 1951), poet, writer Larry D. Thomas (born 1947), 2008 Texas State Poet Laureate Lorenzo Thomas (1944–2005), poet, critic, educator Jim Thompson (1906–1977), crime novelist Thomas Thompson (1933–1982), author, journalist Lon Tinkle (1906–1980), author, Texas historian Sergio Troncoso (born 1961), author of The Nature of Truth Frederick Turner (born 1943), poet John Varley (born 1947), science-fiction writer Lizzie Velásquez (born 1989), author, motivational speaker, anti-bullying activist Dale L. Walker (1935–2015), writer Bryan Washington (born 1993), writer Walter Prescott Webb (1888–1963), author, historian Marianne Williamson (born 1952), author, social activist, 2020 U.S. presidential candidate Janice Woods Windle (born 1938), author of historical novels Ruthe Lewin Winegarten (1929–2004), author, editor, historian, social activist Kim Wozencraft (born 1954), writer Gwendolyn Zepeda (born 1971), poet, author Joaquin Zihuatanejo (Royce Johnson) (born 1971), poet Journalism A–D Wick Allison (1948–2020), magazine owner and publisher, author Alfred O. Andersson (1874–1950), newspaper publisher Jim Angle (1946–2022), chief Washington correspondent for Fox News Ole Anthony (1938–2021), investigative journalist, magazine editor John Ardoin (1935–2001), music critic and author Hugh Aynesworth (born 1931), journalist, investigative reporter, authority on the assassination of John F. Kennedy Cecilia Ballí (born 1976), journalist, anthropologist Eddie Barker (1927–2012), television news reporter Dave Barnett (born 1958), sportscaster Skip Bayless (born 1951), sportswriter Michelle Beadle (born 1975), sports reporter for ESPN and NBCUniversal Paul Begala (born 1961), Democratic political consultant, political commentator Alfred Horatio Belo (1839–1901), newspaper founder Joshua Benton (born 1975), newspaper reporter and columnist, educator Michael Berry (born 1970), conservative talk-radio host in Houston Kevin Blackistone (born 1959), sportswriter Bill Blair (1921–2014), newspaper founder and publisher, Negro league baseball player Brandon Boyer (born 1977), blog editor Pat Boyette (1923–2000), radio journalist, comic book artist Billy Lee Brammer (1929–1978), journalist, novelist, political staffer William Cowper Brann (1855–1898), journalist, iconoclastic writer Marie Brenner (born 1949), investigative journalist, writer Joe Bob Briggs (John Bloom) (born 1953), film critic Barrett Brown (born 1981), journalist, essayist, satirist, activist; served time in federal prison for facilitating email leaks John Henry Brown (1820–1895), historian, newspaper founder and editor, politician Lance Brown (born 1972), television sportscaster, NFL football player Samantha Brown (born 1970), television host Gail Caldwell (born 1951), chief book critic for The Boston Globe Liz Carpenter (1920–2010), writer, feminist, reporter, media advisor, speechwriter, political humorist, public relations expert Al Carrell (1925–2014), home-improvement columnist, radio host Al Carter (born 1952), sports journalist Amon G. Carter (1879–1955), newspaper founder and publisher Cheryl Casone (born 1970), Fox Business Network anchor Elizabeth Chambers (born 1982), television host and news reporter for Current TV Craig Cohen (born 1972), broadcast journalist, radio host Dan Cook (1926–2008), sportswriter, sportscaster Ron Corning (born 1971), television news anchor Tim Cowlishaw (born 1955), sportswriter Candice Crawford (born 1986), KDAF reporter Walter Cronkite (1916–2009), CBS News anchor Jim Cummins (1945–2007), NBC News reporter Don Dahler (born 1960), journalist, writer, correspondent for CBS News Corby Davidson (born 1969), sports radio personality Mark Davis (born 1957), conservative talk-show host, newspaper columnist Edward Musgrove Dealey (1892–1969), journalist, newspaper publisher George B. Dealey (1859–1946), newspaper publisher Jody Dean (born 1959), radio journalist, author Pete Delkus (born 1965), television meteorologist Dayna Devon (born 1970), television journalist Sam Donaldson (born 1934), ABC News reporter Troy Dungan (born 1936), television meteorologist George Dunham (born 1965), radio personality, sportscaster E–J Kurt Eichenwald (born 1961), investigative reporter, author Linda Ellerbee (born 1944), journalist, correspondent, reporter Gene Elston (1922–2015), sportscaster John Henry Faulk (1913–1990), storyteller and radio broadcaster T. R. Fehrenbach (1925–2013), newspaper columnist, historian Ashley Feinberg (born 1990), journalist, humorist Shannon Fife (1888–1972), journalist, humorist, screenwriter Robert Flores (born 1970), ESPN Sports anchor Ron Franklin (1942–2022), sportscaster Kinky Friedman (born 1944), columnist, singer-songwriter, novelist, candidate for governor of Texas Randy Galloway (born 1943), radio host, newspaper columnist Kyle Gann (born 1955), music critic, composer, musicologist George Gimarc (born 1957), radio announcer, disc jockey, producer Frank Glieber (1934–1985), sportscaster Bianna Golodryga (born 1978), television journalist John Howard Griffin (1920–1980), journalist, author Oscar Griffin, Jr. (1933–2011), newspaper editor, won Pulitzer Prize for uncovering Billie Sol Estes scandal Jesse Edward Grinstead (1866–1948), founder of The Kerrville Mountain Sun Jenna Bush Hager (born 1981), television news personality, writer Leon Hale (1921–2021), journalist, author Jane Hall (born 1951), former Fox News pundit, Fox News Watch, The O'Reilly Factor Tamron Hall (born 1970), MSNBC daytime anchor Grace Halsell (1923–2000), journalist, writer Milo Hamilton (1927–2015), sportscaster Dale Hansen (born 1948), sportscaster Stephen Harrigan (born 1948), journalist, novelist Houston Harte (1893–1972), co-founder of Harte-Hanks chain of newspapers Christy Haubegger (born 1968), founder of Latina magazine Heloise (mother) (1919–1977), syndicated columnist Heloise (daughter) (born 1951), syndicated columnist Kate Heyhoe (born 1955), food writer Dave Hickey (1938–2021), art critic Norm Hitzges (born 1944), sportscaster, reporter Skip Hollandsworth (born 1957), journalist, screenwriter, magazine editor Mark Holtz (1945–1997), sportscaster Karen Elliott House (born 1947), journalist, publishing and business executive Deborah Howell (1941–2010), newspaper editor June Hunt (born 1944), radio host of religious programs Jovita Idar (1885–1946), journalist, civil rights activist Molly Ivins (1944–2007), political commentator, liberal journalist, and author Robert H. Jackson (born 1934), newspaper photographer, won Pulitzer Prize Dahr Jamail (born 1968), journalist Craig James (born 1961), sports commentator on ABC and ESPN Dan Jenkins (1928–2019), sportswriter and author Sally Jenkins (born 1960), sports columnist and feature writer for The Washington Post Iola Johnson (born 1950), television news anchor, first African-American anchor in the Southwest Kenneth P. Johnson (1934–2008), newspaper editor Penn Jones Jr. (1914–1998), newspaper journalist, John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theorist Richard Justice, sportswriter K–O Todd Kalas (born 1965), sportscaster Gordon Keith, radio personality Steven G. Kellman (born 1947), literary critic, columnist, author, educator Hubert Renfro Knickerbocker (1898–1949), journalist, author Harry Koch (1867–1942), newspaper founder, railroad founder Kidd Kraddick (1959–2013), radio host Priya Krishna (born 1991), food writer, YouTube personality Aaron Latham (born 1943), journalist, writer Jim Lehrer (1934–2020), television journalist, author Michael R. Levy (born 1946), magazine founder and publisher Josh Lewin (born 1968), sportscaster Marjorie Herrera Lewis (born 1957), sports reporter, author Verne Lundquist (born 1940), sportscaster, reporter Bill Macatee (born 1955), sportscaster, reporter Debra Maffett (born 1956), host of TNN Country News, Miss America 1983 Dan Malone (born 1955), Pulitzer Prize-winning investigative reporter Ernie Manouse (born 1969), television host, radio personality, writer, producer Amanda Marcotte (born 1977), feminist/liberal blogger Chris Marrou (born 1947), television news anchor Roland Martin (born 1968), journalist, syndicated columnist, CNN commentator Russ Martin (born 1960), radio host Mary Maverick (1818–1898), memoirist John McCaa (born 1954), television news anchor Kevin McCarthy, radio and television announcer Joe McLaughlin (1934–1997), sportswriter Gordon McLendon (1921–1986), radio pioneer, innovator, entrepreneur Howard McNeil (1920–2010), television meteorologist Lisa McRee (born 1961), television journalist Sonny Melendrez (born 1946), radio personality, voice actor Curt Menefee (born 1965), sportscaster, reporter Bill Mercer (born 1926), sportscaster Maxine Mesinger (1925–2001), gossip columnist Harry J. Middleton (1921–2017), journalist, Presidential speechwriter, educator Dale Milford (1926–1997), television meteorologist, U.S. Representative Margaret Moser (1954–2017), journalist, music critic Leslie Mouton (born 1965), news reporter Eric Nadel (born 1951), sportscaster James Pearson Newcomb (1837–1907), newspaper journalist, publisher; Secretary of State of Texas Chau Nguyen (born 1973), television news anchor Jim O'Brien (1939–1983), reporter, disc jockey Norah O'Donnell (born 1974), commentator on The Today Show and MSNBC correspondent Barbara Olson (1955–2001), Fox News and CNN commentator P–Z Albert Parsons (1848–1887), newspaper editor, socialist, anarchist; was convicted of conspiracy and hanged Marjorie Paxson (1923–2017), newspaper journalist, editor, publisher Scott Pelley (born 1957), anchor and managing editor of the CBS Evening News Uma Pemmaraju (born 1958), anchor for Fox News Bob Phillips (born 1951), creator, producer, and host of Texas Country Reporter Michael Phillips (born 1960), journalist, historian, author, educator Stone Phillips (born 1954), co-anchor of Dateline NBC Katherine Anne Porter (1890–1980), journalist, essayist, novelist Cactus Pryor (1923–2011), radio personality, actor John Quiñones (born 1952), ABC News correspondent Dan Rather (born 1931), former CBS Evening News anchor Julia Scott Reed (1917–2004), newspaper columnist, reporter, editor Rex Reed (born 1938), movie critic Dick Risenhoover (1927–1978), sportscaster Tracy Rowlett (born 1942), television news anchor John Phillip Santos (born 1957), journalist, author, filmmaker, producer Bob Schieffer (born 1937), CBS Evening News anchor Brad Sham (born 1949), sportscaster Blackie Sherrod (1919–2016), sportswriter Bud Shrake (1931–2009), sportswriter, author William Dean Singleton (born 1951), newspaper publishing executive, chairman of the board of Associated Press Evan Smith (born 1966), magazine editor, television, radio, internet journalist Liz Smith (1923–2017), syndicated columnist Mickey Spagnola (born 1952), sportswriter Joshua Starnes (born 1976), film critic Marc Stein, sports reporter Ron Stone (1936–2008), television news reporter Linda Stouffer (born 1970), television news anchor Clinton Howard Swindle (1945–2004), investigative newspaper journalist, author Harold Taft (1922–1991), television meteorologist Thomas Thompson (1933–1982), investigative journalist for Life magazine, author Bascom N. Timmons (1890–1987), opened news bureau in Washington; native of Amarillo Jack Tinsley (1935–2004), newspaper executive editor Frank X. Tolbert (1912–1984), author, historian, journalist, restaurateur Karen Tumulty (born 1955), newspaper correspondent Charlie Van Dyke (born 1947), former radio disc jockey of KLIF, known for the best voice of radio and television stations across America; former frequent guest host of American Top 40, 1983–1988 Rob Walker (born 1968), journalist, author Todd Wagner (born 1960), internet broadcasting pioneer Robb Walsh, food writer, restaurant owner Dave Ward (born 1939), television newscaster Greg Williams (born 1960), sports radio host Robert Wilonsky (born 1968), newspaper columnist, critic Carlo Wolff (born 1943), journalist Bill Worrell (born 1947), sportscaster Lawrence Wright (born 1947), journalist, author of The Looming Tower Robert Wright (born 1957), journalist Bobbie Wygant (born 1926), television journalist and host Marvin Zindler (1921–2007), television journalist Science, including medicine A–K Muthu Alagappan (born c. 1990), sports statistician James P. Allison (born 1948), immunologist, won Nobel Prize Nima Arkani-Hamed (born 1972), theoretical physicist Ryan S. Baker (born 1977), computer scientist Edmund F. Baroch (born 1934), metallurgist Brady Barr (born 1963), herpetologist Charles R. Baxter (1929–2005), emergency-room physician who attended President John F. Kennedy following Kennedy's assassination R. Palmer Beasley (1936–2012), physician, public health educator, epidemiologist Angela Belcher (born 1967), materials scientist, biological engineer, MIT professor, MacArthur Fellow Bruce Beutler (born 1957), Nobel Prize-winning immunologist, geneticist James R. Biard (born 1931), electrical engineer; invented the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (LED), the optical isolator, the Schottky transistor, and MOS ROM Gail Borden (1801–1874), inventor of condensed milk and other foodstuffs, surveyor, publisher Edward Boyden (born 1979), neuroscientist, MIT professor Otis Boykin (1920–1982), inventor and engineer T. Berry Brazelton (1918–2018), pediatrician, author, syndicated columnist Michael Glyn Brown (1957–2013), hand surgeon Michael Stuart Brown (born 1941), Nobel Prize-winning geneticist John Cacioppo (1951–2018), co-founder of social neuroscience Robert Cade (1927–2007), physician, scientist; inventor of Gatorade William H. Cade (born 1946), zoologist, evolutionary biologist, authority on mating systems of Orthoptera Paul C. W. Chu (born 1941), physicist, leading authority on superconductivity Denton Cooley (1920–2016), pioneering heart surgeon Kenneth H. Cooper (born 1931), physician, developed concept of aerobic exercise Marjorie Corcoran (1950–2017), physicist Robert Curl (born 1933), Nobel Prize-winning chemist Michael E. DeBakey (1908–2008), pioneering heart surgeon Everette Lee DeGolyer (1886–1956), geophysicist, philanthropist Robert Dennard (born 1932), computer scientist and inventor Bryce DeWitt (1923–2004), physicist, co-developed Wheeler–DeWitt equation ("wave function of the Universe") Cécile DeWitt-Morette (1922–2017), physicist, mathematician Leonard Eugene Dickson (1874–1954), mathematician James "Red" Duke (1928–2015), physician, professor, journalist J. Doyne Farmer (born 1952), complex systems scientist, entrepreneur, Oxford mathematics professor Ralph Feigin (1938–2008), pediatrician, writer, educator, hospital administrator Leroy S. Fletcher (born 1936), mechanical and aerospace engineer Alfred G. Gilman (1941–2015), Nobel Prize-winning pharmacologist, biochemist, educator Joseph L. Goldstein (born 1940), Nobel Prize-winning geneticist, biochemist Cecil Howard Green (1900–2003), geophysicist, founder of Texas Instruments, philanthropist Gerald D. Griffin (born 1934), aeronautical engineer, NASA official G.B. Halsted (1853–1922), mathematician Aubrey Otis Hampton (1900–1955), radiologist David Hanson (born 1969), roboticist J. William Harbour (born 1963), ophthalmologist, ocular oncologist Elise Harmon (1909–1985), physicist, chemist, electronics engineer Meredith Hay (born 1962), biomedical researcher John Haynes, Jr. (born 1937), rural family physician, national recognition as Country Doctor of the Year George H. Heilmeier (1936–2014), engineer, contributed to invention of LCDs; was Chief Technical Officer at Texas Instruments Helen Hobbs (born 1952), molecular geneticist, physician, professor Peter Hotez (born 1958), pediatrician, virologist, educator M. King Hubbert (1903–1989), geophysicist Lane P. Hughston (born 1951), mathematician, physicist, scholar and professor of mathematical finance Nathan Isgur (1947–2001), theoretical physicist Ronny Jackson (born 1967), Physician to the President of the United States Mildred Fay Jefferson (1927–2010), physician, political activist; first African-American woman to graduate from Harvard Medical School Carl Jockusch (born 1941), mathematician Mavis Kelsey (1912–2013), physician who founded the Kelsey-Seybold Clinic, professor, writer, philanthropist Jack Kilby (1923–2005), Nobel Prize-winning electrical engineer; invented integrated circuit, handheld calculator, thermal printer Riki Kobayashi (1924–2013), professor of chemical engineering Edwin Jackson Kyle (1876–1963), agriculture expert, professor, ambassador; Kyle Field and Kyle, Texas are named for him L–Z Ferdinand Lindheimer (1801–1879), botanist R. Bowen Loftin (born 1949), physicist, computer scientist, educator, university president Cyrus Longworth Lundell (1907–1994), botanist, archaeologist; discovered several Mayan cities in Mexican jungle Larry Masinter, computer scientist, internet pioneer Eugene McDermott (1899–1973), geophysicist, founder of Texas Instruments, philanthropist John S. Meyer (1924–2011), neurologist, medical-school professor and administrator C. Wright Mills (1916–1962), prominent political sociologist and author Forrest Mims (born 1944), amateur scientist, popular science writer Carl Mitcham (born 1941), philosopher of science, professor, writer W. E. Moerner (born 1953), chemist, professor Oscar Monnig (1902–1999), astronomer and meteoricist Robert Lee Moore (1882–1974), mathematician, educator Matt Mullenweg (born 1984), developed WordPress software Hermann Joseph Muller (1890–1967), Nobel Prize-winning geneticist Joseph Nagyvary (born 1934), biochemist, violin maker, Stradivarius researcher Leonard L. Northrup Jr. (1918–2016), engineer, inventor, entrepreneur Peter Ozsváth (born 1967), mathematician Theophilus Painter (1889–1969), zoologist, professor, university president Sujal Parikh (1985–2010), global health advocate John Park (1814–1872), inventor, construction materials expert, builder Percy Pennybacker (1895–1963), civil engineer, innovator of bridge design Victor Poor (1933–2012), as Technical Director at Datapoint in San Antonio, led design of the Intel 8008 microprocessor chip Ilya Prigogine (1917–2003), Nobel Prize-winning physicist and chemist Robert Rohde, physicist Harold E. Rohrschach, Jr. (1926–1993), physics professor Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau (1911–2000), chemical engineer; designed the first commercial penicillin production plant Nikos Salingaros (born 1952), mathematician, physicist, architectural theorist, urban theorist Donald Seldin (1920–2018), nephrologist, referred to as the "intellectual father of University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center" Robert Simpson (1912–2014), meteorologist, hurricane specialist Clyde Snow (1928–2014), forensic anthropologist John Stapp (1910–1999), Air Force officer, researched human transport and safety Michael Starbird (born 1948), mathematician, educator E. C. George Sudarshan (1931–2018), physicist, author, University of Texas professor John Tate (1925–2019), mathematician, Wolf Prize in Mathematics Robert Taylor (1932–2017), Internet pioneer; won National Medal of Technology, Draper Prize Gordon Teal (1907–2003), electrical engineer known for developing the first silicon transistor Alice Y. Ting (born 1974), chemist, MIT professor Beatrice Tinsley (1941–1981), astronomer Catalina Trail (born 1949), amateur naturalist, social worker Karen Uhlenbeck (born 1942), mathematician, National Medal of Science Harry Vandiver (1882–1973), mathematician Abraham Verghese (born 1955), physician, educator, author Michael Viscardi (born 1989), mathematician Hubert Stanley Wall (1902–1971), mathematician, educator Steven Weinberg (1933–2021), Nobel Prize-winning physicist Spencer Wells (born 1969), geneticist and anthropologist Fred Wendorf (1924–2015), anthropologist John A. Wheeler (1911–2008), physicist, Wolf Prize in Physics, coined the term 'black hole' Mary Wheeler (born 1938), mathematician Quentin Wilson (born 1942), engineer, one of the "Rocket Boys" portrayed in a 1990s book and film Robert Woodrow Wilson (born 1936), Nobel Prize-winning physicist, astronomer Lloyd Youngblood (born 1946), neurosurgeon Aviation and space exploration John Aaron (born 1943), NASA engineer, flight controller William Anders (born 1933), Apollo program astronaut Anousheh Ansari (born 1966 in Mashhad, Iran), first female space tourist Jeffrey Ashby (born 1954), astronaut Alan Bean (1932–2018), astronaut John E. Blaha (born 1942), astronaut David Harold Byrd (1900–1986), founder of Civil Air Patrol, oilman Eugene Cernan (1934–2017), astronaut, walked on moon; lived most of his life in Texas Kenneth Cockrell (born 1950), astronaut Aaron Cohen (1931–2010), director of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Bessie "Queen Bess" Coleman (1892–1926), first African American female aviator Douglas "Wrong Way" Corrigan (1907–1995), aviator John Oliver Creighton (born 1943), astronaut Robert Crippen (born 1937), astronaut John M. Fabian (born 1939), astronaut William Frederick Fisher (born 1946), astronaut Patrick G. Forrester (born 1957), astronaut Benjamin Foulois (1879–1967), pioneering military aviator Edward Givens (1930–1967), astronaut Gerald D. Griffin (born 1934), director of Johnson Space Center, aeronautical engineer Bernard A. Harris Jr. (born 1956), astronaut Al Haynes (1931–2019), airline pilot, saved numerous lives in 1989 crash landing of crippled DC-10 Gary L. Herod (1929–1961), Texas Air National Guard pilot who stayed with his plane as it crashed, to avoid residential areas Paul Hill (born 1962), Director of Mission Operations at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Donald Holmquest (born 1939), astronaut Howard Hughes (1905–1976), billionaire playboy, entrepreneur and aviation pioneer Millie Hughes-Fulford (1945–2021), astronaut Rick Husband (1957–2003), commander of the Space Shuttle Columbia, killed in its crash Robert S. Kimbrough (born 1967), astronaut Timothy Kopra (born 1963), astronaut Paul Lockhart (born 1956), astronaut Ormer Locklear (1891–1920), stunt flyer Edgar Mitchell (1930–2016), astronaut Richard Mullane (born 1945), astronaut Arthur W. Murray (1918–2011), test pilot John D. Olivas (born 1965), NASA astronaut of Mexican descent, flew aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis (STS-117) in June 2007 Wiley Post (1898–1935), first pilot to fly solo around the world James F. Reilly (born 1954), astronaut David Scott (born 1932), astronaut Elliot See (1927–1966), astronaut Katherine Stinson (1891–1977), pioneering female aviator Chesley "Sully" Sullenberger (born 1951), airline pilot, safely landed US Airways Flight 1549 on the Hudson River after a bird strike Ed Swearingen (1925–2014), aeronautical engineer Jerri Sloan Truhill (1929–2013), aviator, member of Mercury 13 Shannon Walker (born 1965), astronaut, physicist Azellia White (1913–2019), first African-American woman to earn a pilot's license in Texas Ed White (1930–1967), first American astronaut to walk in space Jeana Yeager (born 1952), broke distance records during nonstop flight around the world in the experimental Voyager airplane Scholars, educators, academicians See also the listings on this page for individual areas of specialization (e.g., Literature, Science/medicine, Music) A–K R. J. Q. Adams (born 1943), professor of British history at Texas A&M University Theodore Albrecht (born 1945), music historian, educator L.C. (Laurine Cecil) Anderson (1853–1938), African-American educator Cecilia Ballí (born 1976), anthropologist, professor, journalist Jacques Barzun (1907–2012), historian, philosopher, recipient of Presidential Medal of Freedom ZerNona Black (1906–2005), civil rights activist, educator H. W. Brands (born 1953), historian, author, professor at University of Texas Brené Brown (born 1965), scholar, researcher, and University of Houston professor of social work Kate Moore Brown (1871–1945), first public-school music teacher in Texas, helped form several arts organizations Walter L. Buenger (born 1951), historian Rufus Columbus Burleson (1823–1901), president of Baylor University, minister Norma V. Cantu (born 1954), civil rights lawyer, educator Marcia Citron (born 1945), musicologist, professor Christine Comer (born 1950), Director of Science in the curriculum division of the Texas Education Agency; resigned amid controversy Louise Cowan (1916–2015), liberal arts scholar, professor, critic Light Townsend Cummins (born 1946), historian, educator Adina Emilia De Zavala (1861–1955), teacher, historian, Texas history preservationist Ramón H. Dovalina (born 1943), president of Laredo Community College, 1995–2007 T. R. Fehrenbach (1925–2013), historian, newspaper columnist Peter T. Flawn (1926–2017), president of University of Texas at Austin Dan Flores (born 1948), historian of the American West Joe Bertram Frantz (1917–1993), historian Julia Caldwell Frazier (1863–1929), educator Thomas Freeman (1919–2020), debate coach W. C. Friley (1845–1911), first president of Hardin–Simmons University, 1892–1894 Marilyn Gambrell (born 1953), parole officer turned teacher who started the program No More Victims in Houston to assist children with incarcerated parents Kyle Gann (born 1955), musicologist, composer, music critic Bryan A. Garner (born 1958), lexicographer, grammarian, author, educator Elizabeth Goree (1845–1929), teacher, school administrator, education advocate Anna Harriet Heyer (1909–2002), musicologist, music librarian, bibliographer Harold Hoehner (1935–2009), theologian, author, professor Roy Hofheinz, Jr. (born 1935), sinologist, professor at Harvard University William Curry Holden (1896–1993), historian, archaeologist, educator, museum director John Holmes Jenkins (1940–1989), historian, antiquarian bookseller, publisher, poker player Bret Anthony Johnston (born 1971), author, director of creative writing program at Harvard University Shirley Strum Kenny (born 1934), English scholar, university president V. O. Key, Jr. (1908–1963), political scientist, Ivy League professor Lucy Ann Kidd-Key (1839–1916), educator, college administrator Wendy Kopp (born 1967), founder and president of Teach For America Arnold Krammer (1941–2018), historian of Germany and the United States; retired professor at Texas A&M University L–Z Umphrey Lee (1893–1958), Methodist pastor, president of Southern Methodist University Charles LeMaistre (1924–2017), physician, chancellor of University of Texas System Alan Lomax (1915–2002), folk singer, guitarist, ethnomusicologist, folklorist John Lomax (1867–1948), musicologist, folklorist Edgar Odell Lovett (1871–1957), educator, college administrator, first president of Rice University Juan L. Maldonado (1948–2018), president of Laredo Community College since 2007 Charles R. Matthews (born c. 1939), former Texas Railroad Commissioner and chancellor-emeritus of the Texas State University System Mack McCormick (1930–2015), musicologist, folklorist Robert D. McTeer (born c. 1943), economist, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Francis Joseph Mullin (1906–1997), president of Shimer College Barry Munitz (born 1941), corporation and foundation executive, chancellor of University of Houston System and California State University System Gene Nichol (born 1951), president of the College of William & Mary Leonidas Warren Payne, Jr. (1873–1945), linguist, folklorist, English professor Shanna Peeples (born 1965) National Teacher of the Year, 2015; scholar, author Anna Pennybacker (1861–1938), educator, author, social activist Ben H. Procter (1927–2012), historian at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, 1957–2000 Lawrence Sullivan "Sul" Ross (1838–1898), Confederate general, Governor of Texas, President of Texas A&M University, namesake of Sul Ross State University John Silber (1926–2012), president and chancellor of Boston University Ruth J. Simmons (born 1945), first female African-American president of a major college (Smith College), first African-American president of an Ivy League college (Brown University) Thomas Vernor Smith (1890–1964), philosopher, scholar, educator, U.S. representative Jerry D. Thompson (born 1943), historian of Texas and the Southwestern United States Leon Toubin (born 1928), Jewish civic leader, philanthropist, and historian Decherd Turner (1922–2002), bibliophile, book collector, librarian, minister Clara Belle Williams (1885–1993), educator Sudie L. Williams (1872–1940), music educator Roger L. Worsley (born 1937), president of Laredo Community College, 1985–1995 Susan Youens (born 1947), musicologist, music professor, author Mark Yudof (born 1944), law professor, university chancellor Religion and clergy A–M Charles L. Allen (1913–2005), Methodist minister Kathleen Baskin-Ball (1958–2008), Methodist Gregory Beale (born 1949), biblical scholar Norman A. Beck (born 1933), Lutheran pastor, professor Mary Charlotte Ward Granniss Webster Billings (1824–1904), Universalist Claude Black (1916–2009), Baptist Edmond L. Browning (1929–2016), Episcopal bishop C. L. Bryant (born 1956), Baptist minister, Conservative media personality Kirbyjon Caldwell (born 1953), Methodist Benajah Harvey Carroll (1843–1914), Baptist Henry Cohen (1863–1952), Jewish Kenneth Copeland (born 1936), Pentecostal W. A. Criswell (1909–2002), Baptist Finis Alonzo Crutchfield, Jr. (1911–1987), Methodist Bishop Rafael Cruz (born 1939), Cuban-born preacher, and father of Texas Senator Ted Cruz (moved to Texas from Calgary, Alberta, Canada) John B. Denton (1806–1841), Methodist minister for whom Denton (and Denton County) in Texas are named Matt Dillahunty (born 1969), atheist philosopher, media host James T. Draper Jr. (born 1935), Baptist Claude Marie Dubuis (1817–1895), Catholic bishop Michael Duca (born 1952), Roman Catholic bishop Yusuf Estes (born 1944), Islamic scholar (moved to Texas from Ohio) Kevin Farrell (born 1947), Roman Catholic bishop Patrick Flores (1929–2017), Catholic archbishop George Foreman (born 1949), Christian ordained minister, world heavyweight champion boxer, entrepreneur Charles Victor Grahmann (1931–2018), Catholic bishop Ruben Habito (born 1947), Zen master, former Jesuit priest John Hagee (born 1940), nondenominational Kenneth E. Hagin (1917–2003), Pentecostal Homer Hailey (1903–2000), Church of Christ J. H. Hamblen (1877–1971), Methodist bishop John Wesley Hardt (1921–2017), Methodist Samuel Augustus Hayden (1839–1918), Baptist pastor, newspaper publisher Steve Hill (1954–2014), evangelist Victor Houteff (1885–1955), founder of Davidian Seventh-day Adventist organization V. E. Howard (1911–2000), Church of Christ; started radio International Gospel Hour in Texarkana Jack Hyles (1926–2001), Baptist T. D. Jakes (born 1957), nondenominational pastor, entrepreneur, author Robert Jeffress (born 1955), pastor since 2007 of the First Baptist Church of Dallas James S. Johnston (1843–1924), Episcopal bishop, educator Jerry Johnston (born 1959), Baptist Jimmy Kessler (born 1945), Jewish John Kilian (1811–1884), Lutheran Abraham Cohen Labatt (1802–1899), Jewish Umphrey Lee (1893–1958), Methodist pastor, president of Southern Methodist University David Lefkowitz (1875–1955), Jewish G. Craige Lewis (born 1969), Presbyterian Max Lucado (born 1955), Church of Christ Texe Marrs (1944–2019), ran Christian ministries, writer on religious themes J. Vernon McGee (1904–1988), Presbyterian Charles R. Moore (1934–2014), Methodist minister, social activist, self-immolated N–Z Bonnie Nettles (1927–1985), co-founded a religious group that would later become the Heaven's Gate cult J. Frank Norris (1877–1952), Baptist Grady Nutt (1934–1982), Baptist minister, humorist Jean-Marie Odin (1800–1870), Catholic bishop Levi Olan (1903–1984), Jewish Joel Osteen (born 1963), nondenominational John Osteen (1925–1999), nondenominational Albert Outler (1908–1989), Methodist theologian Cline Paden (1919–2007), Church of Christ Daniel Parker (1781–1844), Primitive Baptist, Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit Predestinarian Baptist Paige Patterson (born 1942), Baptist William Evander Penn (1832–1895), Baptist evangelist Doug Phillips (born 1965), Christian author, speaker, attorney, homeschooling advocate Paul Powell (1933–2016), Baptist minister, educator Aron Ra (born 1962), atheist activist, politician John R. Rice (1895–1980), Baptist James Robison (born 1943), nondenominational Benjamin Roden (1902–1978), prime organizer of Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association Lois Roden (1916–1986), president of Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Church Lester Roloff (1914–1982), Independent Baptist Dmitri Royster (1923–2011), archbishop of Orthodox Church in America Hyman Judah Schachtel (1907–1990), Jewish R. W. Schambach (1926–2012), Christian televangelist based in Tyler Priscilla Shirer (born 1974), Christian speaker, author William Angie Smith (1894–1974), Methodist bishop Joseph P. Sneed (1804–1881), Methodist Episcopal minister, educator, great-great-great-grandfather of Carly Fiorina Samuel M. Stahl (born 1939), Jewish David E. Stern (born 1961), Jewish Chuck Swindoll (born 1934), Evangelical James Anthony Tamayo (born 1949), Roman Catholic Robert Tilton (born 1946), Christian televangelist George Washington Truett (1867–1944), Baptist Cecil Williams (born 1929), Methodist minister, community leader, author, lecturer, spokesperson for the poor Kenneth W. Wright (born 1945), Church of Christ John Yanta (born 1931), Roman Catholic bishop Jack Yates (1828–1897), Baptist pastor, black community leader, former slave Supercentenarians (longevity) Isaac Brock (c. 1800?–1909), supercentenarian Arbella Ewing (1894–2008), at her death was the third oldest person in the world Thomas Nelson, Sr. (1895–2007), at his death was the oldest man in the United States and the second oldest man in the world Richard Arvin Overton (1906–2018), at his death was the oldest man in the United States Margaret Skeete (1878–1994), oldest person ever from Texas Infamous Texans A–M Charles Albright (1933–2020), Dallas area serial killer Marshall Applewhite (1931–1997), organized Heaven's Gate cult and led its members in a mass suicide Joe Ball (1892–1938), serial killer Buck Barrow (1903–1933), member of Bonnie and Clyde's gang, brother of Clyde Barrow Sam Bass (1851–1878), train robber and western icon John Battaglia (1955–2018), murdered his two young daughters Benny Binion (1904–1989), crime boss; later a Las Vegas casino owner Bonnie and Clyde (Bonnie Parker [1910–1934] and Clyde Barrow [1909–1934]), bank robbers and murderers David Owen Brooks (1955–2020), Houston serial killer, early 1970s Barrett Brown (born 1981), journalist, essayist, satirist, activist; serving time in federal prison for facilitating email leaks Marilyn Buck (1947–2010), accomplice in both the 1979 prison break of black activist Assata Shakur and the 1981 Brink's robbery William Carver (1868–1901), member of Butch Cassidy's gang Jamiel Chagra (1944–2008), drug trafficker Mark David Chapman (born 1955), murdered former Beatle John Lennon Joseph Civello (1902–1970), Dallas crime boss Dean Corll (1939–1973), serial killer Ethan Couch (born 1997), following a conviction for multiple counts of intoxication manslaughter was given probation based on affluenza defense J. Frank Dalton (1848–1951), claimed to be the outlaw Jesse James T. Cullen Davis (born 1933), heir to oil fortune, arrested for murder and solicitation; acquitted of criminal charges but held responsible in wrongful death lawsuit Lottie Deno (Carlotta Thompkins) (1844–1934), gambler Christopher Duntsch (born 1971), neurosurgeon imprisoned for gross malpractice Billie Sol Estes (1925–2013), businessman convicted of fraud King Fisher (1853–1884), gunslinger, outlaw Ralph Fults (1911–1993), outlaw, associated with Bonnie and Clyde Raymond Hamilton (1913–1935), member of Bonnie and Clyde's gang; executed John Wesley Hardin (1853–1895), outlaw and gun-fighter, reputed to be "the meanest man alive" Charles Harrelson (1938–2007), hitman Elmer Wayne Henley (born 1956), Houston serial killer, early 1970s John Hinckley Jr. (born 1955), attempted to assassinate President Reagan Arnoldo Jimenez (born 1982), uxoricide and FBI most wanted fugitive Micah Xavier Johnson (c. 1991 – 2016), ambushed and killed multiple Dallas police officers Genene Jones (born 1950), pediatric nurse who killed multiple patients W. D. Jones (1916–1974), member of Bonnie and Clyde's gang David Koresh (1959–1993), self-proclaimed messiah and head of Branch Davidian cult Colleen LaRose (born 1963), "Jihad Jane", charged with multiple terrorist-related crimes Rosario (1887–1954) and Sam (1894–1951) Maceo, brothers, organized-crime bosses in Galveston Linda Medlar (born 1949), involved in sex scandal with politician Henry Cisneros; later convicted for bank fraud Della Moore (c. 1880 – c. 1926), prostitute, girlfriend of outlaw Harvey Logan ("Kid Curry") N–Z Johnny Jack Nounes (1890–1970), organized-crime boss in Galveston Ronald Clark O'Bryan (1944–1984), murdered his son with poisoned Halloween candy; executed Tom O'Folliard (1858–1880), outlaw and Billy the Kid's best friend Lee Harvey Oswald (1939–1963), assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy Christine Paolilla (born 1986), murdered four people Kenneth Parnell (1931–2008), sex offender, kidnapper of seven-year-old Steven Stayner Albert T. Patrick (1866–1940), lawyer convicted of the murder of businessman and philanthropist William Marsh Rice, his client Etta Place (c. 1878 – 19??), companion of outlaw Harry Longabaugh, the "Sundance Kid" Jonathan Pollard (born 1954), intelligence analyst convicted of espionage Fannie Porter (1873 – c. 1940), prostitute, madam, associated with several outlaws Ollie Quinn (1893–1949), mobster, gang leader in Galveston Richard Ramirez (1960–2013), serial killer Paul Dennis Reid (1957–2013), serial killer Ollie P. Roberts (c. 1879 – 1950), claimed to be Billy the Kid Charles Rogers (1921–1975), murder suspect, disappeared mysteriously, declared dead in absentia "Freeway" Rick Ross (born 1960), convicted drug trafficker J. L. Hunter "Red" Rountree (1911–2004), bank robber Darlie Routier (born 1970), convicted of murdering young son; verdict has been challenged Jack Ruby (1910–1967), killed Lee Harvey Oswald following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy Yolanda Saldívar (born 1960), convicted for the murder of pop singer Selena Mark Salling (1982–2018), actor, convicted on charges of possession of child pornography Jon Schillaci (born 1971), former FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive Dena Schlosser (born 1969), murdered her 11-month-old daughter Bobby Seale (born 1936), co-founder of the Black Panthers Servant Girl Annihilator (fl. 1885), unidentified serial killer from Austin Henry Smith (1876–1893), murdered a child; he was lynched Soapy Smith (1860–1898), infamous confidence man of Round Rock and Fort Worth Richard B. Spencer (born 1978), white supremacist Allen Stanford (born 1950), financier convicted of operating a Ponzi scheme and fraud Belle Starr (1848–1889), the Wild West's "bandit queen" D. C. Stephenson (1891–1966), murderer, rapist, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Ku Klux Klan Texas Seven, group of prison escapees who caused a national manhunt after a crime spree in December 2000, apprehended in January 2001 due to America's Most Wanted Libby Thompson (1855–1953), dancehall girl, prostitute, and brothel owner better known as Squirrel-tooth Alice Bernie Tiede (born 1958), convicted murderer, subject of the 2011 film Bernie Catalina Vasquez Villalpando (born 1940), Treasurer of the United States, convicted of tax evasion and obstruction of justice Edgar Valdez Villarreal (born 1973), "La Barbie", drug trafficker Dutch Voight (1888–1986), gang leader in Galveston Tex Watson (born 1945), convicted murderer, former member of the Charles Manson "Family" Susan Wright (born 1976), convicted murderer Andrea Yates (born 1964), drowned her five children in the bathtub of her house Diane Zamora (born 1978), convicted, along with her boyfriend, David Graham, in notorious "cadet murder" case Others A–M Bobo Barnett (1903–1985), circus clown Carole Baskin (born 1961), animal rights activist, featured on the Netflix series Tiger King Lee Bowers (1925–1966), witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy Joe Bowman (1925–2009), bootmaker and marksman and guardian of Old West culture Clarence Brandley (1951–2018), exonerated after serving nine years on death row for a murder and rape he did not commit Ben Breedlove (1993–2011), Internet personality Frank Buck (1884–1950), hunter, animal collector, author (Bring 'Em Back Alive), actor, director, producer Buffalo Hump (c. 1800 – c. 1867), Comanche Chief Barbara Bush (born 1981), healthcare activist Chukwu octuplets: Ebuka, Chidi, Echerem, Chima, Ikem, Jioke, Gorom (all born 1998), and Odera (1998–1998), first recorded live-born set of octuplets in U.S. Leslie Cochran (1951–2012), peace activist, cross-dresser, urban outdoorsman Carol Cole (1963–1980), murder victim whose body was unidentified for 34 years Crazy Ray (Wilford Jones) (1931–2007), Dallas Cowboys mascot Mark Crutcher (born 1948), pro-life activist, author, and founder of Life Dynamics Inc. George de Mohrenschildt (1911–1977), petroleum geologist, friend of Lee Harvey Oswald, gave testimony to the Warren Commission Lauren Grandcolas (1963–2001), one of the passengers on United Airlines Flight 93 on 9/11 Anthony Charles Graves (born 1965), exonerated after serving 18 years in prison, including 12 on death row, for a series of murders he did not commit Amber Hagerman (1986–1996), victim of abduction/murder, namesake of AMBER Alert Lawrence Herkimer (1925–2015), cheerleading innovator Jean Hill (1931–2000), witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy Joan Robinson Hill (1931–1969), socialite, equestrian, murder victim; events surrounding her death were the subject of a book by Thomas Thompson and a film, Murder in Texas Bose Ikard (1840s?–1929), cowboy, cattle driver, former slave Brandon Lawson (1987 – disappeared 2013), disappeared mysteriously Ben H. Love (1930–2010), Scouting executive Stacie Madison (1970 – disappeared 1988), disappeared mysteriously John McClamrock (1956–2008), whose life as a quadraplegic following a football injury was profiled by journalist Skip Hollandsworth in an award-winning story Jessica McClure (born 1986), "Baby Jessica", rescued after falling into a well Norma McCorvey (1947–2017), as "Jane Roe", was the plaintiff in the 1973 landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade Ahmed Mohamed (born 2001), arrested at MacArthur High School in Irving, for bringing a reassembled clock to school, which a teacher thought looked like a bomb; police determined that Mohamed had no malicious intent Mary Moorman (born 1932), witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy Michael Morton (born 1954), exonerated after serving 25 years in prison for a murder he did not commit Julie Ann Moseley (1965 – disappeared 1974), disappeared mysteriously Khalid Abdul Muhammad (1948–2001), black American activist Mukwooru (1770s–1840), Comanche chief N–Z Orville Nix (1911–1972), filmed assassination of John F. Kennedy Donna Norris (born 1967), child safety campaigner, mother of Amber Hagerman Michael Paine (1928–2018), acquaintance of Lee Harvey Oswald Ruth Paine (born 1932), friend of Marina Oswald Lucy Parsons (c. 1853 – 1942), labor organizer, radical socialist, anarchist communist, orator Olga Rodriguez (born c. 1947), Chicano activist, has represented U. S. Socialist Workers Party Santos Rodriguez (1960–1973), 12-year-old murdered by a law-enforcement officer while in police custody Charles Schreiner, III (1927–2001), Kerr County rancher who founded in 1964 the Texas Longhorn Breeders Association of America to work for preservation of Texas Longhorn cattle Charlotte Mailliard Shultz (born 1933 Borger, Texas), Chief of Protocol of State of California and City and County of San Francisco, Trustee San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center, widow of former Secretary of State George P. Shultz Karen Silkwood (1948–1974), nuclear plant worker, labor activist, died under mysterious circumstances; subject of a major motion picture Marilyn Sitzman (1939–1993), witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy Susan Smalley (1969 – disappeared 1988), disappeared mysteriously Swante M. Swenson (1816–1896), founder of SMS ranches James Tague (1936–2014), witness to the assassination of John F. Kennedy who sustained minor injuries during the shooting Bob Tallman (born 1947), rodeo announcer J. L. Tarr (1919–2008), Scouting executive Doris Tate (1924–1992), advocate for crime victims' rights, mother of Sharon Tate Emma Tenayuca (1916–1999), labor leader, union organizer Michael Roy Toney (1965–2009), served ten years on death row after being wrongly convicted for a deadly bombing Armando Torres III (1987 – disappeared 2013), kidnapped in Mexico Rachel Trlica (1957 – disappeared 1974), disappeared mysteriously Willie Velasquez (1944–1988), social activist Richard Viguerie (born 1933), conservative figure, pioneer of political direct mail and writer on American politics James Larkin "Jim" White (1882–1946), cave explorer, cowboy, miner, park ranger, discovered Carlsbad Caverns Dallas Wiens (born 1985), first U.S. recipient of a full face transplant Roy Williams (born 1944), Scouting executive Kelly Dae Wilson (1974 – disappeared 1992), disappeared mysteriously Renee Wilson (1960 – disappeared 1974), disappeared mysteriously Plennie L. Wingo (1895–1993), world record for longest distance walked backwards (from Santa Monica, California, to Istanbul, Turkey) Ron Woodroof (1950–1992), HIV/AIDS victim who created the Dallas Buyers Club to acquire and distribute AIDS drugs; subject of a major motion picture Quanell X (born 1970), leader of New Black Panther Party in Houston Yellow Wolf (c. 1800 – 1854), Comanche chief Abraham Zapruder (1905–1970), clothing manufacturer, filmed assassination of John F. Kennedy in Dallas in 1963 See also :Category:Lists of people from Texas References

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradley%20Cooper

Bradley Cooper

Bradley Charles Cooper (born January 5, 1975) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is the recipient of various accolades, including a British Academy Film Award and two Grammy Awards, in addition to nominations for nine Academy Awards, six Golden Globe Awards, and a Tony Award. Cooper appeared on the Forbes Celebrity 100 three times and on Times list of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2015. His films have grossed $11 billion worldwide and he has placed four times in annual rankings of the world's highest-paid actors. Cooper enrolled in the MFA program at the Actors Studio in 2000 after beginning his career in 1999 with a guest role in the television series Sex and the City. He made his film debut in the comedy Wet Hot American Summer (2001). He first gained recognition as Will Tippin in the spy-action television show Alias (2001–2006), and achieved minor success with a supporting part in the comedy film Wedding Crashers (2005). His breakthrough role came in 2009 with The Hangover, a critically and commercially successful comedy, which spawned two sequels in 2011 and 2013. Cooper's portrayal of a struggling writer in the thriller Limitless (2011) and a rookie police officer in the crime drama The Place Beyond the Pines (2012) drew praise from critics. Cooper found greater success with the romantic comedy Silver Linings Playbook (2012), the black comedy American Hustle (2013), and the war biopic American Sniper (2014), which he also produced. For his work in these films, he was nominated for four Academy Awards, becoming the tenth actor to receive an Oscar nomination in three consecutive years. In 2014, he portrayed Joseph Merrick in a Broadway revival of The Elephant Man, garnering a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play, and began voicing Rocket Raccoon in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. In 2018, Cooper produced, wrote, directed and starred in a remake of the musical romance A Star Is Born. He earned three Oscar nominations for the film, as well as a BAFTA Award and two Grammys for his contributions to its U.S. Billboard 200 number one soundtrack and its chart-topping lead single "Shallow". He gained Academy Award nominations for producing Joker (2019) and Nightmare Alley (2021). Labeled a sex symbol by the media, Cooper was named People magazine's "Sexiest Man Alive" in 2011. He supports several charities that help fight cancer. Cooper was briefly married to actress Jennifer Esposito, and has a daughter from his relationship with model Irina Shayk. Early life Cooper was born on January 5, 1975, in Abington Township, near Philadelphia, and grew up in the nearby communities of Jenkintown and Rydal. His mother, Gloria (née Campano), worked for the local NBC affiliate. His father, Charles Cooper, worked as a stockbroker for Merrill Lynch. Cooper's father was of Irish descent, while his mother is of Italian ancestry (from Abruzzo and Naples). He has an older sister, Holly. He had cholesteatoma in his ear soon after his birth, and punctured his eardrum when he started diving at an early age. Describing himself as a child, Cooper has said: "I never lived the life of 'Oh, you're so good-looking'. People thought I was a girl when I was little, because I looked like a girl—maybe because my mother would keep my hair really long". He excelled at basketball, and enjoyed cooking: "I used to have buddies come over after kindergarten and I'd cook them food. I prided myself in taking whatever was in the fridge and turning it into lasagna." He initially wanted to attend Valley Forge Military Academy and move to Japan to become a ninja. At an early age, his father introduced him to films like The Elephant Man, which inspired him to be an actor. Coming from a family of non-actors, Cooper says that his parents initially wanted him to pursue a career in finance and was against acting, but they eventually changed their perceptions when they saw Cooper play the part of Joseph Merrick in an excerpt from the play The Elephant Man. While attending Germantown Academy, he worked at the Philadelphia Daily News. He says that in school he was neither "the smartest person" nor "the coolest kid" and "really didn't have anything going on!" After graduating from high school in 1993, Cooper attended Villanova University for one year before transferring to Georgetown University. Cooper graduated with honors from Georgetown in 1997 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English. He was a member of the Georgetown Hoyas rowing team and acted with Nomadic Theatre. While at Georgetown, Cooper became fluent in French and spent six months as an exchange student in Aix-en-Provence, France. In his television debut, Sex and the City in 1999, he made a brief appearance opposite Sarah Jessica Parker. Cooper later served as a presenter on the tourism series Globe Trekker (2000), which took him to such places as Peru and Croatia, and had a recurring role in the short-lived series The Street. Cooper had been interested in a career in diplomacy when he auditioned for the master class graduate degree at the Actors Studio and was selected by James Lipton. In 2000, he received a Master of Fine Arts degree in acting from the Actors Studio Drama School at The New School in New York City. There, he trained with the coach Elizabeth Kemp of whom he says: "I was never able to relax in my life before her." She advised him on many of his films. While studying in New York City, Cooper worked as a doorman at the Morgans Hotel, and briefly interacted with Robert de Niro and Sean Penn in question-and-answer master class sessions, which were later featured episodes of Inside the Actors Studio. Career 2001–2008: Early roles Cooper's cinematic debut came in the ensemble comedy Wet Hot American Summer (2001), a film that takes place at a fictional summer camp in 1981. He played Ben, a counselor and the love interest of Michael Ian Black's character. Although the film was critically and commercially unsuccessful, it has since developed a cult following. Cooper reprised the role in the film's prequel Wet Hot American Summer: First Day of Camp (2015), an eight-episode Netflix series. In the television series Alias (2001–06), Cooper achieved some success with the role of Will Tippin, a local reporter for a newspaper and the best friend of Jennifer Garner's character, Sydney Bristow. Garner was one of the first people he met in Los Angeles and was, in Cooper's words, "very maternal ... She wanted to take care of me, make sure I was okay all the time." He acted in the 2002 psychological thriller Changing Lanes. The scenes in which he appeared were edited out of the final cut of the film, but are featured on the film's DVD and Blu-ray releases. Also in 2002, he played a man involved in a love triangle in the romantic drama Bending All the Rules. He guest-starred in the short-lived TV series Miss Match and played the role of cowboy and race horse trainer Morgan Murphy in the television film The Last Cowboy, which aired on the Hallmark Channel in January 2003. He later appeared in the television film I Want to Marry Ryan Banks (2004) with Jason Priestley and as a regular guest star in the WB series Jack & Bobby (2004–05). Cooper's career prospects improved with a more prominent role in the David Dobkin-directed comedy Wedding Crashers (2005) alongside Owen Wilson, Vince Vaughn and Rachel McAdams. In the film, he played Sack Lodge, the arrogant and aggressive boyfriend of Claire (McAdams) who is obsessed with winning—a role he describes as "kind of a sociopath". Cooper believed the antagonistic character changed people's perception of him, as he had previously played the "nice guy". With a production budget of $40 million, the film grossed over $285 million worldwide. In September 2005, Fox debuted the sitcom Kitchen Confidential, based on a memoir by chef Anthony Bourdain, with Cooper in the leading role. Despite positive reviews for the series, the show was canceled after only four episodes due to low ratings. In March 2006, Cooper starred as Pip/Theo in Three Days of Rain on Broadway with Julia Roberts and Paul Rudd. This was followed by minor roles in the romantic comedy Failure to Launch (2006) and the satirical comedy The Comebacks (2007). Cooper next appeared in the fifth season of Nip/Tuck (2007) as Aidan Stone, a television star on the fictional show Hearts 'N Scalpels. In 2008, he played the lead in Older than America, and appeared onstage in a production of Theresa Rebeck's play The Understudy at the Williamstown Theatre Festival alongside Kristen Johnston. Between his small roles of best friend to the main character in the 2008 comedies Yes Man and The Rocker, Cooper landed the lead role in the Ryuhei Kitamura-directed horror film The Midnight Meat Train (2008), based on Clive Barker's 1984 short story of the same name. Playing the dark character of a freelance photographer who tries to track down a serial killer was a departure from Cooper's previous comedic roles and an experience he found enjoyable. The film received positive reviews from critics, though it earned little at the box office. 2009–2012: Breakthrough In 2009, Cooper hosted Saturday Night Live with musical guest TV on the Radio, portraying actor Christian Bale in one sketch, and appeared in a supporting role in the film He's Just Not That Into You. Cooper's breakthrough role came in Todd Phillips' comedy The Hangover (2009). He played Phil Wenneck, one of the three friends—alongside Ed Helms and Zach Galifianakis—to wake up from a bachelor party in Las Vegas, with no memory of the previous night and the bachelor missing. The Hangover was a commercial success and finished as among the highest-grossing R-rated films in the United States. A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "Mr. Cooper ... offers the most interesting variation on an old standard, playing his aggressive, cocky frat boy with a snarl of rage that masks an anxiety as hard to account for as it is to miss." For his performance, Cooper received an award at the 13th Hollywood Film Festival and his first nomination for MTV Movie Awards—Best Comedic Performance. The Daily Telegraph opined that the film's success turned Cooper into "a bona fide leading man". Nevertheless, Cooper stated in a 2011 interview with Shave: "It's the same. I mean, look, more doors have been opened for sure, but it's not like I sit back with a cigar on Monday morning and go through the scripts that have been offered." Also in 2009, Cooper featured in the psychological horror Case 39, a delayed production that had been filmed in 2006. He paired with Sandra Bullock in the comedy All About Steve, a film that was panned by critics, failed to attract a wide audience and earned them a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Combo. Following a role in one of eleven segments of the anthology film New York, I Love You (2009), Cooper appeared in the ensemble romantic comedy Valentine's Day (2010), directed by Garry Marshall, co-starring with Julia Roberts. The film was a commercial success, grossing over $215 million worldwide. He then starred in the comedy Brother's Justice and as the fictional character Templeton "Faceman" Peck in the feature film version of The A-Team alongside Liam Neeson, Quinton Jackson, and Sharlto Copley. To prepare for the role, he abstained from consuming sugar, salt and flour, and underwent grueling workouts. The film released to negative reviews and poor box office returns. Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph wrote, "Cooper confirms his credentials as perhaps the most smugly narcissistic performer", while Nev Pierce of Empire credited both Cooper and Copley for "acing swagger and insanity respectively, who best both capture and yet re-forge their iconic characters." Cooper appeared as guest host of WWE Raw in June 2010. In 2011, Cooper starred in the techno-thriller Limitless, based on the 2001 novel The Dark Fields by Alan Glynn. In the Neil Burger-directed film, he played a struggling writer who is introduced to a nootropic drug that gives him the ability to fully utilize his brain and vastly improve his lifestyle. The box office website Box Office Mojo was apprehensive of the film's financial prospects, but it emerged as a commercial success with a worldwide gross of $161 million. A writer for Variety said of Cooper's performance that he "makes further strides toward major stardom, spelling excellent early spring returns and socko vid play." Greater commercial success followed with the comedy sequel The Hangover Part II (2011), which earned over $580 million worldwide. Reviews for the film were generally negative, but Mary Pols of Time magazine complimented Cooper, writing that the actor "gives a knowing performance: he's both the peacock and the parody of one. He's blessed with good looks and fantastic timing, the kind that makes every line funnier, even the small asides." At the 38th People's Choice Awards, he was nominated for Favorite Comedic Movie Actor. The year 2012 saw Cooper star in four films—The Words, Hit and Run, The Place Beyond the Pines, and Silver Linings Playbook. The mystery drama The Words failed commercially, as did the action comedy Hit and Run. In Derek Cianfrance's critically acclaimed crime drama The Place Beyond the Pines, Cooper played a rookie police officer, a role Cianfrance specifically wrote for him. The director drove five hours to Montreal to meet with Cooper to convince him to take on the role. Cianfrance described Cooper's character as someone "paraded as a hero ... But inside him corruption is going on, conflict is raging inside, guilt and shame are buried." A reviewer for The Independent credited Cooper for "excelling as an archetype, the principled man who is personally rather dislikeable", adding, "I never imagined this actor capable of such layered character work." Despite positive reviews, the film had moderate box office returns. Cooper starred with Robert De Niro and Jennifer Lawrence in David O. Russell's romantic comedy-drama Silver Linings Playbook, an adaptation of Matthew Quick's serio-comic novel of the same name. He was cast as a divorced man with bipolar disorder, a former teacher who finds companionship in a young, depressed widow (Lawrence). Cooper was initially skeptical about playing the part which he thought was out of his depth, but he later accepted the role inspired by Russell's confidence in him. The director was impressed with his performance in Wedding Crashers, citing his "good bad-guy energy" and unpredictability as justification for casting; he also thought Cooper would be able to demonstrate emotion and vulnerability onscreen. To prepare, Cooper took dance training with choreographer Mandy Moore, who describes Cooper as having "some real natural dancing ability." The film was a box-office success, earning $236.4 million on a production budget of $21 million. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that Cooper "seizes the juiciest role of his career and meets every comic and dramatic challenge. There's an ache in his funny, touching and vital performance that resonates." For his performance, he earned an MTV Movie Award for Best Performance, and nominations for an Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actor. 2013–2017: Commercial fluctuations In 2013, Cooper reprised his role as Phil Wenneck in the third and final installment of The Hangover trilogy, The Hangover Part III, which was poorly reviewed by critics. The critic for The Independent argued that Cooper was "reduced to mugging for the camera, offering reaction shots to nothing." Nevertheless, like its preceding entries, the film was a commercial success, grossing $362 million worldwide, and remains one of Cooper's highest-grossing releases. Later that year, he took on the supporting role of an unhinged FBI agent in David O. Russell's crime comedy-drama American Hustle. Inspired by the FBI's Abscam sting operation, the film is set against the backdrop of political corruption in 1970s New Jersey. It also starred Christian Bale, Amy Adams, Jeremy Renner and Jennifer Lawrence. American Hustle was a critical and commercial success with global revenues of $251.1 million. Kim Newman of Empire wrote: "Cooper is stuck with the least rewarding role, but keeps finding brilliant little bits of business to hold the attention", praising his "spot impersonations of his overly cautious (but smart) boss." Cooper was nominated for an Academy Award, BAFTA Award, Critics' Choice Movie Award, and a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, but did not win any. Cooper reunited with Lawrence in the Susanne Bier-directed drama Serena—an adaptation of Ron Rash's period novel. The pair starred as a married couple who become involved in criminal activities after realizing that they cannot bear children. The picture was filmed in 2012, but was released in 2014 to negative reviews and poor box office returns. The Canberra Times Jake Wilson stated: "Cooper once again proves his value as a leading man who approaches his roles like a character actor." In 2014, Cooper provided the voice of Rocket Raccoon in the Marvel Studios film Guardians of the Galaxy. He returned to Broadway for the 2014 run of The Elephant Man as the severely deformed Joseph Merrick. Michael Coveney of Whatsonstage.com wrote of his performance: "Cooper avoids every trap of 'disability' acting by suffusing this outer appearance with soul and passion. It's a wonderful, and very moving, display." He garnered a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Also in 2014, Cooper co-produced and starred as United States Navy SEAL sniper Chris Kyle in American Sniper—a biographical war drama directed by Clint Eastwood. The film tells the story of Kyle, who became the deadliest marksman in US military history, and is loosely based on the eponymous memoir. To appear to be as large as Kyle, Cooper underwent extensive training and followed a rigorous diet, gaining of muscle. Cooper's preparation also included lessons with a vocal coach, and studying footage of Kyle. To learn how to use a rifle, the actor trained with US Navy SEAL veteran Kevin Lacz, who served with Kyle. The film, and Cooper's performance, received generally positive reviews. The critic for Variety wrote, "an excellent performance from a bulked-up Bradley Cooper, this harrowing and intimate character study offers fairly blunt insights into the physical and psychological toll exacted on the front lines." Similar sentiments were echoed by USA Todays Claudia Puig who asserted, "It's clearly Cooper's show. Substantially bulked up and affecting a believable Texas drawl, Cooper embodies Kyle's confidence, intensity and vulnerability." American Sniper earned $547 million worldwide to become Cooper's highest-grossing live-action film and the third highest-grossing R-rated film of all time. Cooper won an MTV Movie Award for Best Male Performance, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor; the film was nominated for Best Picture. With these nominations, Cooper became the tenth actor in history to receive an Academy Award nomination for acting in three consecutive years. None of Cooper's films released in 2015—Aloha, Burnt, or Joy—fared well at the box office. He starred in Cameron Crowe's Aloha with Emma Stone and Rachel McAdams. The project was the subject of controversy after the Media Action Network for Asian-Americans accused the filmmakers of whitewashing the cast. Despite the backlash, he was nominated for Choice Movie Actor – Comedy at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards. In John Wells' drama Burnt, Cooper played a chef who decides to regain his former glory after drug abuse takes a toll on his career. While the film was criticized for its "overdone clichés", Jon Frosch of The Hollywood Reporter stated that "[Cooper] gives a fully engaged performance that almost makes us want to forgive the movie's laziness. Almost." His supporting role in the biopic Joy reunited him with David O. Russell and Lawrence. In 2016, he had a voice cameo in the thriller 10 Cloverfield Lane, and played a supporting part in War Dogs, co-produced under his and Todd Phillips's production company Joint Effort. In 2017, Cooper again voiced Rocket Raccoon, in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. 2018–present: Professional expansion After reprising the role of Rocket Raccoon in Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Cooper directed his first film, A Star Is Born, a remake of the 1937 musical film of same name. Cooper starred in the film as an established singer, Jackson Maine, whose romance with a woman named Ally (played by Lady Gaga) becomes strained after her career begins to overshadow his. Having long aspired to direct a film, Cooper was keen on making a love story. People had warned him against directing a third remake, and he feared the film would end his directing career if it failed. The film premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival in August 2018, and was released worldwide in October to critical acclaim. On Cooper's direction, Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote that "to say that [Cooper] does a good job would be to understate his accomplishment" and that he "gets right onto the high wire". Brian Tallerico, writing for RogerEbert.com, stated that Cooper "does some of the best work of his career" and gives "an excellent performance", praising his singing abilities and chemistry with Gaga. The film earned over $425 million at the box office against a production budget of $36 million. Cooper spent nearly four years working on the project, including learning to sing, play guitar, and play piano. He and Gaga co-wrote and produced most of the songs on the soundtrack for A Star Is Born, which she insisted they record live. Cooper undertook vocal training for 18 months to prepare, including with the help of vocal coach Roger Love. The album contains elements of blues rock, country and bubblegum pop. Billboard says its lyrics are about wanting change, its struggle, love, romance, and bonding, describing the music as "timeless, emotional, gritty and earnest. They sound like songs written by artists who, quite frankly, are supremely messed up but hit to the core of the listener." The album's release coincided with the film's, and it contains 34 tracks, including 19 original songs. It received generally positive reviews from critics; Mark Kennedy of The Washington Post called it a "five-star marvel" and Ben Beaumont-Thomas of The Guardian termed it an "instant classics full of Gaga's emotional might". Commercially, the soundtrack reached number one in the US, Ireland and the UK. The record's lead single, "Shallow", was released that September and reached number one in the US, Australia, Ireland, Switzerland and the UK. For the film, Cooper received a National Board of Review Award for Best Director and two Golden Globe nominations, for Best Actor in a Drama and Best Director. Cooper earned two Grammy nominations for "Shallow"—Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, winning the latter. The soundtrack as a whole received 7 Grammy nominations across two different ceremonies. At the 72nd British Academy Film Awards, A Star Is Born received seven nominations, five of which were for Cooper: Best Film, Best Direction, Best Actor in a Leading Role, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Music, winning only the last of these. As a result, Cooper became the first person with five nominations in a single ceremony in BAFTA's history. Cooper was also nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Actor and Best Adapted Screenplay. He later remarked that he was "embarrassed" by his failure to gain a directing nomination at the ceremony. Cooper next reunited with Clint Eastwood in The Mule (2018), a crime film based on the life of World War II veteran Leo Sharp in which Cooper played a DEA agent. In 2019, Cooper co-produced Todd Phillips's psychological thriller Joker, starring Joaquin Phoenix. It grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the highest-grossing R-rated film of all time, and earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture and the BAFTA Award for Best Film. He also returned as Rocket in Avengers: Endgame (2019) and is set to appear in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. Both of Cooper's 2021 releases—the coming-of-age comedy drama Licorice Pizza and the psychological thriller Nightmare Alley—received critical acclaim, but fared badly at the box office. In his eight-minute role of film producer Jon Peters in Paul Thomas Anderson's Licorice Pizza, Jenelle Riley of Variety found Cooper to be a "scene-stealer". Riley wrote he "somehow manages to be both absurd and menacing. It's the rare scene that is almost too intense to watch, yet you also don’t want it to end." Nightmare Alley—an adaption of William Lindsay Gresham's namesake novel—had Cooper play an ambitious carnival worker, for which he took boxing lessons and performed his first full frontal nude scene, which he found challenging. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film took a long time to finish. Reviewing his films in 2021, critic Charles Bramesco opined Cooper gave "his most vulnerable and harrowing performance to date" in Nightmare Alley. Cooper garnered a fourth Academy Award for Best Picture nomination for producing the film. Personal life Cooper's early years in the entertainment industry were marred with difficulties. When his role in the second season of Alias was demoted to a minuscule part, he considered quitting show business. His substance addiction and doubts about his career triggered thoughts of suicide. Cooper has abstained from alcohol since 2004, remarking that it would have destroyed his life. Cooper became engaged to actress Jennifer Esposito in October 2006, and they married that December. In May 2007, she filed for divorce which was finalized in November. Regarding their four-month marriage, he explained, "It was just something that happened. The good thing is, we both realized it... Sometimes you just realize it." Before his marriage to Esposito, he met Renée Zellweger while filming Case 39 in 2006. The media speculated about the nature of their relationship in 2009, when the film was released. They reportedly broke up in 2011. He dated actress Zoe Saldana from December 2011 to January 2013. He subsequently began dating English model and actress Suki Waterhouse in March 2013; their relationship ended two years later. Cooper was in a relationship with Russian model Irina Shayk from April 2015 to June 2019. They have a daughter together, Lea de Seine, born in March 2017. Cooper and his family share a close bond. Two years after the death of his father from lung cancer in 2011, he relocated to Los Angeles with his mother. He said that after his father's diagnosis, "I was in a very lucky position because I was able to put everything on hold in all aspects of my life and completely focus on taking care of him." He has described the process of his father's treatment as "just simply overwhelming, incredibly stressful, complex and all consuming". He has since supported organizations that help fight cancer. In June 2014, he joined the board of directors for the charity Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, a non-profit organization that serves people coping with cancer. In April 2016, he participated in the launch of the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy that works for cancer patients. He served as an executive producer for Stand Up to Cancer's Fifth Biennial Telecast, a primetime fundraising special that aired in September. In 2009, Cooper took part in an Alzheimer's Association campaign that aimed to increase awareness about Alzheimer's disease. He is also one of the members of the Alzheimer's Association Celebrity Champions, an initiative launched for a similar purpose. In 2015, Cooper spoke at The National Geographic Society for the group Got Your 6 to help ensure military veterans are better represented in popular culture. Cooper has donated to Democratic Party candidates and attended the 2016 Democratic National Convention (when Hillary Clinton received the nomination for president) to hear then-president Barack Obama speak. He regards Barack Obama as "an incredible president". Having grown up in Philadelphia, Cooper is a fan of the National Football League's Eagles and has made various appearances on behalf of the team besides his Silver Linings Playbook role. He voiced a snowball trying to make amends with Santa Claus in an ESPN promo which referenced an infamous incident from the 1968 Philadelphia Eagles season, and has joined owner Jeffrey Lurie in his box at games, including the Eagles' first Super Bowl victory in 2018. Media image and artistry The Hollywood Reporter Bill Phelps describes Cooper as the "epitome of cool". While his friends once found him to be a "sweet, exceptionally open man with the defensive, insecure person" before his alcoholism, Brian Klugman (The Words co-director and a childhood friend) says of him, "there's nobody who's better liked". Todd Phillips (the director of The Hangover Trilogy) believes that Cooper's on-screen persona strongly contradicts with his personality. "He is very vulnerable — insecure is not the right word ... And there's a warmth to him you would never know." A writer for International Business Times adds that Cooper has a "laid-back personality". Contrary to Phillips, Cooper believes that his personality relates to acting: "I enjoy people, that makes this profession a lot easier, and I can sleep anywhere. That's a skill." As part of a career analysis, Oliver Lyttelton of IndieWire observed that early in his career, Cooper was typecast as "weaselly boyfriends or best friends in mainstream comedies", but later emerged as one of Hollywood's most accomplished actors after starring in several successful films. Cooper is known for appearing in a range of films; Phelps credits him for "opt[ing] for the challenging and provocative, the small and interesting, risking the laid-back image that propelled him to fame." The Daily Beasts Oliver Lyttelton has similary praised Cooper for stepping outside his comfort zone by accepting parts that might not seem like perfect matches at first glance. Time magazine writes of Cooper's craft: "It's hard to make people, especially your friends, forget who you are onscreen. But Bradley's that good." Cooper cites actor Daniel Day-Lewis as his favorite. Films that had influences include the French romantic drama Hiroshima mon amour (1959), the coming-of-age feature The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962), the war films The Deer Hunter (1978) and Apocalypse Now (1979), The Elephant Man (1980), and comedies featuring Richard Pryor. Reviewing his performances in Licorice Pizza and Nightmare Alley, critic Charles Bramesco likened Cooper's screen persona to Joseph Marrick, a severely deformed man in the Victorian era, whom Cooper played in the 2014 Broadway play The Elephant Man. Bramesco wrote: [Marrick] declined external help and instead conjured a certain animalistic quality from within himself to be measured against his core humanity. That negotiation between civility and our baser impulses — the ego versus the id, for the psychoanalytically inclined — forms the foundation of Cooper’s classical leading-man screen persona. One of our last true movie stars has spent the majority of his career reiterating the internal tension of the role he's clung to like Rosebud, coaxing out the troubled chaos from within put-together men. Cooper's sex appeal has been picked up by several media outlets, including People magazine, which named him Sexiest Man Alive in 2011. He was initially uncomfortable with the accolade, but later found it funny. In a June 2011 interview with Esquire, Cooper said, "Fall in love with my looks, fine, but stay with me for my talent." Also that year, he was dubbed International Man of the Year by GQ and appeared in AskMen's 49 most influential men. He ranked tenth on Empire list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars in 2013. He was one of the highest-paid actors in the world from 2013 to 2015 and in 2019, earning $28 million, $46 million, $41.5 million, and $57 million, respectively. Forbes ranked him first on their Celebrity 100: Ones To Watch list in 2013. In 2014, 2015 and 2019, he featured on Celebrity 100, a list based on the income and popularity of celebrities, as selected annually by Forbes. Time magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2015. Cooper's films have earned a total of $11.2 billion worldwide. Acting credits and awards Cooper has received one BAFTA, one Screen Actors Guild Award, and two Grammy Awards. He has been nominated for nine Academy Awards, five Golden Globe Awards, and one Tony Award. According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes and box-office website Box Office Mojo, Cooper's most critically and commercially successful films include Wedding Crashers (2005), The Hangover (2009), Limitless (2011), Silver Linings Playbook (2012), American Hustle (2013), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), American Sniper (2014) and A Star Is Born (2018). Among his stage roles, he has appeared in a Broadway revival of The Elephant Man (2014–2015), for which he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Discography A Star Is Born (with Lady Gaga) (2018) Notes References External links Bradley Cooper on Box Office Mojo 1975 births Living people 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors Actors Studio alumni American baritones American film producers American male film actors American male stage actors American male television actors American male voice actors Best Original Music BAFTA Award winners Georgetown Hoyas rowers Germantown Academy alumni Golden Raspberry Award winners Grammy Award winners Male actors from Philadelphia Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners People from Jenkintown, Pennsylvania The New School alumni Villanova University alumni

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottsboro%20Boys

Scottsboro Boys

The Scottsboro Boys were nine African American teenagers, ages 13 to 20, accused in Alabama of raping two white women in 1931. The landmark set of legal cases from this incident dealt with racism and the right to a fair trial. The cases included a lynch mob before the suspects had been indicted, all-white juries, rushed trials, and disruptive mobs. It is commonly cited as an example of a miscarriage of justice in the United States legal system. On March 25, 1931, two dozen people were "hoboing" on a freight train traveling between Chattanooga and Memphis, Tennessee, the hoboes being an equal mix of African-Americans and Caucasians. A group of white teenage boys saw 18-year-old Haywood Patterson on the train and attempted to push him off the train, claiming that it was "a white man's train". A group of whites gathered rocks and attempted to force all of the black men from the train. Patterson and the other black passengers were able to ward off the group. The humiliated white teenagers jumped or were forced off the train and reported to the city's sheriff that they had been attacked by a group of black teenagers. The sheriff deputized a group of vigilantes, stopped and searched the train at Paint Rock, Alabama and arrested the black Americans. Two young white women also got off the train and accused the African-American teenagers of rape. The case was first heard in Scottsboro, Alabama, in three rushed trials, in which the defendants received poor legal representation. All but 13-year-old Roy Wright were convicted of rape and sentenced to death (the common sentence in Alabama at the time for black men convicted of raping white women), even though there was medical evidence indicating that no rape had taken place. With help from the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the case was appealed. The Alabama Supreme Court affirmed seven of the eight convictions, and granted 13-year-old Eugene Williams a new trial because he was a minor. Chief Justice John C. Anderson dissented, ruling that the defendants had been denied an impartial jury, fair trial, fair sentencing, and effective counsel. While waiting for their trials, eight of the nine defendants were held in Kilby Prison. The cases were twice appealed to the United States Supreme Court, which led to landmark decisions on the conduct of trials. In Powell v. Alabama (1932), it ordered new trials. The case was first returned to the lower court and the judge allowed a change of venue, moving the retrials to Decatur, Alabama. Judge Horton was appointed. During the retrials, one of the alleged victims admitted to fabricating the rape story and asserted that none of the Scottsboro Boys touched either of the white women. The jury found the defendants guilty, but the judge set aside the verdict and granted a new trial. The judge was replaced and the case tried under a judge who ruled frequently against the defense. For the third time a jury—now with one African-American member—returned a guilty verdict. The case was sent to the US Supreme Court on appeal. It ruled that African-Americans had to be included on juries, and ordered retrials. Charges were finally dropped for four of the nine defendants. Sentences for the rest ranged from 75 years to death. All but two served prison sentences; all were released or escaped by 1946. In 1936 one of the boys, Ozzie Powell, was shot in the face and permanently disabled during an altercation with a sheriff's deputy in prison and later pleaded guilty to assaulting the deputy. Two escaped, were later charged with other crimes, convicted, and sent back to prison. Clarence Norris, the oldest defendant and the only one sentenced to death in the final trial, "jumped parole" in 1946 and went into hiding. He was found in 1976 and pardoned by Governor George Wallace, by which time the case had been thoroughly analyzed and shown to be an injustice. Norris later wrote a book about his experiences. He died in 1989 as the last surviving defendant. "The Scottsboro Boys", as they became known, and their case is now widely considered a miscarriage of justice, highlighted by the use of all-white juries. Black Americans in Alabama had been disenfranchised since the late 19th century and were likewise not allowed on juries. The case has been explored in many works of literature, music, theatre, film and television. On November 21, 2013, Alabama's parole board voted to grant posthumous pardons to the three Scottsboro Boys who had not been pardoned or had their convictions overturned. Arrests and accusations On March 25, 1931, the Southern Railway line between Chattanooga and Memphis, Tennessee, had nine black youths who were riding on a freight train with several white males and two white women. A fight broke out between the white and black groups near the Lookout Mountain tunnel, and the whites were kicked off the train. The whites went to a sheriff in the nearby town Paint Rock, Alabama, and claimed that they were assaulted by the Black Americans on the train. The sheriff gathered a posse and gave orders to search for and "capture every Negro on the train." The posse arrested all black passengers on the train for assault. The black teenagers were: Haywood Patterson (age 18), who claimed that he had ridden freight trains for so long that he could light a cigarette on the top of a moving train; Clarence Norris (age 19), who had left behind ten brothers and sisters in rural Georgia; Charlie Weems (age 19); brothers Andy Wright (age 19) and Roy Wright (age 12), who were leaving home for the first time; the nearly blind Olin Montgomery (age 17), who was hoping to get a job in order to pay for a pair of glasses; Ozie Powell (age 16); Willie Roberson (age 16), who suffered from such severe syphilis that he could barely walk; and Eugene Williams (age 13); Of these nine boys, only four knew each other prior to their arrest. Two white women who were also aboard the train, Victoria Price and Ruby Bates, told a member of the posse that they had been raped by a group of black teenagers. The posse brought the women to the jail where the accused were being held, and they identified them as their attackers. A doctor was summoned to examine Price and Bates for signs of rape, but none was found. A widely published photo showed the two women shortly after the arrests in 1931. There was no evidence (beyond the women's testimony) pointing to the guilt of the accused, yet that was irrelevant due to the prevalent racism in the South at the time, according to which black men were constantly being policed by white men for signs of sexual interest in white women, which could be punishable by lynching. Price and Bates may have told the police that they were raped to divert police attention from themselves. They were both suspected of being prostitutes and not only risked being arrested for it, but they could also have been prosecuted for violating the Mann Act by crossing a state line "for immoral purposes." Lynch mobs In the Jim Crow South, lynching of black males accused of raping or murdering whites was common; word quickly spread of the arrest and rape story. Soon a lynch mob gathered at the jail in Scottsboro, demanding the youths be surrendered to them. Sheriff Matt Wann stood in front of the jail and addressed the mob, saying he would kill the first person to come through the door. He removed his belt and handed his gun to one of his deputies. He walked through the mob and the crowd parted to let him through; Wann was not touched by anyone. He walked across the street to the courthouse where he telephoned Governor Benjamin M. Miller, who mobilized the Alabama Army National Guard to protect the jail. He took the defendants to the county seat of Gadsden, Alabama, for indictment and to await trial. Although rape was potentially a capital offense in Alabama, the defendants at this point were not allowed to consult an attorney. Trials The prisoners were taken to court by 118 Alabama guardsmen, armed with machine guns. It was market day in Scottsboro, and farmers were in town to sell produce and buy supplies. A crowd of thousands soon formed. Courthouse access required a permit due to the salacious nature of the testimony expected. As the Supreme Court later described this situation, "the proceedings ... took place in an atmosphere of tense, hostile, and excited public sentiment." For each trial, all-white juries were selected. There were few African Americans in the jury pool, as most had been disenfranchised since the turn of the century by a new state constitution and white discriminatory practice, and were thus disqualified from jury service. Defense attorneys The pace of the trials was very fast before the standing-room-only, all-white audience. The judge and prosecutor wanted to speed the nine trials to avoid violence, so the first trial took a day and a half, and the rest took place one right after the other, in just one day. The judge had ordered the Alabama bar to assist the defendants, but the only attorney who volunteered was Milo Moody, a 69-year-old attorney who had not defended a case in decades. The judge persuaded Stephen Roddy, a Chattanooga, Tennessee, real estate lawyer, to assist him. Roddy admitted he had not had time to prepare and was not familiar with Alabama law, but agreed to aid Moody. Because of the mob atmosphere, Roddy petitioned the court for a change of venue, entering into evidence newspaper and law enforcement accounts describing the crowd as "impelled by curiosity". Judge Hawkins found that the crowd was curious and not hostile. Norris and Weems trial Clarence Norris and Charlie Weems were tried after Haywood Patterson. During prosecution testimony, Victoria Price stated that she and Ruby Bates witnessed the fight, that one of the black men had a gun, and that they all raped her at knifepoint. During cross-examination by Roddy, Price livened her testimony with wisecracks that brought roars of laughter. Dr. Bridges testified that his examination of Victoria Price found no vaginal tearing (which would have indicated rape) and that she had had semen in her for several hours. Ruby Bates failed to mention that either she or Price were raped until she was cross-examined. The prosecution ended with testimony from three men who claimed the black youths fought the white youths, put them off the train, and "took charge" of the white girls. The prosecution rested without calling any of the white youths as witness. During the defense testimony, defendant Charles Weems testified that he was not part of the fight, that Patterson had the pistol, and that he had not seen the white girls on the train until the train pulled into Paint Rock. Defendant Clarence Norris stunned the courtroom by implicating the other defendants. He denied participating in the fight or being in the gondola car where the fight took place. But he said that he saw the alleged rapes by the other blacks from his spot atop the next boxcar. The defense put on no further witnesses. During closing, the prosecution said, "If you don't give these men death sentences, the electric chair might as well be abolished." The defense made no closing argument, nor did it address the sentencing of the death penalty for their clients. The Court started the next case while the jury was still deliberating the first. The first jury deliberated less than two hours before returning a guilty verdict and imposed the death sentence on both Weems and Norris. Patterson trial The trial for Haywood Patterson occurred while the Norris and Weems cases were still under consideration by the jury. When the jury returned its verdict from the first trial, the jury from the second trial was taken out of the courtroom. When the verdicts of guilty were announced, the courtroom erupted in cheers, as did the crowd outside. A band, there to play for a show of Ford Motor Company cars outside, began playing "Hail, Hail the Gang's All Here" and "There'll be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight". The celebration was so loud that it was most likely heard by the second jury waiting inside. After the outburst, the defense of Patterson moved for a mistrial, but Judge Hawkins denied the motion and testimony continued. The second trial continued. During the second trial's prosecution testimony, Victoria Price mostly stuck with her story, stating flatly that Patterson raped her. She accused Patterson of shooting one of the white youths. Price volunteered, "I have not had intercourse with any other white man but my husband. I want you to know that." Dr. Bridges repeated his testimony from the first trial. Other witnesses testified that "the negroes" had gotten out of the same gondola car as Price and Bates; a farmer claimed to have seen white women [on the train] with the black youths. Patterson defended his actions, testifying again that he had seen Price and Bates in the gondola car, but had nothing to do with them. On cross-examination he testified that he had seen "all but three of those negroes ravish that girl", but then changed his story. He said that he had not seen "any white women" until the train "got to Paint Rock." The younger Wright brother testified that Patterson was not involved with the girls, but that nine black teenagers had sex with the girls. On cross-examination, Roy Wright testified that Patterson "was not involved with the girls", but that "The long, tall, black fellow had the pistol. He is not here." He claimed also to have been on top of the boxcar, and that Clarence Norris had a knife. Co-defendants Andy Wright, Eugene Williams, and Ozie Powell all testified that they did not see any women on the train. Olen Montgomery testified that he sat alone on the train and did not know of any of the referenced events. The jury quickly convicted Patterson and recommended death by electric chair. Powell, Roberson, Williams, Montgomery and Wright trial This trial began within minutes of the previous case. Price repeated her testimony, adding that the black teenagers split into two groups of six to rape her and Ruby Bates. Price accused Eugene Williams of holding the knife to her throat, and said that all of the other teenagers had knives. Under cross-examination she gave more detail, adding that someone held a knife to the white teenager, Gilley, during the rapes. This trial was interrupted and the jury sent out when the Patterson jury reported; they found him guilty. There was no uproar at the announcement. Ruby Bates took the stand, identifying all five defendants as among the 12 entering the gondola car, putting off the whites, and "ravishing" her and Price. Dr. Bridges was the next prosecution witness, repeating his earlier testimony. On cross-examination, Bridges testified detecting no movement in the spermatozoa found in either woman, suggesting intercourse had taken place sometime before. He also testified that defendant Willie Roberson was "diseased with syphilis and gonorrhea, a bad case of it." He admitted under questioning that Price told him that she had had sex with her husband and that Bates had earlier had intercourse as well, before the alleged rape events. The defense called the only witnesses they had had time to find – the defendants. No new evidence was revealed. The next prosecution witnesses testified that Roberson had run over train cars leaping from one to another and that he was in much better shape than he claimed. Slim Gilley testified that he saw "every one of those five in the gondola," but did not confirm that he had seen the women raped. The defense again waived closing argument, and surprisingly the prosecution then proceeded to make more argument. The defense objected vigorously, but the Court allowed it. Judge Hawkins then instructed the jury, stating that any defendant aiding in the crime was as guilty as any of the defendants who had committed it. The jury began deliberating at four in the afternoon. Roy Wright trial The prosecution agreed that 13-year-old Roy Wright was too young for the death penalty, and did not seek it. The prosecution presented only testimony from Price and Bates. His case went to the jury at nine that evening. His jury and that from the trial of five men were deliberating at the same time. At nine on Thursday morning, April 9, 1931, the five defendants in Wednesday's trial were all found guilty. Roy Wright's jury could not agree on sentencing, and was declared a hung jury that afternoon. All the jurors agreed on his guilt, but seven insisted on the death sentence while five held out for life imprisonment (in cases like this, that was often an indication that the jurors believed the suspect was innocent but they were unwilling to go against community norms of conviction). Judge Hawkins declared a mistrial. Death sentences The eight convicted defendants were assembled on April 9, 1931, and sentenced to death by electric chair. The Associated Press reported that the defendants were "calm" and "stoic" as Judge Hawkins handed down the death sentences one after another. Judge Hawkins set the executions for July 10, 1931, the earliest date Alabama law allowed. While appeals were filed, the Alabama Supreme Court issued indefinite stays of executions 72 hours before the defendants were scheduled to die. The men's cells were next to the execution chamber, and they heard the July 10, 1931 execution of William Hokes, a black man from St. Clair County convicted of murder. They later recalled that he "died hard." Help from Communist Party and NAACP After a demonstration in Harlem, the Communist Party USA took an interest in the Scottsboro case. Chattanooga Party member James Allen edited the Communist Southern Worker, and publicized "the plight of the boys". The Party used its legal arm, the International Labor Defense (ILD), to take up their cases, and persuaded the defendants' parents to let the party champion their cause. The ILD retained attorneys George W. Chamlee, who filed the first motions, and Joseph Brodsky. The NAACP also offered to handle the case, offering the services of famed criminal defense attorney Clarence Darrow. However, the Scottsboro defendants decided to let the ILD handle their appeal. Chamlee moved for new trials for all defendants. Private investigations took place, revealing that Price and Bates had been prostitutes in Tennessee, who regularly serviced both black and white clientele. Chamlee offered judge Hawkins affidavits to that effect, but the judge forbade him to read them out loud. The defense argued that this evidence proved that the two women had likely lied at trial. Chamlee pointed to the uproar in Scottsboro that occurred when the verdicts were reported as further evidence that the change of venue should have been granted. Appeal to Alabama Supreme Court Following Judge Hawkins' denial of the motions for a new trial, attorney George W. Chamlee filed an appeal and was granted a stay of execution. Chamlee was joined by Communist Party attorney Joseph Brodsky and ILD attorney Irving Schwab. The defense team argued that their clients had not had adequate representation, had insufficient time for counsel to prepare their cases, had their juries intimidated by the crowd, and finally, that it was unconstitutional for blacks to have been excluded from the jury. In the question of procedural errors, the state Supreme Court found none. Williams' ruling On March 24, 1932, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled against seven of the eight remaining Scottsboro Boys, confirming the convictions and death sentences of all but the 13-year-old Eugene Williams. It upheld seven of eight rulings from the lower court. The Alabama Supreme Court granted 13-year-old Eugene Williams a new trial because he was a juvenile, which saved him from the immediate threat of the electric chair. Weems and Norris ruling The Court upheld the lower court's change of venue decision, upheld the testimony of Ruby Bates, and reviewed the testimony of the various witnesses. As to the "newly discovered evidence", the Court ruled: "There is no contention on the part of the defendants, that they had sexual intercourse with the alleged victim ... with her consent ... so the defendants would not be granted a new trial." As to representation, the Court found "that the defendants were represented by counsel who thoroughly cross examined the state's witnesses, and presented such evidence as was available." Again, the Court affirmed these convictions as well. The Alabama Supreme Court affirmed seven of the eight convictions and rescheduled the executions. Dissent Chief Justice John C. Anderson dissented, agreeing with the defense in many of its motions. Anderson stated that the defendants had not been accorded a fair trial and strongly dissented to the decision to affirm their sentences. He wrote, "While the constitution guarantees to the accused a speedy trial, it is of greater importance that it should be by a fair and impartial jury, ex vi termini ("by definition"), a jury free from bias or prejudice, and, above all, from coercion and intimidation." He pointed out that the National Guard had shuttled the defendants back and forth each day from jail, and that this fact alone was enough to have a coercive effect on the jury. Anderson criticized how the defendants were represented. He noted that Roddy "declined to appear as appointed counsel and did so only as amicus curiae." He continued, "These defendants were confined in jail in another county ... and local counsel had little opportunity to ... prepare their defense." Moreover, they "would have been represented by able counsel had a better opportunity been given." Justice Anderson also pointed out the failure of the defense to make closing arguments as an example of under zealous defense representation. About the courtroom outburst, Justice Anderson noted that "there was great applause ... and this was bound to have influence." Anderson noted that, as the punishment for rape ranged between ten years and death, some of the teenagers should have been found "less culpable than others", and therefore should have received lighter sentences. Anderson concluded, "No matter how revolting the accusation, how clear the proof, or how degraded or even brutal, the offender, the Constitution, the law, the very genius of Anglo-American liberty demand a fair and impartial trial." Appeal to United States Supreme Court The case went to the United States Supreme Court on October 10, 1932, amidst tight security. The ILD retained Walter Pollak to handle the appeal. The Attorney General of Alabama, Thomas E. Knight, represented the State. Pollak argued that the defendants had been denied due process: first, due to the mob atmosphere; and second, because of the strange attorney appointments and their poor performance at trial. Last, he argued that African Americans were systematically excluded from jury duty contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment. Knight countered that there had been no mob atmosphere at the trial, and pointed to the finding by the Alabama Supreme Court that the trial had been fair and representation "able." He told the court that he had "no apologies" to make. In a landmark decision, the United States Supreme Court reversed the convictions on the ground that the due process clause of the United States Constitution guarantees the effective assistance of counsel at a criminal trial. In an opinion written by Associate Justice George Sutherland, the Court found the defendants had been denied effective counsel. Chief Justice Anderson's previous dissent was quoted repeatedly in this decision. The Court did not fault Moody and Roddy for lack of an effective defense, noting that both had told Judge Hawkins that they had not had time to prepare their cases. They said the problem was with the way Judge Hawkins "immediately hurried to trial." This conclusion did not find the Scottsboro defendants innocent but ruled that the procedures violated their rights to due process under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Supreme Court sent the case back to Judge Hawkins for a retrial. Decatur trials When the case, by now a cause celebre, came back to Judge Hawkins, he granted the request for a change of venue. The defense had urged for a move to the city of Birmingham, Alabama, but the case was transferred to the small, rural community of Decatur. This was near homes of the alleged victims and in Ku Klux Klan territory.The American Communist Party maintained control over the defense of the case, retaining the New York criminal defense attorney Samuel Leibowitz. He had never lost a murder trial and was a registered Democrat, with no connection to the Communist Party. They kept Joseph Brodsky as the second chair for the trial. The case was assigned to District Judge James Edwin Horton and tried in Morgan County. His appointment to the case drew local praise. Nevertheless, the judge carried a loaded pistol in his car throughout the time he presided over these cases. The two years that had passed since the first trials had not dampened community hostility for the Scottsboro Boys. But others believed they were victims of Jim Crow justice, and the case was covered by numerous national newspapers. At the trial, some 100 reporters were seated at the press tables. Hundreds more gathered on the courthouse lawn. National Guard members in plain clothes mingled in the crowd, looking for any sign of trouble. The Sheriff's department brought the defendants to Court in a patrol wagon guarded by two carloads of deputies armed with shotguns. In the courtroom, the Scottsboro Boys sat in a row wearing blue prison denims and guarded by National Guardsmen, except for Roy Wright, who had not been convicted. Wright wore street clothes. The Birmingham News described him as "dressed up like a Georgia gigolo." Leibowitz asserted his trust in the "God-fearing people of Decatur and Morgan County"; he made a pretrial motion to quash the indictment on the ground that blacks had been systematically excluded from the grand jury. Although the motion was denied, this got the issue in the record for future appeals. To this motion, Attorney General Thomas Knight responded, "The State will concede nothing. Put on your case." Leibowitz called the editor of the Scottsboro weekly newspaper, who testified that he'd never heard of a black juror in Decatur because "they all steal." He called local jury commissioners to explain the absence of African-Americans from Jackson County juries. When Leibowitz accused them of excluding black men from juries, they did not seem to understand his accusation. It was as if the exclusion was so ordinary as to be unconscious. (Note: Since most blacks could not vote after having been disenfranchised by the Alabama constitution, the local jury commissioners probably never thought about them as potential jurors, who were limited to voters.) Leibowitz called local black professionals as witnesses to show they were qualified for jury service. Leibowitz called John Sanford, an African-American of Scottsboro, who was educated, well-spoken, and respected. The defense attorney showed that "Mr. Sanford" was evidently qualified in all manner except by virtue of his race to be a candidate for participation in a jury. During the following cross-examination, Knight addressed the witness by his first name, "John." The first two times that he did so, Leibowitz asked the court to have him alter his behavior. He did not, and this insult eventually caused Leibowitz to leap to his feet saying, "Now listen, Mr. Attorney-General, I've warned you twice about your treatment of my witness. For the last time now, stand back, take your finger out of his eye, and call him mister", causing gasps from the public seated in the gallery. The judge abruptly interrupted Leibowitz. While the pretrial motion to quash the indictment was denied, Leibowitz had positioned the case for appeal. The issue of the composition of the jury was addressed in a second landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled that race could not be used to exclude anyone from candidacy for participation on a jury anywhere in the United States. This astonished (and infuriated) many residents of Alabama and many other Southern states. Patterson trial Judge Horton called the first case against Haywood Patterson and began jury selection. Leibowitz objected that African-American jurors had been excluded from the jury pool. He called the jury commissioner to the stand, asking if there were any blacks on the juror rolls, and when told yes, suggested his answer was not honest. The locals resented his questioning of the official and "chewed their tobacco meditatively." The National Guard posted five men with fixed bayonets in front of Leibowitz's residence that night. The jury was selected by the end of the day on Friday and sequestered in the Lyons Hotel. A large crowd gathered outside the courthouse for the start of the Patterson trial on Monday, April 2. Without the "vivid detail" she had used in the Scottsboro trials, Victoria Price told her account in 16 minutes. The defense had what she had said before under oath on paper, and could confront her with any inconsistencies. The only drama came when Knight pulled a torn pair of step-ins from his briefcase and tossed them into the lap of a juror to support the claim of rape. Leibowitz used a 32-foot model train set up on a table in front of the witness stand to illustrate where each of the parties was during the alleged events, and other points of his defense. When asked if the model in front of her was like the train where she claimed she was raped, Price cracked, "It was bigger. Lots bigger. That is a toy." Leibowitz later conceded that Price was "one of the toughest witnesses he ever cross examined." Her answers were evasive and derisive. She often replied, "I can't remember" or "I won't say." Once when Leibowitz confronted her with a contradiction in her testimony, she exclaimed, sticking a finger in the direction of defendant Patterson, "One thing I will never forget is that one sitting right there raped me." The attorney tried to question her about a conviction for fornication and adultery in Huntsville, but the court sustained a prosecution objection. Price insisted that she had spent the evening before the alleged rape at the home of Mrs. Callie Brochie in Chattanooga. Leibowitz asked her whether she had spent the evening in a "hobo jungle" in Huntsville, Alabama, with a Lester Carter and Jack Tiller, but she denied it. Leibowitz said that Callie Brochie was a fictional character in a Saturday Evening Post short story and suggested that Price's stay with her had been equally fictional. As the historian James Goodman wrote: Price was not the first hardened witness [Leibowitz] had faced, and certainly not the most depraved. Nor was she the first witness who tried to stare him down and, failing that, who seemed as if she were about to leap out of her seat and strike him. She was not the first witness to be evasive, sarcastic and crude. She was, however, the first witness to use her bad memory, truculence, and total lack of refinement, and at times, even ignorance, to great advantage. Many of the whites in the courtroom likely resented Leibowitz as a Jew from New York hired by the Communists, and for his treatment of a southern white woman, even a low-class one, as a hostile witness. Some wondered if there was any way he could leave Decatur alive. The National Guard Captain Joe Burelson promised Judge Horton that he would protect Leibowitz and the defendants "as long as we have a piece of ammunition or a man alive." Once Captain Burelson learned that a group was on their way to "take care of Leibowitz", he raised the drawbridge across the Tennessee River, keeping them out of Decatur. Judge Horton learned that the prisoners were in danger from locals. Once he sent out the jury and warned the courtroom, "I want it to be known that these prisoners are under the protection of this court. This court intends to protect these prisoners and any other persons engaged in this trial." Threats of violence came from the North as well. One letter from Chicago read, "When those Boys are dead, within six months your state will lose 500 lives." Leibowitz systematically dismantled each prosecution witness' story under cross-examination. He got Dr. Bridges to admit on cross-examination that "the best you can say about the whole case is that both of these women showed they had sexual intercourse." Paint Rock ticket agent W. H. Hill testified to seeing the women and the black youths in the same car, but on cross-examination admitted to not seeing the women at all until they got off the train. Posse member Tom Rousseau claimed to have seen the women and youths get off the same car but under cross-examination admitted finding the defendants scattered in various cars at the front of the train. Lee Adams testified that he had seen the fight, but later saying that he was a quarter-mile from the tracks. Ory Dobbins repeated that he'd seen the women try to jump off the train, but Leibowitz showed photos of the positions of the parties that proved Dobbins could not have seen everything he claimed. Dobbins insisted he had seen the girls wearing women's clothing, but other witnesses had testified they were in overalls. The prosecution withdrew the testimony of Dr. Marvin Lynch, the other examining doctor, as "repetitive." Many years later, Judge Horton said that Dr. Lynch confided that the women had not been raped and had laughed when he examined them. He said that if he testified for the defense, his practice in Jackson County would be over. Thinking Patterson would be acquitted, Judge Horton did not force Dr. Lynch to testify, but the judge had become convinced the defendants were innocent. Defense Leibowitz began his defense by calling Chattanooga resident Dallas Ramsey, who testified that his home was next to the hobo jungle mentioned earlier. He said that he had seen both Price and Bates get on a train there with a white man on the morning of the alleged rape. Train fireman Percy Ricks testified that he saw the two women slipping along the side of the train right after it stopped in Paint Rock, as if they were trying to escape the posse. Leibowitz put on the testimony of Chattanooga gynecologist, Dr. Edward A. Reisman, who testified that after a woman had been raped by six men, it was impossible that she would have only a trace of semen, as was found in this case. Leibowitz next called Lester Carter, a white man who testified that he had had intercourse with Bates. Jack Tiller, another white, said he had had sex with Price, two days before the alleged rapes. He testified that he had been on the train on the morning of the arrests. He had heard Price ask Orville Gilley, a white youth, to confirm that she had been raped. However, Gilley had told her to "go to hell." Morgan County Solicitor Wade Wright cross-examined Carter. Wright tried to get Carter to admit that the Communist Party had bought his testimony, which Carter denied. But he said that the defense attorney Joseph Brodsky had paid his rent and bought him a new suit for the trial. Five of the original nine Scottsboro defendants testified that they had not seen Price or Bates until after the train stopped in Paint Rock. Willie Roberson testified that he was suffering from syphilis, with sores that prevented him from walking, and that he was in a car at the back of the train. Olen Montgomery testified that he had been alone on a tank car the entire trip, and had not known about the fight or alleged rapes. Ozie Powell said that while he was not a participant, he had seen the fight with the white teenagers from his vantage point between a boxcar and a gondola car, where he had been hanging on. He said he saw the white teenagers jump off the train. Roberson, Montgomery, and Powell all denied they had known each other or the other defendants before that day. Andy Wright, Eugene Williams, and Haywood Patterson testified that they had previously known each other, but had not seen the women until the train stopped in Paint Rock. Knight questioned them extensively about instances in which their testimony supposedly differed from their testimony at their trial in Scottsboro. They did not contradict themselves in any meaningful way. Haywood Patterson testified on his own behalf that he had not seen the women before stopping in Paint Rock; he withstood a cross-examination from Knight who "shouted, shook his finger at, and ran back and forth in front of the defendant." At one point, Knight demanded, "You were tried at Scottsboro?" Patterson snapped, "I was framed at Scottsboro." Knight thundered, "Who told you to say that?" Patterson replied, "I told myself to say it." Just after the defense rested "with reservations", someone handed Leibowitz a note. The attorneys approached the bench for a hushed conversation, which was followed by a short recess. Leibowitz called one final witness. Thus far in the trial, Ruby Bates had been notably absent. She had disappeared from her home in Huntsville weeks before the new trial, and every sheriff in Alabama had been ordered to search for her, to no avail. Now, two guardsmen with bayonets opened the courtroom doors, and Bates entered, "in stylish clothes, eyes downcast." Her dramatic and unexpected entrance drew stares from the residents of the courtroom. Victoria Price, brought out for Bates to identify, glared at her. Attorney General Knight warned Price to "keep your temper." Bates proceeded to testify and explained that no rape had occurred. She said none of the defendants had touched her or even spoken to her. When asked if she had been raped on March 25, 1931, Bates said, "No sir." When asked why she had initially said she had been raped, Bates replied, "I told it just like Victoria did because she said we might have to stay in jail if we did not frame up a story after crossing a state line with men." Bates explained that Price had said, "she didn't care if all the Negroes in Alabama were put in jail." This recantation seemed to be a severe blow to the prosecution. Bates admitted having intercourse with Lester Carter in the Huntsville railway yards two days before making accusations. Finally, she testified she had been in New York City and had decided to return to Alabama to tell the truth, at the urging of Rev. Harry Emerson Fosdick of that city. With his eye turned to the southern jury, Knight cross-examined her. He noted her stylish dress and demanded where she had gotten her fine clothes. When she responded that the Communist Party had paid for her clothes, any credibility she had with the jury was destroyed. Judge Horton warned spectators to stop laughing at her testimony or he would eject them. Closing arguments By the time Leibowitz closed, the prosecution had employed anti-semitic remarks to discredit him. Wade Wright added to this, referring to Ruby's boyfriend Lester Carter as "Mr. Caterinsky" and called him "the prettiest Jew" he ever saw. He said, "Don't you know these defense witnesses are bought and paid for? May the Lord have mercy on the soul of Ruby Bates. Now the question in this case is this—Is justice in the case going to be bought and sold in Alabama with Jew money from New York?" Leibowitz objected and moved for a new trial. Judge Horton refused to grant a new trial, telling the jury to "put [the remarks] out of your minds." One author describes Wright's closing argument as "the now-famous Jew-baiting summary to the jury." He goes on to say that, "Until Wright spoke, many of the newspapermen felt that there was an outside chance for acquittal, at least a hung jury. But ... from then on the defense was helpless." In his closing, Leibowitz called Wright's argument an appeal to regional bigotry, claiming talk about Communists was just to "befuddle" the jury. He described himself as a patriot, a "Roosevelt Democrat", who had served the "Stars and Stripes" in World War I, "when there was no talk of Jew or Gentile, white or black." As to Wright's reference to "Jew money", Leibowitz said that he was defending the Scottsboro Boys for nothing and was personally paying the expenses of his wife, who had accompanied him. "I'm interested", Leibowitz argued, "solely in seeing that that poor, moronic colored boy over there and his co-defendants in the other cases get a square shake of the dice, because I believe, before God, they are the victims of a dastardly frame-up." He called Price's testimony "a foul, contemptible, outrageous lie." He ended with the Lord's Prayer and a challenge to either acquit or render the death sentence—nothing in between. Attorney General Knight delivered his rebuttal, roaring that if the jury found Haywood not guilty, they ought to "put a garland of roses around his neck, give him a supper, and send him to New York City." Considering the evidence, he continued, "there can be but one verdict—death in the electric chair for raping Victoria Price." Verdict The jury began deliberating Saturday afternoon and announced it had a verdict at ten the next morning, while many residents of Decatur were in church. The jury foreman, Eugene Bailey, handed the handwritten verdict to Judge Horton. The jury found the defendant guilty of rape and sentenced Patterson to death in the electric chair. Bailey had held out for eleven hours for life in prison, but in the end, agreed to the death sentence. According to one account, juror Irwin Craig held out against the imposition of the death penalty, because he thought that Patterson was innocent. Irwin Craig Irwin "Red" Craig (died 1970) (nicknamed from the color of his hair) was the sole juror to refuse to impose the death penalty in the retrial of Haywood Patterson, one of the Scottsboro Boys, in what was then the small town of Decatur, Alabama. His son, Sonny, later recalled him as saying: "Those young men were innocent; everybody knew that but they were going to be punished for what they didn't do." The Ku Klux Klan staked a burning cross in his family yard. He was called in to see the judge presiding over that retrial, James Horton, who exhorted him to change his vote to guilty. "If you don't, they will kill you, Red", said the judge. Craig protested: "I can't change my vote, judge." Horton replied: "Don't worry about that, I'll take care of it." Horton grants Patterson a new trial The defense moved for a retrial and, believing the defendants innocent, Judge James Edwin Horton agreed to set aside the guilty verdict for Patterson. Horton ruled the rest of defendants could not get a fair trial at that time and indefinitely postponed the rest of the trials, knowing it would cost him his job when he ran for re-election. Judge Horton heard arguments on the motion for a new trial in the Limestone County Court House in Athens, Alabama, where he read his decision to the astonished defense and a furious Knight: Horton ordered a new trial— which would turn out to be the third for Patterson. When Judge Horton announced his decision, Knight stated that he would retry Patterson. He said that he had found Orville "Carolina Slim" Gilley, the white teenager in the gondola car and that Gilley would corroborate Price's story in full. At Knight's request, the court replaced Judge Horton with Judge William Washington Callahan, described as a racist. He later instructed the jury in the next round of trials that no white woman would voluntarily have sex with a black man. New trials under Callahan During the Decatur retrial, held from November 1933 to July 1937, Judge Callahan wanted to take the case off "the front pages of America's newspapers." He banned photographers from the courthouse grounds and typewriters from his courtroom. "There ain't going to be no more picture snappin' round here", he ordered. He also imposed a strict three-day time limit on each trial, running them into the evening. He removed protection from the defense, convincing Governor Benjamin Meek Miller to keep the National Guard away. The defense moved for another change of venue, submitting affidavits in which hundreds of residents stated their intense dislike for the defendants, to show there was "overwhelming prejudice" against them. The prosecution countered with testimony that some of the quotes in the affidavits were untrue and that six of the people quoted were dead. The defense countered that they had received numerous death threats, and the judge replied that he and the prosecution had received more from the Communists. The motion was denied. Leibowitz led Commissioner Moody and Jackson County Circuit Clerk C.A. Wann through every page of the Jackson County jury roll to show that it contained no names of African-Americans. When, after several hours of reading names, Commissioner Moody finally claimed several names to be of African-Americans, Leibowitz got handwriting samples from all present. One man admitted that the handwriting appeared to be his. Leibowitz called in a handwriting expert, who testified that names identified as African-American had been added later to the list, and signed by former Jury Commissioner Morgan. Judge Callahan did not rule that excluding people by race was constitutional, only that the defendant had not proven that African-Americans had been deliberately excluded. By letting Leibowitz go on record on this issue, Judge Callahan provided grounds for the case to be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court for a second time. It was the basis for the court's finding in Norris v. Alabama (1935), that exclusion of African-American grand jurors had occurred, violating the due process clause of the Constitution. Haywood Patterson's Decatur retrial began on November 27, 1933. Thirty-six potential jurors admitted having a "fixed opinion" in the case, which caused Leibowitz to move for a change of venue. Callahan denied the motion. Callahan excluded defense evidence that Horton had admitted, at one point exclaiming to Leibowitz, "Judge Horton can't help you [now]." He routinely sustained prosecution objections but overruled defense objections. Price testified again that a dozen armed negro men entered the gondola car. She said Patterson had fired a shot and ordered all whites but Gilley off the train. She said the negros had ripped her clothes off and repeatedly raped her at knifepoint, and pointed out Patterson as one of the rapists. She said they raped her and Bates, afterward saying they would take them north or throw them in the river. She testified that she had fallen while getting out of the gondola car, passed out, and came to seated in a store at Paint Rock. Leibowitz questioned her until Judge Callahan stopped court for the day at 6:30. When he resumed the next morning, he pointed out many contradictions among her various versions of the rape. Judge Callahan repeatedly interrupted Leibowitz's cross-examination of Price, calling defense questions "arguing with the witness", "immaterial, "useless", "a waste of time" and even "illegal." The many contradictions notwithstanding, Price steadfastly stuck to her testimony that Patterson had raped her. Orville Gilley's testimony at Patterson's Decatur retrial was a mild sensation. He denied being a "bought witness", repeating his testimony about armed blacks ordering the white teenagers off the train. He confirmed Price's rape account, adding that he stopped the rape by convincing the "negro" with the gun to make the rapists stop "before they killed that woman." Leibowitz cross-examined him at length about contradictions between his account and Price's testimony, but he remained "unruffled." Gilley testified to meeting Lester Carter and the women the evening before the alleged rapes and getting them coffee and sandwiches. Callahan interrupted before Leibowitz could find out if Gilley went "somewhere with [the women]" that night. The prosecution called several white farmers who testified that they had seen the fight on the train and saw the girls "a-fixin' to get out", but they saw the defendants drag them back. Lester Carter took the stand for the defense. He had testified in the first Decatur trial that Price and Bates had had sex with him and Gilley in the hobo jungle in Chattanooga prior to the alleged rapes, which could account for the semen found in the women. But Judge Callahan would not let him repeat that testimony at the trial, stating that any such testimony was "immaterial." Ruby Bates was apparently too sick to travel. She had had surgery in New York, and at one point Leibowitz requested that her deposition be taken as a dying declaration. While she was not dying, committed to his three-day time limit for the trial, Judge Callahan denied the request to arrange to take her deposition. Although the defense needed her testimony, by the time a deposition arrived, the case had gone to the jury and they did not hear it at all. Haywood Patterson took the stand, admitting he had "cussed" at the white teenagers, but only because they cussed at him first. He denied seeing the white women before Paint Rock. On cross-examination Knight confronted him with previous testimony from his Scottsboro trial that he had not touched the women, but that he had seen the other five defendants rape them. Leibowitz objected, stating that the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled previous testimony illegal. Judge Callahan allowed it, although he would not allow testimony by Patterson stating that he had not seen the women before Paint Rock. Patterson explained contradictions in his testimony: "We was scared and I don't know what I said. They told us if we didn't confess they'd kill us—give us to the mob outside." Patterson claimed the threats had been made by guards and militiamen while the defendants were in the Jackson County jail. He said threats were made even in the presence of the judge. Patterson pointed at H.G. Bailey, the prosecutor in his Scottsboro trial, stating, "And Mr. Bailey over there—he said send all the niggers to the electric chair. There's too many niggers in the world anyway." Closing arguments were made November 29 through November 30, without stopping for Thanksgiving. Callahan limited each side to two hours of argument. Knight declared in his closing that the prosecution was not avenging what the defendants had done to Price. "What has been done to her cannot be undone. What you can do now is to make sure that it doesn't happen to some other woman." Leibowitz objected that the argument was "an appeal to passion and prejudice" and moved for a mistrial. Knight agreed that it was an appeal to passion, and Callahan overruled the motion. Knight continued, "We all have a passion, all men in this courtroom to protect the womanhood in Alabama." For his summation, solicitor Wade Wright reviewed the testimony and warned the jury, "that this crime could have happened to any woman, even though she was riding in a parlor car, instead of the boxcar." Solicitor H. G. Bailey reminded the jury that the law presumed Patterson innocent, even if what Gilley and Price had described was "as sordid as ever a human tongue has uttered." Finally, he defended the women, "Instead of painting their faces ... they were brave enough to go to Chattanooga and look for honest work." Bailey attacked the defense case.They say this is a frame-up! They have been yelling frame-up ever since this case started! Who framed them? Did Ory Dobbins frame them? Did brother Hill frame them? We did a lot of awful things over there in Scottsboro, didn't we? My, my, my. And now they come over here and try to convince you that that sort of thing happened in your neighboring county. Judge Callahan charged the jury that Price and Bates could have been raped without force, just by withholding their consent. He instructed them, "Where the woman charged to have been raped is white, there is a strong presumption under the law that she will not and did not yield voluntarily to intercourse with the defendant, a Negro." He instructed the jury that if Patterson was so much as present for the "purpose of aiding, encouraging, assisting or abetting" the rapes "in any way", he was as guilty as the person who committed the rapes. He told them that they did not need to find corroboration of Price's testimony. If they believed her, that was enough to convict. Judge Callahan said he was giving them two forms – one for conviction and one for acquittal, but he supplied the jury with only a form to convict. He supplied them with an acquittal form only after the prosecution, fearing reversible error, urged him to do so. As Time described it: "Twenty-six hours later came a resounding thump on the brown wooden jury room door. The bailiff let the jurors out [from the Patterson trial]. The foreman unfisted a moist crumpled note, handed it to the clerk. A thin smile faded from Patterson's lips as the clerk read his third death sentence." In May 1934, despite having run unopposed in the previous election for the position, James Horton was soundly defeated when he ran for re-election as a circuit judge. The vote against him was especially heavy in Morgan County. In the same election, Thomas Knight was elected Lieutenant Governor of Alabama. Norris's retrial Judge Callahan started jury selection for the trial of defendant Norris on November 30, 1933, Thanksgiving afternoon. At this trial, Victoria Price testified that two of her alleged assailants had pistols, that they threw off the white teenagers, that she tried to jump off but was grabbed, thrown onto the gravel in the gondola, one of them held her legs, and one held a knife on her, and one raped both her and Ruby Bates. She claimed Norris raped her, along with five others. Callahan would not allow Leibowitz to ask Price about any "crime of moral turpitude." Nor would he allow Leibowitz to ask why she went to Chattanooga, where she had spent the night there, or about Carter or Gilley. Neither would he allow questions as to whether she'd had sexual intercourse with Carter or Gilley. During more cross-examination, Price looked at Knight so often Leibowitz accused her of looking for signals. Judge Callahan cautioned Leibowitz he would not permit "such tactics" in his courtroom. Dr. Bridges was a state witness, and Leibowitz cross-examined him at length, trying to get him to agree that a rape would have produced more injuries than he found. Callahan sustained a prosecution objection, ruling "the question is not based on the evidence." Ruby Bates had given a deposition from her hospital bed in New York, which arrived in time to be read to the jury in the Norris trial. Judge Callahan sustained prosecution objections to large portions of it, most significantly the part where she said that she and Price both had sex voluntarily in Chattanooga the night before the alleged rapes. Leibowitz read the rest of Bates' deposition, including her version of what happened on the train. She said that there were white teenagers riding in the gondola car with them, that some black teenagers came into the car, that a fight broke out, that most of the white teenagers got off the train, and that the blacks "disappeared" until the posse stopped the train at Paint Rock. She testified that she, Price and Gilley were arrested and that Price made the rape accusation, instructing her to go along with the story to stay out of jail. She reiterated that neither she nor Price had been raped. Leibowitz chose to keep Norris off the stand. Closing arguments were on December 4, 1933. In his closing argument, Leibowitz called the prosecution's case "a contemptible frame-up by two bums." He attempted to overcome local prejudice, saying "if you have a reasonable doubt, hold out. Stand your ground, show you are a man, a red-blooded he-man." The prosecution's closing argument was shorter and less "barbed" than it had been in the Patterson case. It was addressed more to the evidence and less to the regional prejudice of the jury. Leibowitz made many objections to Judge Callahan's charge to the jury. The New York Times described Leibowitz as "pressing the judge almost as though he were a hostile witness." New York City Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia had dispatched two burly New York City police officers to protect Leibowitz. During the long jury deliberations, Judge Callahan also assigned two Morgan County deputies to guard him. The jury began deliberation on December 5. After 14 hours of deliberation, the jury filed into the courtroom; they returned a guilty verdict and sentenced Norris to death. Norris took the news stoically. Leibowitz's prompt appeal stayed the execution date, so Patterson and Norris were both returned to death row in Kilby Prison. The other defendants waited in the Jefferson County jail in Birmingham for the outcome of the appeals. Leibowitz was escorted to the train station under heavy guard, and he boarded a train back to New York. United States Supreme Court reverses Decatur convictions The case went to the United States Supreme Court for a second time as Norris v. Alabama. The court reversed the convictions for a second time on the basis that blacks had been excluded from the jury pool because of their race. Attorneys Samuel Leibowitz, Walter H. Pollak and Osmond Frankel argued the case from February 15 to 18, 1935. Leibowitz showed the justices that the names of African Americans had been added to the jury rolls. The Justices examined the items closely with a magnifying glass. Thomas Knight maintained that the jury process was color blind. Because the case of Haywood Patterson had been dismissed due to the technical failure to appeal it on time, it presented different issues. Attorneys Osmond Frankel and Walter Pollak argued those. On April 1, 1935, the United States Supreme Court sent the cases back a second time for retrials in Alabama. Writing for the Court, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes observed the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution clearly forbade the states from excluding citizens from juries due solely to their race. He noted that the Court had inspected the jury rolls, chastising Judge Callahan and the Alabama Supreme Court for accepting assertions that black citizens had not been excluded. According to the U.S. Supreme Court, "something more" was needed. The Court concluded, "the motion to quash ... should have been granted." The Court ruled that it would be a great injustice to execute Patterson when Norris would receive a new trial, reasoning that Alabama should have opportunity to reexamine Patterson's case as well. Alabama Governor Bibb Graves instructed every solicitor and judge in the state, "Whether we like the decisions or not ... We must put Negroes in jury boxes. Alabama is going to observe the supreme law of America." Final round of trials After the case was remanded, on May 1, 1935, Victoria Price swore new rape complaints against the defendants as the sole complaining witness. An African American, Creed Conyer, was selected as the first black person since Reconstruction to sit on an Alabama grand jury. The indictment could be made with a two-thirds vote, and the grand jury voted to indict the defendants. Thomas Knight, Jr. by now (May 1935) Lieutenant Governor, was appointed a special prosecutor to the cases. Leibowitz recognized that he was viewed by Southerners as an outsider, and allowed the local attorney Charles Watts to be the lead attorney; he assisted from the sidelines. Judge Callahan arraigned all the defendants except the two juveniles in Decatur; they all pleaded not guilty. Watts moved to have the case sent to the Federal Court as a civil rights case, which Callahan promptly denied. He set the retrials for January 20, 1936. Final decisions By January 23, 1936, Haywood Patterson was convicted of rape and sentenced to 75 years—the first time in Alabama that a black man had not been sentenced to death in the rape of a white woman. During May 1937, Thomas Knight died. On July 15, 1937, Clarence Norris was convicted of rape and sexual assault and sentenced to death. On July 22, 1937, Andrew Wright was convicted of rape and sentenced to 99 years. On July 24, 1937, Charlie Weems was convicted of rape and sentenced to 105 years in prison. On July 24, 1937, Ozie Powell was taken into court and the new prosecutor, Thomas Lawson, announced that the state was dropping rape charges against Powell and that he was pleading guilty to assaulting a deputy. He was sentenced to 20 years. The state dropped the rape charges as part of this plea bargain. On July 24, 1937, the state of Alabama dropped all charges against Willie Roberson, Olen Montgomery, Eugene Williams, and Roy Wright. The four had spent over six years in prison on death row, as "adults" despite their ages. Thomas Lawson announced that all charges were being dropped against the remaining four defendants: He said that after "careful consideration" every prosecutor was "convinced" that Roberson and Montgomery were "not guilty." Wright and Williams, regardless of their guilt or innocence, were 12 and 13 at the time and, in view of the jail time they had already served, justice required that they also be released. On July 26, 1937, Haywood Patterson was sent to Atmore State Prison Farm. The remaining "Scottsboro Boys" in custody, that of Norris, A Wright and Weems were at this time in Kilby Prison. Aftermath Governor Graves had planned to pardon the prisoners in 1938 but was angered by their hostility and refusal to admit their guilt. He refused the pardons but did commute Norris's death sentence to life in prison. Ruby Bates toured for a short while as an ILD speaker. She said she was "sorry for all the trouble that I caused them", and claimed she did it because she was "frightened by the ruling class of Scottsboro." Later, she worked in a New York state spinning factory until 1938; that year she returned to Huntsville. Victoria Price worked in a Huntsville cotton mill until 1938, then moved to Flintville, Tennessee. Victoria Price never recanted her testimony.Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South (1969) by Dan T. Carter was widely thought to be authoritative, but it wrongly asserted that Price and Bates were dead. An NBC TV movie, Judge Horton and the Scottsboro Boys (1976), asserted that the defense had proven that Price and Bates were prostitutes; both sued NBC over their portrayals. Bates died in 1976 in Washington state, where she lived with her carpenter husband, and her case was not heard. Price's case was initially dismissed but she appealed. When the US Supreme Court agreed to hear the case in 1977, Price disregarded the advice of her lawyer and accepted a settlement from NBC. She used the money to buy a house. Price died in 1983, in Lincoln County, Tennessee. Most residents of Scottsboro have acknowledged the injustice that started in their community. In January 2004, the town dedicated a historical marker in commemoration of the case at the Jackson County Court House. According to a news story, "An 87-year-old black man who attended the ceremony recalled that the mob scene following the Boys' arrest was frightening and that death threats were leveled against the jailed suspects. Speaking of the decision to install the marker, he said, 'I think it will bring the races closer together, to understand each other better. Sheila Washington founded the Scottsboro Boys Museum & Cultural Center in 2010 in Scottsboro. It is located in the former Joyce Chapel United Methodist Church and is devoted to exploring the case and commemorating the search for justice for its victims. 2013 pardon In early May 2013, the Alabama legislature cleared the path for posthumous pardons. On November 21, 2013, the Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles granted posthumous pardons to Weems, Wright and Patterson, the only Scottsboro Boys who had neither had their convictions overturned nor received a pardon. Governor Robert J. Bentley said to the press that day: While we could not take back what happened to the Scottsboro Boys 80 years ago, we found a way to make it right moving forward. The pardons granted to the Scottsboro Boys today are long overdue. The legislation that led to today's pardons was the result of a bipartisan, cooperative effort. I appreciate the Pardons and Parole Board for continuing our progress today and officially granting these pardons. Today, the Scottsboro Boys have finally received justice. Fates of the defendants Following his conviction, Haywood Patterson spent 13 years in prison. He escaped in 1949 and in 1950 was found in Michigan, but the governor refused to extradite him. He wrote a book about his experience, Scottsboro Boy. In 1951 he was convicted of manslaughter over stabbing someone in a bar fight and sentenced to prison, where he died of cancer in 1952. In 1936, Ozie Powell was involved in an altercation with a guard and shot in the face, suffering permanent brain damage. He was paroled in 1946 following his conviction for assault. He was reported to have died in Atlanta in 1974. Charlie Weems was paroled in 1943 after having been held in prison for a total of 12 years in some of Alabama's worst institutions. While Weems did end up getting married and working in a laundry in Atlanta, his eyes never recovered from being tear gassed while in prison. He was reported to have died not long after his release due to tuberculosis. Andy Wright was convicted and sentenced to 99 years. He was paroled and returned to prison after violating parole. He was paroled in New York State in 1950. By the mid-1950s, he seemed to have settled for good in Connecticut. He remained in contact with Clarence Norris for a few years and planned on Norris reuniting with younger brother Roy, but after Roy's death, Norris never saw Andy again. It is speculated after Roy's death that Andy returned to his hometown of Chattanooga to be with his mother Ada Wright. He died sometime in the 1960s, buried in an unmarked grave beside his brother. Clarence Norris was the only defendant finally sentenced to death. Governor Bibb Graves of Alabama in 1938 commuted his death sentence to life. Given parole in 1946, he "jumped" and went into hiding. In 1976 he was found in Brooklyn, New York, having married and had children. In 1970 he had begun seeking a pardon, with the help of the NAACP and Alabama's attorney, and Governor George Wallace pardoned him in 1976, declaring him "not guilty". Norris published an autobiography, The Last of the Scottsboro Boys (1979). He died of Alzheimer's disease on January 23, 1989. In 1937, the state dropped all charges for Willie Roberson, Olen Montgomery, Eugene Williams, and Roy Wright, who had already been in prison for six years. Roberson settled in Brooklyn and found steady work. He remained in contact with Montgomery throughout the years. While planning a visit with former cellmate Norris, it was discovered by the two men that Roberson died of an asthma attack in 1959, the week prior to their reunion. Olen Montgomery attempted a vaudeville career after being released from prison, but these plans never materialized. He drifted around in the North, working odd jobs and struggling with a drinking problem. He remained in contact with Clarence Norris, Willie Roberson, and the Wright brothers. After Roberson and Wright died in 1959, he told Norris he planned on returning to the south. He did so within the next year or so, and reportedly died in Alabama in 1975. Eugene Williams moved with family in St. Louis. His family planned on him going to Seminary school, but whether this happened is not certain. Where and when Eugene Williams settled and died is unknown. After Alabama freed Roy Wright, the Scottsboro Defense Committee took him on a national lecture tour. He later had a career in the US Army and Merchant Marine. In 1959, believing his wife had been unfaithful during his tour, he shot and killed her, and then shot himself. In 2013, the state of Alabama issued posthumous pardons for Patterson, Weems, and Andy Wright. In Popular Culture Literature African-American poet and playwright Langston Hughes wrote about the trials in his work Scottsboro Limited. The novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is about growing up in the Deep South in the 1930s. An important plot element concerns the father, attorney Atticus Finch, defending a Black man against a false accusation of rape. The trial in this novel is often characterized as based on the Scottsboro case. But Harper Lee said in 2005 that she had in mind something less sensational, although the Scottsboro case served "the same purpose" to display Southern prejudices. Ellen Feldman's Scottsboro: A Novel (2009) was shortlisted for the Orange Prize; it is a fictionalized account of the trial, told from the point of view of Ruby Bates and a fictional journalist, Alice Whittier. Richard Wright's 1940 novel Native Son (New York: Harper, 1940) was influenced by the Scottsboro Boys case. There is a parallel between the court scene in Native Son in which Max calls the "hate and impatience" of "the mob congregated upon the streets beyond the window" (Wright 386) and the "mob who surrounded the Scottsboro jail with rope and kerosene" after the Scottsboro boys' initial conviction. (Maxwell 132) The poet Allen Ginsberg references the Scottsboro Boys in his poem "America". The Harlem Renaissance-Poet Countee Cullen wrote about the injustice of the trial in his poem "Scottsboro, Too, Is, Worth Its Song". Music The American folk singer and songwriter Lead Belly commemorated the events in his song "The Scottsboro Boys". In the song, he warns "colored" people to watch out if they go to Alabama, saying that "the man gonna get ya", and that the "Scottsboro boys [will] tell ya what it's all about." Metal/Rap band Rage Against the Machine provides imagery of the Scottsboro Boys in their music video "No Shelter", along with imagery of the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti, two men who were also denied a fair trial in court and were executed by authorities. Film and television In 1976, NBC aired a TV movie called Judge Horton and the Scottsboro Boys, based on the case. In 1998, Court TV produced a television documentary on the Scottsboro trials for its Greatest Trials of All Time series. Daniel Anker and Barak Goodman produced the story of the Scottsboro Boys in the 2001 documentary Scottsboro: An American Tragedy, which received an Oscar nomination. Timothy Hutton starred in a 2006 film adaptation titled Heavens Fall. Theater Jean-Paul Sartre's 1946 play The Respectful Prostitute (La Putain respectueuse), in which a Black man is wrongfully blamed for an incident on a train involving a white prostitute, is believed to have been based on the Scottsboro case.The Scottsboro Boys is a staged musical portrayal of the Scottsboro case. The show premiered Off Broadway in February 2010 and moved to Broadway's Lyceum Theatre in October 2010. The show received good reviews, but closed on December 12, 2010.Hernandez, Ernio (February 12, 2010), "Stroman Brings New Musical The Scottsboro Boys to Off-Broadway" , Playbill, retrieved June 13, 2011. The musical opened in London's Young Vic Theatre in 2013 before moving to the Garrick Theatre in October 2014.Direct from Death Row The Scottsboro Boys, a Black ensemble vaudevillesque "play with music and masks" Mark Stein production, directed by Michael Menendian, and presented at Chicago's Raven Theatre during the 2015 and 2016 seasons. See also Scottsboro Boys Museum & Cultural Center Communist Party USA and African Americans False accusations of rape as justification for lynchings Martinsville Seven Willie McGee (convict) The Central Park Five Notes and references Notes References Acker, James R. (2007), Scottsboro and Its Legacy: The Cases That Challenged American Legal and Social Justice, Praeger, New York, Aretha, David (2008), The Trial of the Scottsboro Boys (The Civil Rights Movement), Greensboro, North Carolina: Morgan Reynolds Publishing. Carter, Dan T. (1979), Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, Goodman, James (1994), Stories of Scottsboro, Vintage Books, New York, Haskins, James (1994), The Scottsboro Boys, Henry Holt, New York, Linder, Douglas O., "Without Fear or Favor: Judge James Edwin Horton and the Trial of the 'Scottsville Boys, UMKC Law Review, 68, p. 549. James A. Miller, Susan D. Pennybacker, and Eve Rosenhaft, "Mother Ada Wright and the International Campaign to Free the Scottsboro Boys, 1931–1934", American Historical Review, vol. 106, no. 2 (April 2001), pp. 387–430. .In JSTOR Further reading Markovitz, Jonathan (2011). "'Exploding the Myth of the Black Rapist': Collective Memory and the Scottsboro Nine" in Racial Spectacles: Explorations in Media, Race, and Justice. New York: Routledge. Sorensen, Lita (2004). The Scottsboro Boys Trial: A Primary Source Account. New York: Rosen Publishing Group. Spears, Ellen. "'Rights Still Being Righted': Scottsboro Eighty Years Later", Southern Spaces'', June 16, 2011. External links Scottsboro by Michael J. Clarman, University of Virginia Law School Scottsboro Trials article in the Encyclopedia of Alabama Scottsboro Trial Collection, Cornell Law Library. A Scottsboro Chronology, University of Illinois To See Justice Done: Letters from the Scottsboro Boys Trials A digital exhibit by the Scottsboro Boys Museum & Cultural Center and the University of Alabama. Scottsboro Boys - Baylor University Scottsboro Boys Trial Clippings, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections 1931 in Alabama 1932 in Alabama 20th-century American trials African-American history of Alabama American prisoners sentenced to death Overturned convictions in the United States Prisoners sentenced to death by Alabama Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons Jackson County, Alabama False allegations of sex crimes Nonets History of racism in Alabama

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Malays%20National%20Organisation

United Malays National Organisation

The United Malays National Organisation (Malay: Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu; Jawi: ڤرتوبوهن‌ كبڠساءن ملايو برساتو), abbreviated UMNO (Jawi: امنو; ) or lesser known as PEKEMBAR (Jawi: ڤکمبر), is a political party in Malaysia. Often referred to as Malaysia's "Grand Old Party", it is a founding and dominant member of the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition which, with its predecessor the Alliance, has been the federal government of Malaysia and dominated the politics from independence in 1957 to its defeat in the general election in 2018. Until then and since 2021, all of Prime Ministers of Malaysia are members of UMNO, until Mahathir Mohamad became the first prime minister from Pakatan Harapan in 2018, and the first prime minister to have tenures with two different parties. Following Mahathir's resignation in 2020, the party subsequently rejoined the government with nine ministerial positions in the Muhyiddin cabinet, but 15 of its MPs withdrew their support, resulting in the collapse and dissolution of Muhyiddin cabinet on 16 August 2021. The party returned to the government and regained the Prime Minister position with the appointment of its Vice-president Ismail Sabri Yaakob to the position five days later on 21 August 2021. UMNO's goals are to uphold the aspirations of Malay nationalism and the concept of Ketuanan Melayu, as well as the dignity of race, religion and country. The party also aspires to protect the Malay culture as the national culture and to uphold, defend and expand Islam across Malaysia. In the 2018 UMNO leadership election, which was considered by many as crucial to the party's progression, former Deputy Prime Minister Ahmad Zahid Hamidi was elected UMNO president, defeating former UMNO Youth Chief Khairy Jamaluddin, and UMNO veteran Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. History After the British returned to Malaya in the aftermath of World War II, the Malayan Union was formed. However, the Union was met with much opposition due to its constitutional framework, which allegedly threatened Malay sovereignty over Malaya. A series of Malay congresses were held, culminating in the formation of the nationalist party, UMNO on 10 May 1946 at the Third Malay Congress in Johor Bahru, with Datuk Onn Jaafar as its leader. UMNO strongly opposed the Malayan Union, but originally did not seek political power. UMNO had no choice but continue playing a supporting role to the British colonial administration. The British cooperated with UMNO leaders and helped to defeat the communist insurgency. In 1949, after the Malayan Union had been replaced by the semi-autonomous Federation of Malaya, UMNO shifted its focus to politics and governance. According to at least one official school textbook published during UMNO's time in government, the party fought for other races once they were at the helm of the country. In 1951, Onn Jaafar left UMNO after failing to open its membership to non-Malay Malayans to form the Independence of Malaya Party. Tunku Abdul Rahman replaced Dato' Onn as UMNO President. In the following year, the Kuala Lumpur branch of UMNO formed an ad hoc and temporary electoral pact with the Selangor branch of Malayan Chinese Association to avoid contesting the same seats in the Kuala Lumpur municipal council elections. UMNO and MCA eventually carried nine out of the twelve seats, dealing a crushing blow to the IMP. After several other successes in local council elections, the coalition was formalised as an "Alliance" in 1954. In 1954, state elections were held. In these elections, the Alliance won 226 of the 268 seats nationwide. In the same year, a Federal Legislative Council was formed, comprising 100 seats. 52 would be elected, and the rest would be appointed by the British High Commissioner. The Alliance demanded that 60 of the seats be elected, but despite the Tunku flying out to London to negotiate, the British held firm. Elections for the council were held in 1955, and the Alliance, which had now expanded to include the Malayan Indian Congress, issued a manifesto stating its goals of achieving independence by 1959, requiring a minimum of primary school education for all children, protecting the rights of the Malay rulers as constitutional monarchs, ending the Communist emergency, and reforming the civil service through the hiring of more Malayans as opposed to foreigners. When the results were released, it emerged that the Alliance had won 51 of the 52 seats contested, with the other seat going to PAS (the Pan-Malayan Islamic Party, a group of Islamists that split from UMNO). The Tunku became the first Chief Minister of Malaya. Throughout this period, the Malayan Emergency had been on-going. The Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party (MCP), committed sabotage of the colonial occupation by disrupting transportation and communication networks, attacking police stations, burning down factories, with the goal of gaining independence for Malaya by making the British occupation too expensive to maintain. The British declared the MCP, along with several left-wing political groups, illegal in 1948. In 1955, the Alliance government together with the British High Commissioner declared an amnesty for the communist insurgents who surrendered. Representatives from the Alliance government also met with leaders of the MCP in an attempt to resolve the conflict peacefully, as their manifesto in the election stated. Chin Peng, the MCP Secretary-General, insisted that the MCP be allowed to contest elections and be declared a legal political party as a pre-condition to laying down arms. However, the Tunku rejected this, leading to an impasse. In 1956, the Tunku led a group of negotiators, comprising Alliance politicians and representatives of the Malay rulers, to London. There, they brokered a deal with the British for independence. The date of independence was set as 31 August 1957 on the condition that an independent commission is set up to draft a constitution for the country. The Alliance government was also required to avoid seizing British and other foreign assets in Malaya. A defence treaty would also be signed. The Reid Commission, led by Lord William Reid, was formed to draft the constitution. Although enshrining concepts such as federalism and a constitutional monarchy, the proposed constitution also contained provisions protecting special rights for the Malays, such as quotas in admission to higher education and the civil service, and making Islam the official religion of the federation. It also made Malay the official language of the nation, although the right to vernacular education in Chinese and Tamil would be protected. Although the Tunku and the Malay rulers had asked the Reid Commission to ensure that "in an independent Malaya all nationals should be accorded equal rights, privileges and opportunities and there must not be discrimination on grounds of race and creed," the Malay privileges, which many in UMNO backed, were cited as necessary by the Reid Commission as a form of affirmative action that would eventually be phased out. These measures were included as Articles 3, 152 and 153 of the Constitution. Independence was declared by the Tunku in Merdeka Stadium on 31 August 1957, marking a transition into a new era of Malayan and Malaysian politics. Independence In Malaya's first general elections in 1959, the Alliance coalition led by UMNO won 51.8% of the votes and captured 74 out of 104 seats, enough for a two-thirds majority in parliament, which would not only allow them to form the government again but amend the constitution at will. However, for the Alliance, the election was marred by internal strife when MCA leader Lim Chong Eu demanded his party be allowed to contest 40 of the 104 seats available. When the Tunku rejected this, many of Lim's supporters resigned, and ran in the election as independents, which cost the Alliance some seats. In 1961, the Tunku mooted the idea of forming a federation named "Malaysia", which would consist of the British colonies of Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak, and also the British Protectorate of Brunei. The reasoning behind this was that this would allow the federal government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would balance out the Singaporean Chinese majority, were also included. After much negotiation, a constitution was hammered out with some minor changes. For instance, the Malay privileges were now made available to all "Bumiputra", a group comprising the Malays and other indigenous peoples of Malaysia. However, the new states were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the original nine states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on 31 August 1963, consisting of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Brunei ultimately decided to opt out of the federation due in part to an armed revolt by the People's Party (Parti Rakyat Brunei) which objected to the formation of Malaysia, and the Sultan of Brunei Omar Ali Saifuddien III's demand that he be recognised as the most senior Malay ruler—a demand that was rejected. The Philippines and Indonesia strenuously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of neocolonialism and the Philippines claiming Sabah as its territory. The United Nations sent a commission to the region which approved the merger after having delayed the date of Malaysia's formation to investigate. Despite further protests from the Indonesian President, Sukarno, the formation of Malaysia was proclaimed on 16 September 1963. Indonesia then declared a "confrontation" with Malaysia, sending commandos to perform guerilla attacks in East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). The confrontation was ended when Suharto replaced Sukarno as president. The Philippines, which had withdrawn diplomatic recognition from Malaysia, also recognised Malaysia around the same time. To reflect the change of name to Malaysia, UMNO's coalition partners promptly altered their names to the Malaysian Chinese Association and the Malaysian Indian Congress. Several political parties in East Malaysia, especially Sarawak, also joined the Alliance to allow it to contest elections there. In the 1963 Singapore state elections, the Alliance decided to challenge Lee Kuan Yew's governing People's Action Party through the Singapore Alliance Party. UMNO politicians actively campaigned in Singapore for the Singapore Alliance, contending that the Singapore Malays were being treated as second-class citizens under the Chinese-dominated PAP government. All of the UMNO-backed Malay candidates lost to PAP candidates. UMNO Secretary-General Syed Jaafar Albar travelled to Singapore to address the Malay populace. At one rally, he called the PAP Malay politicians un-Islamic and traitors to the Malay race, greatly straining PAP-UMNO relations. The PAP politicians, who saw this as a betrayal of an earlier agreement with the Alliance not to contest elections in Malaysia and Singapore respectively, decided on running on the mainland in the 1964 general election. Although the PAP contested nine Parliamentary seats and attracted large crowds at its rallies, it won only one seat. The strain in race relations caused by the communal lines along which the political factions had been drawn led to the 1964 Race Riots in Singapore. Alliance leaders also were alarmed at Lee's behaviour, which they considered unseemly for the Chief Minister of a state. They thought he was acting as if he were the Prime Minister of a sovereign nation. Finance Minister Tan Siew Sin of the MCA labelled Lee as the "greatest, disruptive force in the entire history of Malaysia and Malaya." Lee now seemed determined to press forward politically and continue contesting elections nationwide, with the formation of the Malaysian Solidarity Council—a coalition of political parties which called for a "Malaysian Malaysia", duplicating the effort introduced earlier by Dato' Onn Ja'afar. On 7 August 1965, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, seeing no alternative to avoid further bloodshed, advised the Parliament of Malaysia that it should vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. Despite last-ditch attempts by PAP leaders, including Lee Kuan Yew, to keep Singapore as a state in the union, the Parliament on 9 August 1965 voted 126–0 in favour of the expulsion of Singapore. Tunku opened his speech in Parliament with the words, "In all the 10 years of my leadership of this House I have never had a duty so unpleasant as this to perform. The announcement which I am making concerns the separation of Singapore from the rest of the Federation." On that day, Lee Kuan Yew announced that Singapore was a sovereign independent nation and assumed the role of prime minister. After the separation and independence of Singapore in 1965, the Singapore branch of UMNO was renamed the Singapore Malay National Organisation (Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Singapura). Post-separation After the separation of Singapore from the Federation, the Alliance leaders focused on continuing its policies. One involved the Malay language, which was the official language of Malaysia. UMNO sought to reduce the reliance on English in government affairs. In this, it was aided by PAS, the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party, which backed special rights for the Bumiputra, and the strengthening of Islam's position in public affairs. However, the PAP's Malaysian branch, which had now become Democratic Action Party (DAP), took a very strong stance against this, and continued the expelled PAP's call for a "Malaysian Malaysia". In 1968, the newly formed Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia or Gerakan, led by Lim Chong Eu, also adopted the DAP's stance. Matters came to a head in the 1969 general election. When polling closed on the mainland peninsula (West Malaysia) on 10 May, it emerged the Alliance had won less than half of the popular vote, although it was assured of 66 out of 104 Parliamentary seats available. Much of the losses came from the MCA, thus straining relations between the two parties. However, the Alliance was dealt an even larger blow on the state level, losing control of Kelantan, Perak, and Penang. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) declared a national emergency after being advised by the national government to do so. Parliament was suspended, with a National Operations Council (NOC) led by Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak of UMNO, taking over the government. Further polling in East Malaysia as a continuation of the general election was also postponed indefinitely. Although the Cabinet still met under the Tunku as Prime Minister, his role was largely symbolic, with Tun Razak taking over the role of chief executive. UMNO backbencher Mahathir Mohamad, who had lost his Parliamentary seat in the election, wrote a letter to the Tunku criticising his leadership. Mahathir organised a campaign with University of Malaya lecturer Raja Muktaruddin Daim, circulating his letter among the student bodies of local universities. Mass demonstrations broke out calling for "Malay sovereignty" and the Tunku's ousting. After rioting broke out in June, Home Affairs Minister Ismail Abdul Rahman and Tun Razak agreed to expel Mahathir and former Executive Secretary of UMNO Musa Hitam from the party for breaching party discipline. The suspended elections in East Malaysia were held in 1970, and restored the Alliance government's two-thirds majority in parliament. On 31 August that year, the Tunku announced the national ideology of Rukunegara and his planned retirement as Prime Minister in favour of Tun Razak. He also stated Parliament would be restored the following year. The New Economic Policy After Tun Razak succeeded the Tunku in 1970, he began asserting UMNO's leadership in the Alliance more strongly. When the Tunku led the coalition, he had always consulted Alliance leaders regarding policy—if an Alliance leader objected, the policy was not passed. Under Tun Razak, UMNO was the base of the Alliance and thus the government. The NOC which he led until Parliament reconvened consisted of 7 Malays, one Chinese and one Indian. In Tun Razak's cabinet, the two most powerful men other than him were Ismail Abdul Rahman and Ghazali Shafie, who had declared the Westminster-style Parliamentary system inappropriate for Malaysia. Tun Razak also readmitted to the party "ultras" who had been expelled, like Mahathir and Musa Hitam. Mahathir gained notoriety after his expulsion from UMNO by authoring The Malay Dilemma, a book promptly banned from Malaysia, which posited that the Malays are the definitive people of Malaysia, and thus deserved special rights as the sovereign people of the nation. It also controversially argued that the Malays needed affirmative action to overcome deficiencies in their genetic stock. Hussein Onn, son of UMNO founder Dato' Onn Ja'afar, soon became a rising star in UMNO. After Ismail died suddenly of a heart attack in 1973, Hussein Onn succeeded him as Deputy Prime Minister. In the cabinet reshuffle that promoted Hussein Onn, Mahathir was given the key post of Minister for Education. The Tun Razak government announced the New Economic Policy in 1971. Its stated goal was to "eventually eradicate poverty... irrespective of race" through a "rapidly expanding economy" which emphasised to increase the Malays' share in the national economy to a reasonable portion between all the races. The NEP targeted a 30 per cent Malay share of the economy by 1990. The government contended that this would lead to a "just society" ("Masyarakat Adil"), the latter slogan being used to promote acceptance of the policy. Quotas in education and the civil service that the Constitution had explicitly provided for were expanded by the NEP, which also mandated government interference in the private sector. For instance, 30% of all shares in initial public offerings would be disbursed by the government to selective Bumiputras. The old civil service hiring quota of 4 Malays for every non-Malay's was effectively disregarded in practice; between 1969 and 1973, 98% of all new government employees were Malay. Five new universities were opened under the NEP, two of which were targeted to focus on the poor Malays and Muslim citizens. Tun Razak also began shoring up the government by bringing in several former opposition parties into the fold of the Alliance. Gerakan, PPP, PAS, and several former opposition parties in East Malaysia joined the coalition, which was renamed as Barisan Nasional. Barisan was formally registered as an organisation in 1974, the same year in which a general election was held. There had been much internal conflict in the National Front regarding the election; in 1973, Lim Keng Yaik and several supporters of his aggressive pro-Chinese stance left the MCA for Gerakan. This contributed to internal strife, as the MCA was no longer the sole representative of Chinese interests in the National Front. Discontent among student organisations in Malaysian universities soon posed a new problem for the UMNO-led government. However, Mahathir in his capacity as Minister for Education issued a stern warning to university students and faculty not to become involved in politics. However, after stories that children of rubber tappers had died after consuming poisonous wild yam due to poverty, university students reacted by staging the 1974 Baling demonstrations. The demonstrations resulted in the arrest of over 1,000 students, including Anwar Ibrahim who wasdetained under the Internal Security Act. In 1975, parliament passed amendments to the Universities and University Colleges Act which banned students from expressing support of or holding positions in any political party or trade union without written consent from the university's Vice-Chancellor. The act also banned political demonstrations from being held on university campuses. In 1976, however, mass demonstrations were held at the MARA Institute of Technology, protesting the UUCA. Mahathir then threatened to revoke the scholarships of the students, most of whom relied on public support to pay their way through university. BN was also challenged in Sarawak after the 1974 election, which saw the Sarawak National Party led by James Wong become tied with the DAP as the largest opposition party in Parliament, both of them holding nine seats each. SNAP had campaigned against BN on a platform of opposing Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub's pro-Malay policies, charging them with alienating the rural indigenous natives of Sarawak, such as the Iban. SNAP had been expelled from the Alliance in 1965 for supporting increased autonomy for Sarawak. In the aftermath of the election, Abdul Rahman ordered the detention of James Wong under the Sedition Act. SNAP elected a new leader, Leo Moggie, who secured the release of Wong and the entry of SNAP into BN in 1976. In Sabah, BN controlled the state government through the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO), which strongly backed UMNO's pro-Malay and pro-Islam policies. In 1973, Islam was made the official Sabah state religion (the official religion of Sabah was originally Christianity, as permitted by the agreement signed before the merger), and usage of indigenous languages such as those of the Kadazan people was discontinued in favour of the Malay language. The USNO Chief Minister, Mustapha Harun, was also known for favouring political patronage as a means of allocating valuable timber contracts, and living an extravagant lifestyle, being ferried to his A$1 million Queensland home by jets provided with Sabahan public funds. UMNO Baru (New UMNO) On 24 April 1987, UMNO held its Annual General Assembly and triennial Party election. The then Prime Minister and party President, Mahathir Mohamad, faced his first party election in 12 years, having been elected unopposed since the 1975 UMNO election. The politics of the Malays, particularly UMNO politics, had undergone a sea change in the first few years of the Mahathir stewardship, and the party presidency was challenged for the second time in 41 years. The first challenge was a dull affair in which Hussein Onn was opposed by a minor party official named Sulaiman Palestin. In fact, in the early 1950s, Tunku Abdul Rahman's presidency had also been challenged by C. M. Yusof, who later became the Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat, but Tunku was not properly considered an incumbent then, being only a care-taker president. The 1987 contest was a vastly different matter. Mahathir was opposed by his very popular former Finance Minister, Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. The press took to referring to Mahathir and his supporters as Team A, and Razaleigh's camp as Team B. Team B included then Deputy Prime Minister Tun Musa Hitam, who was also the incumbent Deputy President of UMNO seeking re-election, as well as Datuk Suhaimi Kamaruddin, the former head of UMNO Youth and president of the Belia 4B youth organisation. Team B was critical of Mahathir's policies, arguing that the Malaysian New Economic Policy had failed to benefit the poor Malays. It also criticised Mahathir's leadership style, alleging he acted unilaterally without consulting other leaders in UMNO and the Barisan Nasional. Team B was also perceived as less Islamist than Mahathir's faction. Mahathir claimed that the charges against him were groundless, and suggested that his opponents were fracturing Malay unity and were only motivated by greed. Eventually, Mahathir was returned to office. However, he was elected with such a small majority of 43 (761 against 718 votes) that questions were immediately raised about his mandate. Team B supporters, many of whom had been anticipating a victory of similar margins, suspected that the election had been fixed. The Team B candidate for Deputy President, Musa Hitam, had also been defeated by Ghafar Baba of Team A, while two of the three vice-presidents were Team A candidates. The Supreme Council comprised 16 Team A candidates and 9 Team B candidates. Allegations were made that several delegates who had voted were drawn from UMNO branches not properly registered. There were also several unproved allegations being bandied about that the balloting process had not been above board. Nevertheless, Razaleigh pledged to support Mahathir, provided that a "witch hunt" was not launched. However, Mahathir promptly purged the government cabinet of all Team B members, and launched similar reshuffles in state and local governments. On 25 June 1987, an appeal was filed by 12 of the UMNO delegates to have the assembly and the election of April 1987 declared null. After one of the delegates, Hussain bin Manap, withdrew unexpectedly in August from filing the appeal, the remaining litigants have since become famous as the "UMNO 11." Although Razaleigh and Musa Hitam were not among the plaintiffs, it was widely believed that Razaleigh was funding the appeal. After a series of interlocutory hearings over the discovery of documents that took more than seven months, the matter finally came before Justice Harun Hashim in the Kuala Lumpur High Court on 4 February 1988. The judge ruled that under the existing law he had no option but to find the party, UMNO, to be an unlawful society due to the existence of several unregistered branches—an illegal act under the Societies Act of 1966. The question of the Assembly itself being illegal therefore became academic. "'It is a very hard decision to declare UMNO unlawful,' said Justice Datuk Harun Hashim in his February 4 judgement. 'But the law was made by our Parliament and certainly UMNO was aware [of the Societies Act] because they were in the majority [in Parliament] at all times [when the law was made].' Under the 1966 Act, amended five times over the years, and most recently by Mahathir's government, each of the society's branches has to register separately with the Registrar...." The Tunku and former UMNO President Hussein Onn set up a new party called UMNO Malaysia, which claimed to be the successor to the old UMNO. UMNO Malaysia was supported mainly by members of the Team B faction from UMNO, but Mahathir was also invited to join the party leadership. However, the party collapsed after the Registrar of Societies refused to register it as a society without providing an explanation. Mahathir showed no interest in reviving UMNO, and instead he set in motion the machinery to form a new surrogate party, and in due course, registered a party formally called Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (Baru) or UMNO (New) a week after UMNO Malaysia's registration was rejected. Eventually the suffix "(New)" was dropped, and UMNO (Baru) became both the de facto and de jure successor of original UMNO, dropping the 'Baru' suffix with the old UMNO's assets handed over. Most of its leaders, however, were selected from Team A of the old UMNO, with Team B ignored. In 10th general election in 1999, rocked by the arrest and trial of former UMNO deputy Anwar Ibrahim and the subsequent formation of the Barisan Alternatif opposition coalition, UMNO's share dipped to 54% of the vote and 102 out of 144 seats. Post-Mahathir After Mahathir stepped down as President of UMNO in 2003, he was replaced by his designated successor, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, who by virtue of his new position also became Prime Minister of Malaysia. Najib Razak, the son of Tun Abdul Razak, took over as the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia. In the 11th general election in 2004, Barisan Nasional, under Abdullah's leadership, enjoyed a landslide victory. However, in the 12th general election in 2008, the coalition for the first time fell short of a two-thirds majority in the Parliament. UMNO Chief Ministers were ousted in the states of Selangor, Perak, Penang and Kedah. As a result, Abdullah resigned as President of UMNO and Prime Minister in 2009. He was succeeded by Najib. Under Najib's leadership, UMNO gained a total of 9 seats in the 13th general election and retook the state of Kedah. On 9 May 2018, Mahathir and the Pakatan Harapan coalition won the 14th General Election ending UMNO's 61 year long rule as part of the Alliance and later Barisan Nasional coalition. UMNO experienced a mass exodus of rank-and-file members, state chiefs, as well as Members of Parliament in favour of Mahathir's Bersatu and regionalist parties such as Parti Warisan Sabah in the months after the election. In September 2019, UMNO decided to form a pact with the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party called Muafakat Nasional. Its main purpose is to unite the Malay Muslim communities for electoral purposes. There is however no formal agreement with the other parties of Barisan Nasional, although there are calls for Barisan Nasional to migrate to Muafakat Nasional. Barisan Nasional continued to function as a coalition of four parties comprising UMNO, MCA, MIC and PBRS, but aligned themselves with Perikatan Nasional to form a new government in March 2020 after the collapse of the Pakatan Harapan government. On 23 February 2020,Muafakat Nasional pact of UMNO and Parti Islam Se-Malaysia held extraordinary meetings in Janda Baik, Pahang, UMNO's supreme council at Putra World Trade Centre. UMNO President, Ahmad Zahid Hamidi went to the Istana Negara in the evening to seek an audience with the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. After the meeting, several opposition party leaders, including UMNO Vice President Ismail Sabri Yaakob joined Azmin's supporters at Sheraton Hotel. On 25 February, Following the first round of interviews, UMNO and PAS revealed that they have withdrawn their supports given earlier for Mahathir to continue as prime minister, and had instead called for parliament dissolution. It was previously reported that as all political factions voiced their support for Mahathir, he was about to establish a "unity government" that the two parties could not agree with. Annuar Musa, UMNO's secretary-general, said the basis of negotiations with Mahathir was that UMNO and PAS would lend their support to form an alternative coalition without DAP. Therefore, both PAS and UMNO declared their support for a snap election instead. On 28 February, All the Muafakat Nasional MPs signed the new SD proposing Muhyiddin Yassin to be the 8th Prime Minister. BERSATU President Muhyiddin Yassin and his allies including party leaders from UMNO, PAS, Gabungan Parti Sarawak, Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah, and Homeland Solidarity Party had an audience with the Agong. He also announced that his coalition consisting of Bersatu, UMNO, PAS, PBRS, GPS, and STAR will be called Perikatan Nasional. On 30 June, Salleh Said Keruak, former Sabah Minister Chief & former UMNO member canceled his application to join PKR after thinking deeply and taking into account today's political landscape including PKR's internal turmoil. He said, the decision was made last April and with the cancellation he remained non-partisan since leaving UMNO in 2018. Previously, Salleh applied to join PKR in October last year. On 24 July Zakaria Arshad, former CEO of FGV announced his departure from AMANAH to join UMNO. He said, the decision was made after he saw that the vision and objectives of Amanah were getting lost and not in line with his current position. In Muhyiddin cabinet, which formed on 10 March 2020, six UMNO MP's became Ministers & eight UMNO MP's became Deputy Ministers. On 8 July 2021, the UMNO made an official announcement to withdrew its supports towards the Muhyiddin government, citing the mismanagement of the COVID-19, the misuse of Emergency Declaration, and so on. On 21 August 2021, Ismail Sabri was formally appointed and sworn in as the ninth prime minister of Malaysia. Ideology UMNO overtly represents the Malays of Malaysia, although any Bumiputra (indigenous Malaysian, a category which includes people such as the non-Malay and usually non-Muslim Kadazan, Iban, Dayak, etc. of East Malaysia) may join the party. The party propagates Ketuanan Melayu, the concept that the Bumiputra, including ethnic Malays, enjoy a special status within the country by virtue of their earlier settlement of the lands that now form Malaysia and as a result of the recognition of Malays in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia. Controversies Challenge to UMNO's right to exist Every year, UMNO is obliged to hold the General Assembly to extend their rule according to the Clauses set by the Registry of Societies (RoS) Malaysia. And once every five years, UMNO is obliged to appoint their highest bodies. The last time UMNO held the election of the highest division and council level was on 19 October 2013. So the new election was supposed to be held on 19 April 2018. Their application for the postponement of the election until 19 October 2019 has to be approved by RoS in accordance with Clause 10.16. But critics have claimed that this is illegal and supposedly the existence of an UMNO organisation is banned. 1MDB Media reports from June 2018 indicated that the MACC froze bank accounts associated with UMNO, purportedly in relation to investigations into the 1MDB controversy. List of leaders President Wanita Chief Pemuda Chief Puteri Chief Structure and membership Current office bearer Official source Chairman of Advisory Council: Vacant Permanent Chairman: Badruddin Amiruldin Deputy Permanent Chairman: Vacant President: Ahmad Zahid Hamidi Deputy President: Mohamad Hasan Noraini Ahmad Vice-president: Ismail Sabri Yaakob Mohamed Khaled Nordin Mahdzir Khalid Women Chief: Noraini Ahmad Youth Chief: Asyraf Wajdi Dusuki Women's Youth Chief: Zahida Zarik Khan Secretary-General: Ahmad Maslan Treasurer-General: Tengku Adnan Tengku Mansor Information Chief: Shahril Sufian Hamdan Executive Secretary: Mohd Sumali Reduan Election Director: Mohamad Hasan State Chairman: Perlis : Azlan Man Kedah : Jamil Khir Baharom Kelantan : Ahmad Jazlan Yaakub Terengganu : Ahmad Said Penang : Musa Sheikh Fadzir Perak : Saarani Mohamad Pahang : Wan Rosdy Wan Ismail Selangor : Noh Omar Federal Territory : Johari Abdul Ghani Negeri Sembilan : Mohamad Hasan Melaka : Sulaiman Md Ali Johor : Hasni Mohammad Sabah : Bung Moktar Radin Supreme Council Members (elected): Zambry Abdul Kadir Shamsul Anuar Nasarah Reezal Merican Naina Merican Mohd Sharkar Shamsudin Razali Ibrahim Abdul Rahman Dahlan Azalina Othman Said Md Alwi Che Ahmad Bung Moktar Radin Rosnah Abdul Rashid Shirlin Noh Omar Abdul Azeez Abdul Rahim Ahmad Shabery Cheek Jamil Khir Baharom Fathul Bari Mat Jahya Azian Osman Khaidiriah Abu Zahar Ahmad Maslan Ahmad Jazlan Yaakub Jalaluddin Alias Hasni Mohammad Zahidi Zainul Abidin Suraya Yaacob Supreme Council Members (appointed): Norliza Abdul Rahim Rais Mohd Yassin Nurul Amal Mohd Fauzi Tajuddin Abdul Rahman Johan Abdul Aziz Abdul Rahman Mohamad Arman Azha Abu Hanifah Rosni Sohar Mohd Puad Zarkashi Shaik Hussein Mydin Yakubah Khan Mohd Razlan Muhammad Rafii Annuar Musa Ismail Lasim Rizam Ismail Supreme Council Members (in attending): Musa Sheikh Fadzir Saarani Mohamad Wan Rosdy Wan Ismail Johari Abdul Ghani Ab Rauf Yusoh Azlan Man Elected representatives Dewan Negara (Senate) Senators Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) Members of Parliament of the 14th Malaysian Parliament UMNO has 38 MPs in the House of Representatives. Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislative Assembly) Malacca State Legislative Assembly Pahang State Legislative Assembly Perlis State Legislative Assembly Perak State Legislative Assembly Negeri Sembilan State Legislative Assembly Terengganu State Legislative Assembly Johor State Legislative Assembly Kelantan State Legislative Assembly Selangor State Legislative Assembly Kedah State Legislative Assembly Penang State Legislative Assembly Sabah State Legislative Assembly Sarawak State Legislative Assembly UMNO state governments General election results State election results </div> Notes References Sources Welsh, B (ed). The End of UMNO?: Essays on Malaysia's dominant party (SIRD, 2016) Chin, James. "Going East: UMNO's entry into Sabah Politics". Asian Journal of Political Science, Vol 7, No 1 (June) 1999, pp. 20–40. Goh, Jenny (23 July 1997). "Small spark can create big mess". Straits Times. Kamarudin, Raja Petra (7 November 2005). "The stuff politicians are made of". Malaysia Today. Pillai, M.G.G. (3 November 2005). "National Front parties were not formed to fight for Malaysian independence". Malaysia Today. Ibrahim Mahmood (1981) Sejarah Perjuangan UMNO, Penerbitan Antara Kuala Lumpur External links Political parties established in 1946 Political parties in Malaysia 1946 establishments in British Malaya Ethnic political parties Defunct political parties in Singapore Identity politics National conservative parties Social conservative parties

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost%20in%20Translation%20%28film%29

Lost in Translation (film)

Lost in Translation is a 2003 romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Sofia Coppola. Bill Murray stars as Bob Harris, a fading American movie star who is having a midlife crisis when he travels to Tokyo to promote Suntory whisky. There, he befriends another estranged American named Charlotte, a young woman and recent college graduate played by Scarlett Johansson. Giovanni Ribisi and Anna Faris also feature. The film explores themes of alienation and disconnection against a backdrop of cultural displacement in Japan. Further analysis by critics and scholars has focused on the film's defiance of mainstream narrative conventions and its atypical depiction of romance. Coppola started writing the film after spending time in Tokyo and becoming fond of the city. She began forming a story about two characters experiencing a "romantic melancholy" in the Park Hyatt Tokyo, where she stayed while promoting her first feature film, the 1999 drama The Virgin Suicides. Coppola envisioned Murray playing the role of Bob Harris from the beginning and tried to recruit him for up to a year, relentlessly sending him telephone messages and letters. While Murray eventually agreed to play the part, he did not sign a contract; Coppola spent a quarter of the film's $4 million budget without knowing if he would appear in Tokyo for shooting. When Murray finally arrived, Coppola described feelings of significant relief. Principal photography began on September 29, 2002, and lasted 27 days. Coppola kept a flexible schedule during filming with a small crew and minimal equipment. The screenplay was short and Coppola often allowed a significant amount of improvisation during filming. The film's director of photography, Lance Acord, used available light as often as possible and many Japanese places of business and public areas were used as locations for shooting. After 10 weeks of editing, Coppola sold distribution rights for the United States and Canada to Focus Features, and the company promoted the film by generating positive word of mouth before its theatrical release. The film premiered on August 29, 2003, at the Telluride Film Festival and was a major critical and commercial success. Critics praised the performances of Murray and Johansson, as well as the writing and direction of Coppola; limited criticism was given to the film's depiction of Japan. At the 76th Academy Awards, Lost in Translation won Coppola Best Original Screenplay, and the film was also nominated for Best Picture, Best Director (Coppola), and Best Actor (Murray). Other accolades won include three Golden Globe Awards and three British Academy Film Awards. Plot Bob Harris is a fading American movie star who arrives in Tokyo to appear in lucrative advertisements for Suntory whisky. He stays at the upscale Park Hyatt Tokyo and is suffering from strains in his 25-year marriage and a midlife crisis. Charlotte, another American staying at the hotel, is a young Yale University graduate who is accompanying her husband John while he works as a celebrity photographer in Japan. Charlotte is feeling similarly disoriented as she questions her recent marriage and is unsure about her future. They both grapple with additional feelings of jet lag and culture shock in Tokyo and often pass the time lounging around the hotel. Charlotte is repelled by a vacuous Hollywood actress named Kelly, who is also at the Park Hyatt, promoting an action film. She bumps into Charlotte and John, gushing over photography sessions she has previously done with him. Bob and Charlotte frequently happen across each other in the hotel and eventually introduce themselves in the hotel bar. After several encounters, when John is on assignment outside Tokyo, Charlotte invites Bob into the city to meet some local friends. They bond through a fun night in Tokyo, where they experience the city nightlife together. In the days that follow, Bob and Charlotte spend more time together, and their friendship strengthens. One night, while each cannot sleep, the two share an intimate conversation about Charlotte's personal uncertainties and their married lives. Bob spends the night with a lounge singer from the hotel bar on the penultimate night of his stay. Charlotte hears the woman singing in Bob's room the next morning, leading to tension between Bob and Charlotte during lunch together later that day. The pair reencounter each other in the evening when Bob reveals that he will be leaving Tokyo the following day. Bob and Charlotte reconcile and express how they will miss each other, making a final visit to the hotel bar. The next morning, when Bob is leaving the hotel, he and Charlotte share sincere but unsatisfactory goodbyes. On Bob's taxi ride to the airport, he sees Charlotte on a crowded street, stops the car, and walks to her. He then embraces her and whispers something in her ear. The two share a kiss, say goodbye, and Bob departs. Cast Bill Murray as Bob Harris, a fading movie star Scarlett Johansson as Charlotte, a recent college graduate Giovanni Ribisi as John, Charlotte's husband, a celebrity photographer Anna Faris as Kelly, a Hollywood actress Fumihiro Hayashi as Charlie, Charlotte's friend Catherine Lambert as a lounge singer Analysis Themes The film's writer-director, Sofia Coppola, has described Lost in Translation as a story about "things being disconnected and looking for moments of connection", a perspective that has been shared by critics and scholars. In a cultural sense, Bob and Charlotte are disoriented by feelings of jet lag and culture shock as a result of foreign travel to Japan. Bob is bewildered by his interactions with a Japanese commercial director whom he cannot understand, realizing that the meaning of his communication is "lost in translation" by an interpreter. Moreover, both are sleepless from a change in time zone, choosing to cope with their wakefulness by making late-night visits to the hotel bar. Such feelings provoke a sense of estrangement from their environment, but they also exacerbate deeper experiences of alienation and disconnection in their lives. Bob and Charlotte are both in troubled marriages and facing similar crises of identity; Charlotte is unsure of what to do with her life and questions what role she should embrace in the world, while Bob is invariably reminded of his fading stature as a movie star and feels disassociated from the identity by which he is already defined. Such experiences are heightened by the characters' contact with the city environment of Tokyo; Bob feels alienated by seeing his likeness used in an advertisement while he is driven from the airport to his hotel, and the colorful cityscape is rendered as a frenetic environment by which he is overwhelmed. Charlotte feels adrift as she attempts to find meaning while wandering Tokyo, and she feels isolated as she peers over the city from her hotel room window. The Park Hyatt Tokyo offers hermetic qualities that insulate the characters from the city and is the site Bob chooses to seek refuge from his ails. These shared impressions of alienation create common ground for Bob and Charlotte to cultivate a personal connection. When Charlotte invites Bob to experience the Tokyo nightlife, she reduces his sense of distance from the city and the two develop a connection based on small moments together. In the little time they have together, each realize they are not alone in seeking a sense of something deeper in their lives. Coppola, speaking about the brief nature of their encounter, remarked, "For everyone, there are those moments when you have great days with someone you wouldn't expect to. Then you have to go back to your real lives, but it makes an impression on you. It's what makes it so great and enjoyable." Geoff King, a scholar who wrote a book about the film, comments that the experiences of the central characters are one factor that lends Lost in Translation to varied interpretations by academics. Todd McGowan reads the film from a Lacanian psychoanalytic perspective, arguing that the film encourages the embrace of "absence" in one's life and relationships. He describes Coppola's depiction of Tokyo "as a city bubbling over with excess", which offers an empty promise of gratification. In his view, both Bob and Charlotte recognize that they cannot find meaning in Tokyo's attractions, so they bond over their shared sense of emptiness in them. Lucy Bolton offers a feminist reading, arguing that Lost in Translation evokes the thought of feminist philosopher Luce Irigaray by highlighting issues of young womanhood. She argues that the film provides a complex portrait of Charlotte's female subjectivity and an optimistic rendering of the character's pursuit for individual expression. Narrative Lost in Translation has been broadly examined in terms of its narrative structure, with commentators noting that it contains few plot events as compared with films in the Hollywood mainstream. Narrative events are mostly focused on the development of Bob and Charlotte's relationship, with few "external" obstacles that impact the central characters. King notes, "More time is taken to evoke the impressions, feelings, and experiences of the central characters", which represents "a shift in the hierarchical arrangement of [film elements]" that prioritizes character experiences over plot. The literary critic Steve Vineberg argues that "the links of the story are indeed there, only they're not typical cause-and-effect connections. They're formed by the emotions that gather at the end of one episode and pour into the next". King maintains that while the plot does progress according to a basic linear causality, "If the episodic quality often seems to the fore, this is partly a matter of the pacing of individual sequences that are very often leisurely and dedicated to the establishment or development of mood and atmospherics". Coppola said she wanted the story to emphasize the qualities of an intimate moment, and she did not want to impose grandiose narrative devices on the characters such as "a war keeping them apart". The film's opening shot has been another point of discussion among critics and scholars. The 36-second shot, which features Charlotte's backside as she lies on a bed wearing transparent pink panties, is based on the photorealist paintings of John Kacere and has often been compared to the initial appearance of Brigitte Bardot in the 1963 film Contempt. While some have described it as a foreshadowing of a romance between Bob and Charlotte, the film historian Wendy Haslem argues that "Coppola's intention with this opening shot appears to be to defy taboos and to undermine expectations surrounding what might be considered the 'money shot' in more traditionally exploitative cinema." Correspondingly, the academic Maria San Filippo maintains that "[Coppola] doesn't seem to be making a statement at all beyond a sort of endorsement of beauty for beauty's sake." King notes that the image contains both "subtle" and "obvious" appeal in its combination of aesthetic and erotic qualities, which signifies Lost in Translations position between mainstream and independent film. The film scholar Todd Kennedy interprets it in terms of feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey's conception of the male gaze, arguing that the shot "lasts so long as to become awkward—forcing the audience to become aware of (and potentially even question) their participation in the gaze." Lost in Translation has also been noted for defying the conventions of mainstream romantic films. Haslem writes that the classic romantic comedy assures the audience that the couple has a future, but Coppola defies expectations by refusing to unite the central characters. She points to elements such as Bob and Charlotte's lack of sexual consummation as one factor that obscures whether their pairing is more romantic or platonic. Writing about the concluding sequence in which the characters make their final goodbyes, Haslem argues, "Conventionally in mainstream cinema, the kiss... signifies resolution by reinforcing the myth of romantic love. But in this new wave of contemporary anti-romance romance, the kiss signifies ambiguity." The academic Nicholas Y.B. Wong contends that the film's lack of "heart-melting connections and melodramatic (re)unions between characters" represents a postmodern portrait of love, writing that Lost in Translation is "about non-love, the predominance of affairs and the complexities of intimacy. Characters vacillate between falling in love and out of love. They are neither committed to someone nor emotionally unattached." Coppola said Bob and Charlotte's relationship is "supposed to be romantic but on the edge.... [A] little bit more than friends but not an actual romance.... To me, it's pretty un-sexual between them—innocent and romantic, and a friendship." Production Writing After dropping out of college in her early twenties, Coppola often traveled to Tokyo, trying out a variety of jobs in fashion and photography. Unsure of what to do for a career, she described this period as a "kind of crisis" in which she meandered around the city contemplating her future. She came to feel fond of Tokyo, noting an otherworldly quality brought on as a foreigner grappling with feelings of jet lag in an unfamiliar setting. After many years, she settled on a career in filmmaking and returned to the city, staying at the Park Hyatt Tokyo to promote her first feature film, the 1999 drama The Virgin Suicides. Coppola began writing Lost in Translation after returning home from this press tour. Having been influenced by her background in Tokyo, she resolved to write a screenplay set there and began forming a story about two characters experiencing a "romantic melancholy" in the Park Hyatt Tokyo. Coppola was long attracted to the neon signs of the city and envisaged Tokyo taking on a "dreamy feeling" in the film. She recruited her friend Brian Reitzell, who ultimately served as the film's music producer, to create dream pop compilation mixes that she listened to while writing to help establish this mood. Coppola did not initially write the screenplay in traditional script form, citing the difficulty of mapping out a full plot. Instead, she opted to write "little paragraphs" largely based on disparate impressions and experiences of her life in Tokyo, which she then adapted to a script. Among the first images she included was of her friend Fumihiro Hayashi performing a karaoke rendition of the Sex Pistols' "God Save the Queen", which Coppola saw him perform during the time she worked in Tokyo. After writing the first 20 pages with help from her brother, Roman Coppola, she returned to Tokyo for further inspiration. There, she videotaped anything she could use as a further writing aid. Coppola envisioned Murray playing the role of Bob from the beginning, wanting to show off "his more sensitive side" and feeling amused by the image of him dressed in a kimono. She described her mental pictures of Murray as a significant source of inspiration for the story. For the character of Charlotte, Coppola drew from her own feelings of early-twenties disorientation, citing the strain in her relationship with her then-husband Spike Jonze as an influence for the relationship between Charlotte and John. She also drew inspiration from J. D. Salinger's character Franny in Franny and Zooey, finding appeal in "the idea of a preppy girl having a breakdown". As she developed the relationship between Bob and Charlotte, Coppola was compelled by the juxtaposition of the characters having similar internal crises at different stages of their lives. She cited the dynamic between Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall in The Big Sleep as a source of inspiration for their relationship. Coppola reported doing little re-writing of the script, which took six months to complete and culminated in 75 pages, much shorter than the average feature film script. Despite worrying that the screenplay was too short and "indulgent" for including assortments of her personal experiences, she resolved to begin production of the film. Development Coppola maintained that she would not have made Lost in Translation without Murray. The actor had an 800 number for prospective clients interested in casting him, but he had a reputation as a recluse who was difficult to contact. Coppola relentlessly pursued him and sent telephone messages and letters for months. She also sought people in her professional network that might help her make contact. She recruited screenwriter Mitch Glazer, who was a longtime friend of Murray's, to accept an early version of the script and try to persuade him. Glazer was impressed with the story and said he called the actor frequently, telling him, "You need to read this", but he would not provide an answer. After up to a year of cajoling, Murray finally agreed to meet with Coppola at a restaurant to discuss the film. He then accepted the role, saying "she spent a lot of time getting me to be the guy. In the end, I felt I couldn't let her down." Despite Murray's agreement, Coppola had to take him at his word, as he did not sign a formal contract. She described this as "nerve-wracking", wondering if he would show up for filming in Tokyo. She discussed the issue with director Wes Anderson, who had previously worked with the actor and encouraged her, saying, "If he says he's going to do it, he'll show up." For Murray's co-star, Coppola liked Johansson's performance in Manny & Lo, remembering her "as a cute little girl with that husky voice". She then invited Johansson to a restaurant to discuss the role. Initially worried that the 17-year-old Johansson might be too young to play a character in her twenties, the director concluded that she appeared older and could convincingly play the part. Coppola offered Johansson the role without an audition, which she accepted. Feeling a sense of personal investment in the project, Coppola wanted to maintain final cut privilege and feared that a distribution deal with a North American studio would threaten her influence. It was also unlikely that a studio would provide such backing, given the short length of the screenplay and Murray's lack of formal involvement. Instead, she and her agent opted to sell foreign distribution rights to an assortment of companies to fund production costs of $4 million. She struck a deal first with Japan's Tohokushinsha Film, then with distributors in France and Italy, and finally with the international arm of Focus Features for the remaining foreign market. By piecing together the funding from multiple distributors, Coppola reduced the influence of any single financier. Still not knowing if Murray would show up in Tokyo, Coppola spent $1 million of the budget, knowing that his absence would doom the production. When he finally arrived, days before filming, she described feelings of significant relief. Filming Principal photography began on September 29, 2002, and lasted 27 days. With a tight schedule and a limited $4 million budget, filming was done six days per week and was marked by a "run-and-gun" approach: Coppola was keen to stay mobile with a small crew and minimal equipment. She conducted few rehearsals and kept a flexible schedule, sometimes scrapping filming plans to shoot something she noticed on location if she thought it better served the story. Since the screenplay was sparse, missing details were often addressed during shooting, and Coppola allowed a significant amount of improvisation in dialogue, especially from Murray. One example includes the scene in which Bob is being photographed for Suntory whisky; Coppola encouraged Murray to react to the photographer spontaneously as she whispered names for the man to repeat to Murray as unrehearsed dialogue, such as "Roger Moore". While key crew members were Americans that Coppola invited to Tokyo, most of the crew was hired locally. This proved to be challenging for the production, as most of the Japanese crew could not communicate with Coppola in English, so both sides relied on translations from a bilingual assistant director and a gaffer. The production encountered frequent delays while translations took place and suffered from occasional cultural misunderstandings; in one example, Coppola described a shoot in a restaurant that ran 10–15 minutes late, something she said was normal on an American shoot, but it prompted the restaurant owner to feel disrespected; he subsequently disconnected the crew's lights and the film's Japanese location manager resigned. Despite this, Coppola said she worked to adapt to a Japanese style of filmmaking, not wanting to impose an approach that her crew was not used to. Coppola worked closely to visualize the film with her director of photography, Lance Acord. She showed him and other key crew members a book of photographs she created that represented the visual style she wanted to convey in the film. To evoke a sense of isolation in Bob, Coppola and Acord used stationary shots in the hotel and avoided conspicuous camera movements. They also had numerous discussions about shooting on video, but they ultimately decided that film better suited the romantic undertones of the story. Coppola remarked, "Film gives a little bit of a distance, which feels more like a memory to me. Video is more present tense". Acord believed that new film stocks would reduce the need for excessive lighting, ultimately using Kodak Vision 500T 5263 35 mm stock for night exteriors and Kodak Vision 320T 5277 stock in daylight. Most of the film was shot on an Aaton 35-III while a smaller Moviecam Compact was used in confined locations. With high-speed film stocks, Acord chose to utilize available light as often as possible, only supplementing with artificial lights when necessary. He reported "never really" rigging lights for night exteriors, relying on the natural light on Tokyo's city streets. For interior sequences in the Park Hyatt Tokyo, he relied mostly on the hotel's practical lighting sources, shooting at a wide open f-stop and heavily cutting the light to eliminate reflections in the hotel window. Acord said he heard objections about lighting from some of the Japanese electricians, who were unaccustomed to relying so much on available light and were concerned that the exposure would not be sufficient. Acord, assured that the film stocks would hold up against lower lighting, ultimately shot much of the film two stops underexposed. Many of the shooting locations were Japanese places of business and public areas at the time of filming, including New York Bar in the Park Hyatt Tokyo and Shibuya Crossing in Tokyo. On public streets and subways, the production did not secure filming permits and relied on city bystanders as extras; Coppola described the shooting as "documentary-style" and was worried at times about getting stopped by police, so she kept a minimal crew. In the hotel, the production was not allowed to shoot in public areas until 1 or 2 a.m. to avoid disturbing guests. In the film's concluding sequence in which Bob and Charlotte make their final goodbyes, Coppola reported being unhappy with the dialogue she had scripted, so Murray improvised the whisper in Johansson's ear. Too quiet to be understandable, Coppola considered dubbing audio in the scene, but she ultimately decided it was better that it "stays between the two of them". After production concluded, Coppola supervised 10 weeks of editing by Sarah Flack in New York City. Soundtrack The film's soundtrack was released by Emperor Norton Records on September 9, 2003. It contains 15 tracks, largely from the shoegaze and dream pop genres of indie and alternative rock. The soundtrack was supervised by Brian Reitzell and contains songs from artists and groups including Death in Vegas, Phoenix, Squarepusher, Sébastien Tellier, and Happy End. The Jesus and Mary Chain's song "Just Like Honey" and "Sometimes" by My Bloody Valentine featured, and four original tracks were written for Lost in Translation by the latter band's frontman, Kevin Shields. Other tracks produced for the film include two co-written by Reitzell and Roger Joseph Manning Jr., and one by Air. Songs featured in the film that are not in the soundtrack include karaoke performances of Elvis Costello's cover of "(What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love, and Understanding" and The Pretenders' "Brass in Pocket". A further performance by Murray of Roxy Music's "More Than This" is included as a bonus track. During the screenwriting stage, Coppola spoke to Reitzell about the "moody" and "melancholic" qualities she wanted the music to convey in the film, as well as what Reitzell understood to be the "strange, floating, jet-lagged weirdness" that would define the central characters. Coppola said she wanted the soundtrack "to be less like a score" and more like the dream-pop mixes Reitzell made to assist her writing of the film. While Shields had released little music since the release of Loveless in 1991, at Reitzell's suggestion, he and Coppola enlisted him to help write original music for the film; Reitzell believed Shields "could capture that droning, swaying, beautiful kind of feeling that we wanted." He then joined Shields in London for some two months of overnight recording sessions, and they used the screenplay and dailies from production as inspiration while they worked on songs for the film. Shields commented on the challenge he felt in songwriting for a film, saying "I was barely aware of the language of music that's not essentially just for your ears. ... In the end, just the physical movement of the film, that was a delicacy. And I suppose that's why I ended up doing stuff that was so delicate." King argues that music often plays the most significant role in setting mood and tone in the film, writing that it is substantial "in evoking the dreamy, narcotised, semi-detached impressions of jet-lag" as well as broader feelings of alienation and disconnection, "making what is probably the largest single contribution to the widespread understanding of the film as a 'mood piece'." He points to the use of "Girls" by Death in Vegas, featured in the early sequence in which Bob is driven from the airport to the hotel, arguing that it "plays a role equal to if not dominating that of the visuals..., creating a drifting, ethereal and somewhat dreamy quality that precisely captures the impressions of temporal and spatial disjunction". He also points to the use of "cool and distant" tracks like "Tommib", used in the extended sequence featuring Charlotte observing Tokyo while seated in her hotel room window, as playing a significant role in establishing feelings of isolation and disorientation in the character. In King's view, some sequences feature combinations of music and visuals so as to function as "audio-visual set pieces", which offer distinct points of appeal in the film for its target audience. Release Marketing Coppola did not sell distribution rights for the United States and Canada until she and Flack finished editing the film. In February 2003, the director showed the film to top executives at the domestic arm of Focus Features, the company to which it had already sold most of the foreign distribution. The prior contract proved to be significant for Focus, as it received privileged access to the film while competing buyers complained that they were restricted to the viewing of a three-minute trailer in the Focus offices at the American Film Market. Coppola initially offered the domestic distribution rights for $5 million, but she decided to sell them to Focus for $4 million, citing her appreciation for the international deals the company had secured for the film. Once Focus was involved, it began promoting the film by employing a conventional "indie-style" marketing campaign. The strategy involved generating positive word of mouth for the film well before its September 2003 release. The distributor arranged advance press screenings throughout the summer of 2003 and combined this with a magazine publicity campaign. Posters and trailers emphasized the recognizable star presence of Murray, highlighting his performance in the film's comic sequences, which favored wider audience appeal. Immediately prior to its release, Focus placed Lost in Translation in film festivals and hosted "intimate media screenings" that included question-and-answer panels with Coppola and Murray. Many of these marketing tacks were designed to promote the film at minimal cost, a departure from more costly strategies often employed in the Hollywood mainstream, such as major television advertising. Theatrical run Lost in Translation had its premiere on August 29, 2003, at the Telluride Film Festival in the United States. Two days later, it appeared at the Venice Film Festival in Italy, and on September 5, 2003, it was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival in Canada. It opened to the public in limited release on September 12, 2003, at 23 theaters in major cities in the United States, including New York City, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The film had already generated speculation about Oscar contention from advance screenings and was noted for opening several weeks earlier than expected for an indie vying for awards—a risk being that opening too early might cause the film to be forgotten by the time nominations were made for major prizes like the Academy Awards. Focus Features co-presidents James Schamus and David Linde commented that the company chose an early release date on the basis of factors including the film's quality and early marketing campaign, as well as a lack of competition from other films. The strategy was intended to give Lost in Translation more time to command the marketplace. The film grossed $925,000 in its opening weekend and was expanded the next week from 23 theaters to 183 in the top 25 markets of the country. There, it grossed more than $2.62 million over the weekend and nearly paid off the total budget of the film. It entered wide release on October 3, its fourth weekend, peaking at a rank of seven in the box office chart; a week later, it expanded to an estimated 882 theaters, the film's highest theater count over its run. Lost in Translation grossed an estimated to-date total of $18.5 million through October 13 and was noted by The Hollywood Reporter to have been performing well even "in smaller and medium-sized markets where audiences don't always respond to this type of upscale material". Following this performance, Lost in Translation saw a gradual decline in theater presence progressing into the new year, though it was expanded again after the film received nominations for the 76th Academy Awards. The film was widened from a late December low of 117 theaters to an estimated 632 at the end of January, ultimately ending its run in the United States and Canada on March 25 and earning $44.6 million. Its international release earned $74.1 million, for a worldwide total of $118.7 million. Home media The DVD of Lost in Translation was released on February 3, 2004, and includes deleted scenes, a behind-the-scenes featurette, a conversation about the film featuring Murray and Coppola, and a music video for "City Girl", one of the original songs composed for the film by Kevin Shields. Wanting to capitalize on the publicity surrounding Lost in Translations presence at the Academy Awards, Focus Features made the unusual move of releasing the film on home media while it was still screening in theaters, immediately after its Oscar nominations were announced. The strategy was seen as risky, as the industry was generally concerned that theatrical revenues could be harmed by early home video release. Lost in Translation ultimately earned nearly $5 million from its first five days of video rentals and sold one million retail copies during its first week of release. Early returns showed it was the second-best selling DVD during this period while the film screened in 600 theaters and box office revenues dropped 19% from the previous week, which Variety described as "relatively modest". Focus credited the performance to positive word of mouth and cited the marketing for the film on both media as helpful for whichever platform consumers chose. Lost in Translation was later released on the now-obsolete HD DVD format on May 29, 2007, and on Blu-ray on December 7, 2010. Reception Critical response Lost in Translation received widespread critical acclaim, particularly for Murray's performance and for Coppola's direction and screenplay. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 95% based on 232 reviews, with an average rating of 8.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Effectively balancing humor and subtle pathos, Sofia Coppola crafts a moving, melancholy story that serves as a showcase for both Bill Murray and Scarlett Johansson." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has an average score of 89 out of 100 based on 44 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Critics widely praised Murray's performance as Bob, commending his handling of a more serious role that was combined with the comic persona for which he was already broadly known. Writing for Slate, David Edelstein argued that it was "the Bill Murray performance we've been waiting for", adding that "his two halves have never come together as they do here, in a way that connects that hilarious detachment with the deep and abiding sense of isolation that must have spawned it". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly regarded Murray's performance as Oscar-worthy and lauded it as his "most vulnerable and unmannered" to date; she praised his treatment of a more delicate role as well as his improvisations in the film's comic sequences. The New York Times critic Elvis Mitchell had similar praise, calling Lost in Translation "Mr. Murray's movie" and remarking that the actor "supplies the kind of performance that seems so fully realized and effortless that it can easily be mistaken for not acting at all". Coppola received a similar level of acclaim for her screenplay and direction. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times commented that Lost in Translation was "tart and sweet, unmistakably funny and exceptionally well observed—[which] marks... Coppola as a mature talent with a distinctive sensibility and the means to express it". Much of the praise was directed specifically at her attention to qualities of subtlety and atmosphere; David Rooney of Variety praised the film as "a mood piece", adding that its "deft balance of humor and poignancy makes it both a pleasurable and melancholy experience". Likewise, Salon critic Stephanie Zacharek lauded Coppola as a "stealth dramatist" whose understated narrative style made for an artful depiction of emotion; she praised Lost in Translation as an intimate story that marks Coppola as an exceptional filmmaker. Praise was also offered for Johansson's performance as Charlotte; Rooney commented that she "gives a smartly restrained performance as an observant, questioning woman with a rich interior life", and Turan added that Johansson "makes what could have been an overly familiar characterization come completely alive". Lost in Translation was listed as a best film of the year by more than 235 critics and has appeared on other "best of" lists in the years after its release. Paste ranked it number seven on its list of "The 50 Best Movies of the 2000s", Entertainment Weekly ranked it number nine on its list of the decade's top ten, and the film was ranked number 22 on a 2016 list of the BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century, based on a poll of 177 critics. Allegations of racism While not a topic of most reviews, Lost in Translation received some charges of Orientalist racial stereotyping in its depiction of Japan. The filmmaker E. Koohan Paik argued that the film's comedy "is rooted entirely in the 'otherness' of the Japanese people", and that the story fails to offer balanced characterizations of the Japanese, adding that "it is... the shirking of responsibility to depict them as full human beings, either negative or positive, which constitutes discrimination, or racism". Similarly, the artist Kiku Day charged in The Guardian that "[t]here is no scene where the Japanese are afforded a shred of dignity. The viewer is sledgehammered into laughing at these small, yellow people and their funny ways". Prior to the film's release in Japan, local distributors were reported to have concern about how it would be received there, and the film was ultimately met with criticism in some Japanese reviews; among them, critic Yoshiro Tsuchiya of Yomiuri Shimbun wrote that Coppola's representation of Japan was "outrageously biased and banal". Perceptions of stereotyping also led to a campaign against the film by an Asian American organization that urged members of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences to vote against it at the 76th Academy Awards. The film scholar Homay King argues that while the film ultimately does little to counter Orientalist stereotypes, it fails to establish the perspective from which Japanese representations are made, writing that "the film [does not] sufficiently clarify that its real subject is not Tokyo itself, but Western perceptions of Tokyo.... When Japan appears superficial, inappropriately erotic, or unintelligible, we are never completely sure whether this vision belongs to Coppola, to her characters, or simply to a Hollywood cinematic imaginary". Moreover, Geoff King maintains that while depictions such as Charlotte's alienation from experiences like ikebana are evidence that the film abstains from the Orientalist "mythology of Japanese tradition as source of solace", the film often situates Japan as a source of "difference" for the characters by relying on crude jokes and stereotypes of the Japanese as "crazy" or "extreme". Coppola reported being surprised by such criticism, saying, "I think if everything's based on truth you can make fun, have a little laugh, but also be respectful of a culture. I just love Tokyo and I'm not mean-spirited". Accolades Lost in Translation received awards and nominations in a variety of categories, particularly for Coppola's direction and screenwriting, as well as the performances of Murray and Johansson. At the 76th Academy Awards, it won Best Original Screenplay (Coppola) and the film received three further nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Coppola), and Best Actor (Murray). The film garnered three Golden Globe Awards from five nominations: Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, and Best Screenplay. At the 57th British Academy Film Awards, Lost in Translation won three awards: Best Actor in a Leading Role, Best Actress in a Leading Role (Johansson), and Best Editing. Lost in Translation also received awards from various foreign award ceremonies, film festivals, and critics' organizations. These include Best American Film at the Bodil Awards, Best Foreign Film at the César Awards, and Best Foreign Film at the Film Critics Circle of Australia, French Syndicate of Cinema Critics, and Deutscher Filmpreis, as well as the Nastro d'Argento for Best Foreign Director. The film also won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Film, Best Film – Comedy or Musical at the Satellite Awards, and two prizes at the Venice International Film Festival. From critics' organizations, Lost in Translation received awards in the Best Film category from the San Francisco Film Critics Circle, the Toronto Film Critics Association, and the Vancouver Film Critics Circle. References Annotations Footnotes Bibliography External links Official website 2003 films 2003 independent films 2003 comedy-drama films American comedy-drama films American films American independent films American Zoetrope films BAFTA winners (films) Best Foreign Film César Award winners Best Musical or Comedy Picture Golden Globe winners English-language films Films about actors Films about interpreting and translation Films directed by Sofia Coppola Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance Films set in hotels Films set in Kyoto Films set in Tokyo Films shot in Kyoto Prefecture Films shot in Tokyo Films set in Japan Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award Films with screenplays by Sofia Coppola Focus Features films Independent Spirit Award for Best Film winners Japan in non-Japanese culture Japanese comedy-drama films Japanese films Japanese independent films Japanese-language films Midlife crisis films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Harris%20and%20Dylan%20Klebold

Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold

Eric David Harris (April 9, 1981 – April 20, 1999) and Dylan Bennet Klebold (; September 11, 1981 – April 20, 1999) were an American mass murder duo who perpetrated the Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999. Harris and Klebold killed 13 people and wounded 24 others, at Columbine High School, where they were seniors, in Columbine, Colorado, United States. After killing most of their victims in the school's library, they later committed suicide. At the time, it was the deadliest high school shooting in U.S. history, with the ensuing media frenzy and moral panic leading it to become one of the most infamous mass shootings ever perpetrated. Harris and Klebold were both born in 1981. Harris was born in Wichita, Kansas, but moved around frequently as a child due to his father's occupation in the United States Air Force, while Klebold was born and raised near Columbine. Harris' family eventually settled in Colorado. Shortly after, Harris and Klebold met, while they were in the 7th grade. Over time, they became increasingly close. By the time they were juniors, they were described as inseparable. There are differing reports; some say Harris and Klebold were very unpopular students once they were upperclassmen, and frequent targets of bullying, while others say they were not near the bottom of the school's social hierarchy and each had many friends. From their journals, Harris and Klebold had seemed to begin planning the attack by May 1998, nearly an entire year before the attack. Throughout the next 11 months, Harris and Klebold meticulously built explosives and gathered an arsenal of weapons. Both Harris and Klebold each left behind several journal writings and home videos, ones they made both alone and together, foreshadowing the massacre and explaining their motives. Harris and Klebold hoped this content would be viewed by the public extensively, although much of the evidence has never been released by authorities. After the massacre, it was widely believed Harris and Klebold were part of a clique in school called the "Trenchcoat Mafia", a group of misfits in the school who supposedly rebelled against the popular students. This turned out to be untrue, as neither Harris nor Klebold had any affiliation with the group. The pair's aforementioned writings and videos gave insight into their rationale for the shooting. The FBI concluded that Harris was a psychopath, who exhibited a lack of empathy, narcissistic traits and unconstrained aggression. Klebold, however, was concluded to be an angry depressive, who showed low self-esteem, anxiousness and a vengeful attitude toward individuals who he believed had mistreated him. However, neither Harris nor Klebold were formally diagnosed with any mental illnesses prior to the attack. In the following years, various media outlets attributed multiple motivating factors to the attack, including bullying, mental illness, racism, psychiatric medication and media violence. Despite these conclusions, the exact motive for the attack remains inconclusive. Harris and Klebold have become pop culture icons, with the pair often portrayed, referenced and seen in film, television, video games, music and books. Many killers since the shooting have taken inspiration from the pair, either hailing them as heroes, martyrs and gods, or expressing sympathy for the pair. Harris and Klebold also have a fanbase, who have coined the term "Columbiners", who write fan fiction and draw fan art of them. Others have also dressed as the duo for cosplay or Halloween. Early life Eric Harris Eric David Harris was born on April 9, 1981, in Wichita, Kansas. Harris's parents were both born and raised in Colorado. His mother, Katherine Ann Poole, was a homemaker. His father, Wayne Harris, was working in the United States Air Force as a transport pilot, forcing the family to move around the country sporadically. In 1983, the family moved to Dayton, Ohio, when Harris was two years old. Six years later, the family relocated to Oscoda, Michigan. Michigan pastor William Stone lived across the street from the Harris family while they were located in Oscoda. Stone recalled them as "great neighbors" and would often see Wayne very engaged with his sons. The Harris family then moved to Plattsburgh, New York, in 1991. During his tenure at Stafford Middle School, Harris played Little League Baseball, regularly went to birthday parties and was "part of the crowd". Kyle Ross, a former classmate of Harris, said, "He was just a typical kid." The Harris family finally settled back in Colorado the next year when Wayne retired from the military. On a 1997 English class assignment, Harris wrote about how difficult the move was from New York to Colorado. "It was the hardest moving from Plattsburgh. I have the most memories from there", Harris continued. "When I left (his friends) I felt alone, lost and even agitated that I had spent so much time with them and now I have to go because of something I can't stop." Harris, in a basement tape, blamed his father for moving the family around, forcing Harris to "start out at the bottom of the ladder." Harris also added that kids would often mock his appearance. The Harris family lived in rented accommodations for the first three years that they lived in the Littleton area. While Harris was in 7th grade, he met Klebold. In 1996, the Harris family purchased and settled at a house south of Columbine High School. Harris' older brother, Kevin, attended college at the University of Colorado. Harris' father took a job with Flight Safety Services Corporation and Harris' mother, a former homemaker, became a caterer. Harris entered Columbine High School in 1995 as a freshman. Columbine had just gone through a major renovation and expansion. From all accounts, he had many friends and was left forward and mid-field on the Columbine soccer team for his freshman and sophomore year. According to one of his teammates, Josh Swanson, he said Harris was a "solid" soccer player, who enjoyed the sport a lot. Harris, during his freshman year, met Tiffany Typher, who was in his German class. Typher later recounted that Harris quickly wooed her. Harris asked her to homecoming and she accepted. After the event, it appeared that Typher was no longer interested in seeing Harris anymore, for reasons never disclosed. When Typher refused to socialize with Harris again, Harris staged a fake suicide, sprawling on the ground with fake blood splashed all over him. When Typher saw him she began to scream for help, at which point Harris and his friends began laughing, prompting Typher to storm off, shouting at Harris to get psychological help. Dylan Klebold Dylan Bennet Klebold was born on September 11, 1981, in Lakewood, Colorado, to Thomas and Sue Klebold. On the day after the shooting, Klebold's mother remembered that shortly after Klebold's birth, she described what felt like a shadow had been cast over her, warning her that this child would bring her great sorrow. "I think I still make of it what I did at that time. It was a passing feeling that went over very quickly, like a shadow." Sue said in an interview with Colorado Public Radio. Klebold was soon diagnosed with pyloric stenosis, a condition in which the opening between the stomach and small intestines thickens, causing severe vomiting during the first few months of life. Sue later assured herself that the feeling she had that her son would bring her immense sorrow, was that her son would be physically ill. Klebold's parents had met when they were both studying art at Ohio State University. The two quickly became smitten. After they both graduated, they married in 1971, with their first child, Byron, being born in 1978. Thomas had initially worked as a sculptor, but then moved over to engineering to be more financially stable. Sue had worked in assistance services with disabled children. Furthermore, Klebold's parents were pacifists and attended a Lutheran church with their children. Both Klebold and his older brother attended confirmation classes in accordance with the Lutheran tradition. As had been the case with his older brother, Klebold was named after a renowned poet, Dylan Thomas. At the family home, the Klebolds also observed some rituals in keeping with Klebold's maternal grandfather's Jewish heritage. Klebold attended Normandy Elementary School for first and second grade and then transferred to Governor's Ranch Elementary School where he was part of the Challenging High Intellectual Potential Students program for gifted children. According to reports, Klebold was exceptionally bright as a young child, although he appeared somewhat sheltered in elementary school. When he transitioned to Ken Caryl Middle School, he found it difficult. Fellow classmates recalled Klebold being painfully shy and quiet, often to an uncomfortable degree. Klebold's parents were unconcerned with the fact that Klebold found the changing of schools uneasy, as they assumed it was just regular behavior among young adolescents. During his earlier school years, Klebold played baseball, soccer and T-ball. Klebold was in Cub Scouts with friend Brooks Brown, whom he was friends with since the first grade. Brown lived near the house Harris' parents had bought when they finally settled in Littleton, and rode the same bus as Harris. Shortly after, Klebold had met Harris and the pair quickly became best friends. Later, Harris introduced Klebold to his friend Nathan Dykeman, who also attended their middle school, and they all became a tight-knit group of friends. Background Personalities Both Harris and Klebold worked together as cooks at a Blackjack Pizza, a mile south from Columbine High School. Harris was eventually promoted to shift leader. He and his group of friends were interested in computers, and were enrolled in a bowling class. Some described Harris as charismatic, and others described him as nice and likable. However, Harris also often bragged about his ability to deceive others, once stating in a tape that he could make anyone believe anything. By his junior year, Harris was also known to be quick to anger, and threatened people with bombs. Classmates also related that Harris was fascinated by war, and wrote out violent fantasies about killing people he didn't like. Klebold was described by his peers and adults as painfully shy. Klebold would often be fidgety whenever someone new talked to him, rarely opening up to people. Klebold was also exceptionally nervous in front of the opposite sex, sometimes avoiding a confrontation with girls altogether. In the last year of his life, many noted a change in Klebold's behavior. Unlike before, Klebold became short-tempered, often prone to sudden outbursts of anger. Friendship Much of the information on Harris and Klebold's friendship is unknown, on their interactions and conversations, aside from the Basement Tapes, of which only transcripts have been released. Harris and Klebold met at Ken Caryl Middle School during their seventh grade year. Over time, they became increasingly close, hanging out by often going out bowling, carpooling and playing the video game Doom over a private server they connected their personal computers to. By their junior year in high school, the boys were described as inseparable. Chad Laughlin, a close friend of Harris and Klebold, said that they always sat alone together at lunch and often kept to themselves. A rumor eventually started that Harris and Klebold were gay and romantically involved, due to the time the pair spent together. It is unknown if they were aware of this rumor. Judy Brown believed Harris was more emotionally dependent on Klebold, who was more liked by the broader student population. In his journals, however, Klebold wrote that he felt that he was not accepted or loved by anyone. Due to these feelings, Klebold possibly sought validation from Harris. Klebold's mother believes Harris' rage, intermingled with Klebold's self-destructive personality, caused the boys to feed off of each other and enter in what eventually would become an unhealthy friendship. Columbine High School At Columbine High School, Harris and Klebold were active in school play productions, operated video productions and became computer assistants, maintaining the school's computer server. According to early accounts of the shooting, they were very unpopular students and targets of bullying. While sources do support accounts of bullying specifically directed toward Harris and Klebold, accounts of them being outcasts have been reported to be false, since both of them had a close knit group of friends. Harris and Klebold were initially reported to be members of a clique that was called the "Trenchcoat Mafia", despite later confirmation that the pair had no connection to the group and furthermore did not appear in the group's photo in Columbine High's 1998 yearbook. Harris' father erroneously stated that his son was "a member of what they call the Trenchcoat Mafia" in a call he made on April 20, 1999. Klebold attended the high school prom three days before the shootings with a classmate named Robyn Anderson. Harris and Klebold linked their personal computers on a network and played video games over the Internet. Harris created a set of levels for the game Doom, which later became known as the "Harris levels". The levels are downloadable over the internet through Doom WADs. Harris had a web presence under the handle "REB" (short for Rebel, a nod to the nickname of Columbine High's sports teams) and other online aliases, including "Rebldomakr", "Rebdoomer", and "Rebdomine". Klebold went by the names "VoDKa" and "VoDkA", seemingly inspired by the alcoholic drink. Harris had various websites that hosted Doom and Quake files, as well as team information for those with whom he gamed online. The sites openly espoused hatred for people in their neighborhood and the world in general. When the pair began experimenting with pipe bombs, they posted results of the explosions on the websites. The website was shut down by America Online after the shootings and was preserved for the FBI. Initial legal encounters On January 30, 1998, Harris and Klebold broke into a locked van to steal computers and other electronic equipment. An officer pulled over the duo driving away. Harris shortly after admitted to the theft. They were later charged with mischief, breaking and entering, trespassing, and theft. They both left good impressions on juvenile officers, who offered to expunge their criminal records if they agreed to attend a diversionary program which included community service and psychiatric treatment. Harris was required to attend anger management classes where, again, he made a favorable impression. The boys' probation officer discharged them from the program a few months ahead of schedule for good behavior. Of Harris, it was remarked that he was "a very bright individual who is likely to succeed in life", while Klebold was said to be intelligent, but "needs to understand that hard work is part of fulfilling a dream." A couple of months later on April 30, Harris handed over the first version of a letter of apology he wrote to the owner of the van, which he completed the next month. In the letter, Harris expressed regret about his actions; however, in one of his journal entries dated April 12, he wrote: "Isn't america supposed to be the land of the free? how come, If im free, I cant deprive some fucking dumbshit from his possessions If he leaves them sitting in the front seat of his fucking van in plain sight in the middle of fucking nowhere on a fri-fucking-day night? Natural selection. Fucker should be shot. ". Hitmen for Hire In December 1998, Harris and Klebold made Hitmen for Hire, a video for a school project in which they swore, yelled at the camera, made violent statements, and acted out shooting and killing students in the hallways of Columbine High School. Both also displayed themes of violence in their creative writing projects; of a Doom-based story written by Harris on January 17, 1999, Harris' teacher said: "Yours is a unique approach and your writing works in a gruesome way — good details and mood setting." Acquiring arms Harris and Klebold were unable to legally purchase firearms due to them both being underage at the time. Klebold then enlisted Robyn Anderson, an 18-year-old Columbine student and old friend of Klebold's, to make a straw purchase of two shotguns and a Hi-Point carbine for the pair. In exchange for her cooperation with the investigation that followed the shootings, no charges were filed against Anderson. After illegally acquiring the weapons, Klebold sawed off his Savage 311-D 12-gauge double-barrel shotgun, shortening the overall length to approximately . Meanwhile, Harris's Savage-Springfield 12-gauge pump shotgun was sawn off to around . The shooters also possessed a TEC-DC9 semi-automatic handgun, which had a long history. The manufacturer of the TEC-DC9 first sold it to Miami-based Navegar Incorporated. It was then sold to Zander's Sporting Goods in Baldwin, Illinois, in 1994. The gun was later sold to Thornton, Colorado firearms dealer, Larry Russell. In violation of federal law, Russell failed to keep records of the sale, yet he determined that the purchaser of the gun was twenty-one years of age or older. Two men, Mark Manes and Philip Duran, were convicted of supplying weapons to the two. The bombs used by the pair varied and were crudely made from carbon dioxide canisters, galvanized pipe, and metal propane bottles. The bombs were primed with matches placed at one end. Both had striker tips on their sleeves. When they rubbed against the bomb, the match head would light the fuse. The weekend before the shootings, Harris and Klebold had purchased propane tanks and other supplies from a hardware store for a few hundred dollars. Several residents of the area claimed to have heard glass breaking and buzzing sounds from the Harris family's garage, which later was concluded to indicate they were constructing pipe bombs. More complex bombs, such as the one that detonated on the corner of South Wadsworth Boulevard and Ken Caryl Avenue, had timers. The two largest bombs built were found in the school cafeteria and were made from small propane tanks. Only one of these bombs went off, only partially detonating. It was estimated that if any of the bombs placed in the cafeteria had detonated properly, the blast could have caused extensive structural damage to the school and would have resulted in hundreds of casualties. Massacre On April 20, 1999, just weeks before Harris and Klebold were both due to graduate, Brooks Brown, who was smoking a cigarette outside during lunch break, saw Harris arrive at school. Brown had severed his friendship with Harris a year earlier after Harris had thrown a chunk of ice at his car windshield; Brown reconciled with Harris just prior to the shooting. Brown approached Harris near his car and scolded him for skipping his morning classes, because Harris was always serious about schoolwork and being on time. Harris replied, "It doesn't matter anymore." Harris followed up a few seconds later, "Brooks, I like you now. Get out of here. Go home." Brown, who felt uneasy, quickly left the school grounds. At 11:19 am, he heard the first gunshots after he had walked some distance away from the school, and informed the police via a neighbor's cell phone. By that time, Klebold had already arrived at the school in a separate car, and the two boys left two gym bags, each containing a 20-pound propane bomb, inside the cafeteria. Their original plans indicated that when these bombs detonated, Harris and Klebold would be camped out by their cars and shoot, stab and throw bombs at survivors of the initial explosion as they ran out of the school. At noon, this would be followed by bombs set up in the pair's cars detonating, killing first responders and other personnel. When these devices failed to detonate, Harris and Klebold launched a shooting attack against their classmates and teachers. It was the deadliest attack ever perpetrated at an American high school until the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting on February 14, 2018. Harris was responsible for eight of the thirteen confirmed deaths (Rachel Scott, Daniel Rohrbough, teacher Dave Sanders, Steve Curnow, Cassie Bernall, Isaiah Shoels, Kelly Fleming, and Daniel Mauser), while Klebold was responsible for the remaining five (Kyle Velasquez, Matthew Kechter, Lauren Townsend, John Tomlin, and Corey DePooter). There were 24 injured (21 of them by the shooters), most in critical condition. Suicide At 12:02 pm, Harris and Klebold returned to the library. Of the 56 library hostages, 34 remained unharmed, all of whom escaped after Harris and Klebold left the library initially. Investigators would later find that Harris and Klebold had enough ammunition to have killed them all. This was 20 minutes after their lethal shooting spree had ended, leaving 12 students dead, one teacher dying, and another 24 students and staff injured. Ten of their victims had been killed in the library. It is believed they came back to the library to watch their car bombs detonate, which had been set up to explode at noon. This did not happen, as the aforementioned bombs failed. Harris and Klebold went to the west windows and opened fire on the police outside. No one was injured in the exchange. Between three and six minutes later, they walked to the bookshelves near a table where Patrick Ireland lay badly wounded and coming in and out of consciousness. Student Lisa Kreutz, injured in the earlier library attack, was also in the room, unable to move. By 12:08 pm, Harris and Klebold had killed themselves. In a subsequent interview, Kreutz recalled hearing a comment such as, "You in the library", around this time. Harris sat down with his back to a bookshelf and fired his shotgun through the roof of his mouth; Klebold went down on his knees and shot himself in the left temple with his TEC-9. An article by The Rocky Mountain News stated that Patti Nielson overheard them shout "One! Two! Three!" in unison, just before a loud boom. Nielson said that she had never spoken with either of the writers of the article, and evidence suggests otherwise. Just before shooting himself, Klebold lit a Molotov cocktail on a nearby table, underneath which Ireland was lying, which caused the tabletop to momentarily catch fire. Underneath the scorched film of material was a piece of Harris's brain matter, suggesting Harris had shot himself by this point. Suggested rationales There was controversy over whether Harris and Klebold should be memorialized. Some were opposed, saying that it glorified murderers, while others argued that Harris and Klebold were also victims. Atop a hill near Columbine High School, crosses were erected for Harris and Klebold along with those for the people they killed, but the father of victim Daniel Rohrbough cut them down, saying that murderers should not be memorialized in the same place as victims. Overview Harris and Klebold wrote some about how they would carry out the massacre, and less about why. Klebold penned a rough outline of plans to follow on April 20, and another slightly different one in a journal found in Harris's bedroom. In one entry on his computer, Harris referenced the Oklahoma City bombing, and they mentioned their wish to outdo it by causing the most deaths in US history. They also mentioned how they would like to leave a lasting impression on the world with this kind of violence. Much speculation occurred over the date chosen for their attack. The original intended date of the attack may have been April 19; Harris required more ammunition from Mark Manes, who did not deliver it until the evening of April 19. Harris and Klebold were both avid fans of KMFDM, an industrial band led by German multi-instrumentalist Sascha Konietzko. It was revealed that lyrics to KMFDM songs ("Son of a Gun", "Stray Bullet" and "Waste") were posted on Harris' website, and that the date of the massacre, April 20, coincided with both the release date of the album Adios and the birthday of Adolf Hitler. Harris noted the coincidence of the album's title and April release date in his journal. In response, KMFDM's Konietzko issued a statement that KMFDM was "against war, oppression, fascism and violence against others" and that "none of us condone any Nazi beliefs whatsoever". An April 22, 1999, article in The Washington Post described Harris and Klebold: They hated jocks, admired Nazis and scorned normalcy. They fancied themselves devotees of the Gothic subculture, even though they thrilled to the violence denounced by much of that fantasy world. They were white supremacists, but loved music by anti-racist rock bands. The attack occurred on Hitler's birthday, which led to speculation in the media. Some people, such as Robyn Anderson, who knew the perpetrators, stated that the pair were not obsessed with Nazism nor did they worship or admire Hitler in any way. Anderson stated, in retrospect, that there were many things the pair did not tell friends. In his journal, Harris mentioned his admiration of what he imagined to be natural selection, and wrote that he would like to put everyone in a super Doom game and see to it that the weak die and the strong live. On the day of the massacre, Harris wore a white T-shirt with the words "Natural selection" printed in black. Bullying At the end of Harris' last journal entry, he wrote: "I hate you people for leaving me out of so many fun things. And no don't ... say, 'Well that's your fault,' because it isn't, you people had my phone number, and I asked and all, but no. No no no don't let the weird-looking Eric KID come along, ooh fucking nooo." Klebold said on the Basement Tapes, "You've been giving us shit for years. You're fucking gonna pay for all the shit! We don't give a shit. Because we're gonna die doing it." Accounts from various parents and school staffers describe bullying at the school as "rampant". Nathan Vanderau, a friend of Klebold, and Alisa Owen, Harris's eighth-grade science partner, reported that Harris and Klebold were constantly picked on. Vanderau noted that a "cup of fecal matter" was thrown at them. "People surrounded them in the commons and squirted ketchup packets all over them, laughing at them, calling them faggots", Brooks Brown says. "That happened while teachers watched. They couldn't fight back. They wore the ketchup all day and went home covered with it." In his book, No Easy Answers: The Truth Behind Death at Columbine, Brown wrote that Harris was born with mild chest indent. This made him reluctant to take his shirt off in gym class, and other students would laugh at him. "A lot of the tension in the school came from the class above us", Chad Laughlin states. "There were people fearful of walking by a table where you knew you didn't belong, stuff like that. Certain groups certainly got preferential treatment across the board. I caught the tail end of one really horrible incident, and I know Dylan told his mother that it was the worst day of his life." That incident, according to Laughlin, involved seniors pelting Klebold with "ketchup-covered tampons" in the commons. However, other commentators have disputed the theory that bullying was the motivating factor. Peter Langman also argues against bullying being the cause of the attack. Other researchers have concurred. Journals and investigation Harris began keeping a journal in April 1998, a short time after the pair was convicted of breaking into a van, for which each received ten months of juvenile intervention counseling and community service in January 1998. They began to formulate plans then, as reflected in their journals. Harris wanted to join the United States Marine Corps, but his application was rejected shortly before the shootings because he was taking the drug fluvoxamine, an SSRI antidepressant, which he was required to take as part of court-ordered anger management therapy. Harris did not state in his application that he was taking any medications. According to the recruiting officer, Harris did not know about this rejection. Though some friends of Harris suggested that he had stopped taking the drug beforehand, the autopsy reports showed low therapeutic or normal (not toxic or lethal) blood-levels of Luvox (fluvoxamine) in his system, which would be around 0.0031–0.0087 mg/ml, at the time of death. After the shootings, opponents of contemporary psychiatry like Peter Breggin claimed that the psychiatric medications prescribed to Harris after his conviction may have exacerbated his aggressiveness. Klebold entitled his journal, A Virtual Book: EXISTENCES. Klebold's first journal entry was March 31, 1997, over a year prior to when Harris began his own writings, and in it, he talks about his depression and suicidal thoughts, over two years prior to the massacre. For the rest of his writings, Klebold often wrote about his view that he and Harris were "god-like" and more highly evolved than every other human being, but his secret journal records the aforementioned self-loathing and suicidal intentions. Page after page was covered in hearts, as he was secretly in love with a Columbine student. Although both had difficulty controlling their anger, Klebold's anger had led to his being more prone to serious trouble than Harris. After their arrest, which both recorded as the most traumatic thing they had ever experienced, Klebold wrote a letter to Harris, saying how they would have so much fun getting revenge and killing police, and how his wrath from the January arrest would be "god-like". On the day of the massacre, Klebold wore a black T-shirt which had the word "WRATH" printed in red. It was speculated that revenge for the arrest was a possible motive for the attack, and that the pair planned on having a massive gun battle with police during the shooting. Klebold wrote that life was no fun without a little death, and that he would like to spend the last moments of his life in nerve-wracking twists of murder and bloodshed. He concluded by saying that he would kill himself afterward in order to leave the world that he hated and go to a better place. Klebold was described as being "hotheaded, but depressive and suicidal". Some of the home-recorded videos, called "The Basement Tapes", have reportedly been destroyed by police. Harris and Klebold reportedly discussed their motives for the attacks in these videos and gave instructions in bomb making. Police cite the reason for withholding these tapes as an effort to prevent them from becoming "call-to-arms" and "how-to" videos that could inspire copycat killers. Some people have argued that releasing the tapes would be helpful, in terms of allowing psychologists to study them, which in turn could possibly help identify characteristics of future killers. Media accounts Initially, the shooters were believed to be members of a clique that called themselves the "Trench Coat Mafia", a small group of Columbine's self-styled outcasts who wore heavy black trench coats. Early reports described the members as also wearing German slogans and swastikas on their clothes. Additional media reports described the Trench Coat Mafia as a cult with ties to the Neo-Nazi movement which fueled a media stigma and bias against the Trench Coat Mafia. The Trench Coat Mafia was a group of friends who hung out together, wore black trench coats, and prided themselves on being different from the 'jocks' who had been bullying the members and who also coined the name Trench Coat Mafia. The trench coat inadvertently became the members' uniform after a mother of one of the members bought it as a present. Investigation revealed that Harris and Klebold were only friends with one member of the group, Kristin Thiebault, and that most of the primary members of the Trench Coat Mafia had left the school by the time that Harris and Klebold committed the massacre. Most did not know the shooters, apart from their association with Thiebault, and none were considered suspects in the shootings or were charged with any involvement in the incident. Marilyn Manson was blamed by the media in the wake of the Columbine shooting, and responded to criticism in an interview with Michael Moore, in which he was asked, "If you were to talk directly to the kids at Columbine and the people in the community, what would you say to them if they were here right now?", to which he replied, "I wouldn't say a single word to them—I would listen to what they have to say, and that's what no one did", referring to people ignoring red flags that rose from Harris and Klebold prior to the shooting. Psychological analysis Although early media reports attributed the shootings to a desire for revenge on the part of Harris and Klebold for bullying that they received, subsequent psychological analysis indicated Harris and Klebold harbored serious psychological problems. Harris and Klebold were never diagnosed with any mental disorders, which is overwhelmingly uncommon in mass shooters. According to Supervisory Special Agent Dwayne Fuselier, the FBI's lead Columbine investigator and a clinical psychologist, Harris exhibited a pattern of grandiosity, contempt, and lack of empathy or remorse, distinctive traits of psychopaths that Harris concealed through deception. Fuselier adds that Harris engaged in mendacity not merely to protect himself, as Harris rationalized in his journal, but also for pleasure, as seen when Harris expressed his thoughts in his journal regarding how he and Klebold avoided prosecution for breaking into a van. Other leading psychiatrists concur that Harris was a psychopath. According to psychologist Peter Langman, Klebold displayed signs of schizotypal personality disorder – he struck many people as odd due to his shy nature, appeared to have had disturbed thought processes and constantly misused language in unusual ways as evidenced by his journal. He appeared to have been delusional, viewed himself as "god-like", and wrote that he was "made a human without the possibility of BEING human." He was also convinced that others hated him and felt like he was being conspired against, even though according to many reports, Klebold was loved by his family and friends. Lawsuits In April 2001, the families of more than 30 victims were given shares in a $2,538,000 settlement by the families of the perpetrators, and the two men convicted of supplying the weapons used in the massacre. The Harrises and the Klebolds contributed $1,568,000 to the settlement from their own homeowners' policies, the Maneses contributed $720,000, and the Durans contributed $250,000. The Harrises and the Klebolds were ordered to guarantee an additional $32,000 be available against any future claims. The Maneses were ordered to hold $80,000 against future claims, and the Durans were ordered to hold $50,000. One family had filed a $250-million lawsuit against the Harrises and Klebolds in 1999 and did not accept the 2001 settlement terms. A judge ordered the family to accept a $366,000 settlement in June 2003. In August 2003, the families of five other victims received undisclosed settlements from the Harrises and Klebolds. Reaction of Sue Klebold Sue Klebold, mother of Dylan Klebold, initially was in denial about Klebold's involvement in the massacre, believing he was tricked by Harris into doing it, among other things. Six months later, she saw the Basement Tapes made by Harris and Klebold, and acknowledged that Klebold was equally responsible for the killings. She spoke about the Columbine High School massacre publicly for the first time in an essay that appeared in the October 2009 issue of O: The Oprah Magazine. In the piece, Klebold wrote: "For the rest of my life, I will be haunted by the horror and anguish Dylan caused", and "Dylan changed everything I believed about myself, about God, about family, and about love." Stating that she had no clue of her son's intentions, she said, "Once I saw his journals, it was clear to me that Dylan entered the school with the intention of dying there." In Andrew Solomon's 2012 book Far from the Tree, she acknowledged that on the day of the massacre, when she discovered that Klebold was one of the shooters, she prayed he would kill himself. "I had a sudden vision of what he might be doing. And so while every other mother in Littleton was praying that her child was safe, I had to pray that mine would die before he hurt anyone else." In February 2016, Klebold published a memoir, titled A Mother's Reckoning, about her experiences before and after the massacre. It was co-written by Laura Tucker and included an introduction by National Book Award winner Andrew Solomon. It received very favorable reviews, including from the New York Times Book Review. It peaked at No. 2 on The New York Times Best Seller list. On February 2, 2017, Klebold posted a TED Talk titled, "My son was a Columbine shooter. This is my story." As of March 2021, the video has over 11.5 million views. The site listed Klebold's occupation as "activist", and stated: "Sue Klebold has become a passionate agent working to advance mental health awareness and intervention." Legacy ITV describes the legacy of Harris and Klebold as deadly, as they have inspired several instances of mass killings in the United States. Napa Valley Register have called the pair "cultural icons". Author of Columbine, Dave Cullen, called Harris and Klebold the fathers of the movement for disenfranchised youth. Harris and Klebold have also, as CNN referred to, left their inevitable mark on pop culture. Copycats The Columbine shooting influenced several subsequent school shootings, with many praising Harris and Klebold, referring to them as martyrs, heroes or Gods. In some cases, it has led to the closure of entire school districts. According to psychiatrist E. Fuller Torrey of the Treatment Advocacy Center, a legacy of the Columbine shootings is its "allure to disaffected youth". Ralph Larkin examined twelve major school shootings in the US in the following eight years and found that in eight of those, "the shooters made explicit reference to Harris and Klebold." Larkin wrote that the Columbine massacre established a "script" for shootings. "Numerous post-Columbine rampage shooters referred directly to Columbine as their inspiration; others attempted to supersede the Columbine shootings in body count." A 2015 investigation by CNN identified "more than 40 people ... charged with Columbine-style plots." A 2014 investigation by ABC News identified "at least 17 attacks and another 36 alleged plots or serious threats against schools since the assault on Columbine High School that can be tied to the 1999 massacre." Ties identified by ABC News included online research by the perpetrators into the Columbine shooting, clipping news coverage and images of Columbine, explicit statements of admiration of Harris and Klebold, such as writings in journals and on social media, in video posts, and in police interviews, timing planned to an anniversary of Columbine, plans to exceed the Columbine victim counts, and other ties. 60 mass shootings have been carried out, where the perpetrators had made at least a single reference to Harris and Klebold. In 2015, journalist Malcolm Gladwell writing in The New Yorker magazine proposed a threshold model of school shootings in which Harris and Klebold were the triggering actors in "a slow-motion, ever-evolving riot, in which each new participant's action makes sense in reaction to and in combination with those who came before." Fandom Harris and Klebold have also spawned a fandom who call themselves "Columbiners", mostly apparent on blogging site Tumblr. While some just have a scholarly interest in the pair or the event, the vast majority of these individuals, mostly young women, express a sympathetic, or sometimes even sexual interest, in Harris and Klebold. There has been homoerotic art drawn of the two, fan fiction created on the pair's future together had they not gone through with the shooting and costumes created on the outfits Harris and Klebold sported the day of the shootings. "I relate to their feelings of hopelessness, being angry and not being able to change it, and wanting to be accepted and appreciated", an 18 year old Tumblr user wrote on Harris and Klebold. "No one noticed they were struggling, and no one took their suffering seriously", added another user. News site, "All That's Interesting" said on the fandom, "Many of these Columbiners have no positive feelings about the massacre, but are instead focused on the troubled inner lives of its perpetrators because they see themselves in them." The fandom has received much criticism, by allegedly inspiring shooting plots by heroizing Harris and Klebold, such as the Halifax mass shooting plot. In popular culture The 2002 Michael Moore documentary film Bowling for Columbine focuses heavily on a perceived American obsession with handguns, its grip on Jefferson County, Colorado, and its role in the shooting. The 2003 Gus Van Sant film Elephant depicts a fictional school shooting, though some of its details were based on the Columbine massacre, such as one scene in which one of the young killers walks into the evacuated school cafeteria and pauses to take a sip from a drink left behind, as Harris did during the shooting. In the film, the killers are called "Alex and Eric" after the actors who portray them, Alex Frost and Eric Deulen. In the 2003 Ben Coccio film Zero Day, which was inspired by the Columbine shooting, the two shooters are played by Andre Kriegman and Cal Gabriel and called "Andre and Calvin" after their actors. In 2004, the shooting was dramatized in the documentary Zero Hour, in which Harris and Klebold are played by Ben Johnson and Josh Young, respectively. In 2005, game designer Danny Ledonne created a role-playing video game where the player assumes the role of Harris and Klebold during the massacre, entitled Super Columbine Massacre RPG!. The game received substantial media backlash for allegedly glorifying the pair's actions. The father of one victim remarked to the press that the game "disgusts me. You trivialize the actions of two murderers and the lives of the innocent." The 2016 biographical film I'm Not Ashamed, based on the journals of Rachel Scott, includes glimpses of Harris' and Klebold's lives and of interactions between them and other students at Columbine High School. Harris is played by David Errigo Jr. and Klebold is played by Cory Chapman. See also List of attacks related to secondary schools List of school shootings in the United States Notes References Further reading External links Crimelibrary feature Eric Harris at Find a Grave Dylan Klebold at Find a Grave 1981 births 1999 suicides 20th-century American criminals American arsonists American male criminals American mass murderers American murderers of children Articles containing video clips Bombers (people) Bullying and suicide Columbine High School alumni Columbine High School massacre Criminal duos Criminals from Colorado Youth suicides Joint suicides Murder–suicides in Colorado People from Littleton, Colorado People from the Denver metropolitan area Suicides by firearm in Colorado

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel%20Scott

Rachel Scott

Rachel Joy Scott (August 5, 1981 – April 20, 1999) was an American student who is known to be the first fatality of the Columbine High School massacre, in which 11 other students and a teacher were also murdered by Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who then committed suicide. Scott's belief in Christianity and the disputed circumstances of her death have led to her being remembered by groups of evangelical Christians as a Christian martyr. She was posthumously the subject and co-writer of several books and the inspiration for Rachel's Challenge, an international school outreach program and the most popular school assembly program in the U.S. The aim of Rachel's Challenge is to advocate Scott's values, based on her life, her journals, and the contents of a two-page essay, penned a month before her murder, entitled My Ethics; My Codes of Life. This essay advocates her belief in compassion being "the greatest form of love humans have to offer". Early life Childhood Rachel Joy Scott was born on August 5, 1981, in Denver, Colorado. She was the third of five children born to Darrell Scott and Beth Nimmo. Scott's entire family are devout Christians. Her father was a pastor at a church in Lakewood, Colorado, and worked as a sales manager for a Denver-based food company; her mother was a homemaker. Rachel's parents divorced in 1988; they maintained a cordial relationship and held joint custody of the children. The following year, Beth and her children relocated to Littleton, Colorado, where she remarried in 1995. As a child, Scott was an energetic, sociable girl, who displayed concern for the well-being of others, particularly if they were downcast or otherwise in need. She also developed a passion for photography and poetry at an early age. Rachel attended Dutch Creek Elementary School and Ken Caryl Middle School before she enrolled in Columbine High School in the ninth grade. At Columbine, she was an attentive, above-average student who displayed a flair for music, acting, drama, and debate. She was a member of the school's forensics and drama clubs. Acting did not initially come easily to her, and she had to devote extra effort to succeed in this activity. Adolescence & Christian beliefs When Scott was 11 in March 1993, she visited the church that her aunt and uncle attended in Shreveport, Louisiana, and chose to commit herself to Christianity. By April 1998, when she was at Columbine High School, five of her closest friends had distanced themselves from her because of her increasing commitment to her faith. Furthermore, because of her faith, she was occasionally subjected to mockery by several of her peers. Rachel documented this in a letter to a relative a year to the day before her death. The letter included the words: "Now that I have begun to walk my talk, they make fun of me. I don't even know what I have done. I don't even have to say anything, and they turn me away. I have no more personal friends at school. But you know what, it's all worth it." On many occasions throughout Scott's adolescence, her family observed her in prayer both at home and at church. Her mother said that her daughter would regularly pray on her knees, with her head bowed, her hands upon her face, and that often, these particular prayer rituals brought tears to Scott's eyes. On one occasion, this included writing a prayer for one of the future perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre. By the age of 17, Scott was an attendee of three churches: Celebration Christian Fellowship; Orchard Road Christian Center; and Trinity Christian Center, where she choreographed dances at Sunday service. She was also an active member of church youth groups; at the Orchard Road Christian Center, she attended a youth group named "Breakthrough", where she displayed a passionate interest in both evangelism and discipleship. Scott wrote in her journals that her spiritual awareness developed greatly through attending this youth group, and she became known as a leading advocate within it. Personal life Scott struggled with self-esteem issues as a teenager, and has been described by her family as being "blind to her own beauty". By the age of 17, Rachel, although popular among her peers, would occasionally resist efforts to attend certain social events with her friends out of fear she would succumb to the temptation of drinking alcohol. In her mid-teens, Scott had a serious relationship with a boy, but she chose to end it over concerns that it might develop into a physical encounter. According to friends, Scott often chose to wear clothes of a style reflecting her colorful personality, and occasionally wore eccentric hats, fedoras, or even pajamas to amuse her companions. In addition to her passion for fashion, music, and photography, she was an avid viewer of classic movies, and often spoke of her desire to become a renowned Hollywood actress. She is known to have conveyed these aspirations to her family and to have combined her sense of humor into everyday family life with lighthearted gestures such as leaving a message on her family's answering machine stating: "You have reached the residence of Queen Rachel and her servants, Larry, Beth, Dana, Craig, and Michael. If you have anything you'd like them to do for me, please leave a message." Scott was an aspiring writer and actress. In 1998, she performed a mime act to the song "Watch the Lamb" at the school talent show. The tape jammed halfway through the song and Dylan Klebold, who ran audio for the school theater production club, came to her rescue and fixed the tape, leading her to thank him afterwards. Rachel's sister would later perform the same mime act at her funeral. In order to repay her parents for the Acura Legend they had given her, Scott worked at a Subway sandwich shop on West Coal Mine Avenue in Littleton shortly before she died. In one instance while working there, she felt remorse for not assisting a homeless woman who had come into the store and vowed to be more helpful to such people in the future. At the time of her death at age 17, Scott lived at 7282 South Vance Street in Littleton and was debating as to whether she should become an actress or a Christian missionary. She also had plans to visit Botswana as a member of a Christian outreach program to build homes in the upcoming summer before moving into her own apartment in late 1999. Murder Scott was eating lunch with her friend Richard Castaldo when she was shot four times with a Hi-Point 995 by Eric Harris on the lawn outside the west entrance of the school. Initially shot in the chest, left arm, and left leg, from a distance of 10 to 15 feet, she sustained a fourth and fatal wound to her left temple. Castaldo was shot eight times and permanently paralyzed from his injuries. Scott's body was left outside where she died and was not retrieved by the coroner until the following morning. Shortly after Rachel was murdered, Harris and Klebold went on a killing spree around the school, claiming 12 more lives and leaving 24 injured. The two perpetrators then committed suicide in the school library, the place where they slaughtered the most victims. Scott did not personally know Harris or Klebold. After the killings, Scott's car was turned into an impromptu memorial in the adjacent Clement Park after being moved from the school's parking lot by grieving students. A chain-link fence was also installed around the vehicle for mourners to attach their tokens of grief such as flowers, crucifixes, teddy bears, and letters of condolence. The car was ultimately covered by the objects left upon it by mourners. Scott's 16-year-old brother, Craig, was also at the school on the day of the massacre; he was in the library where most of the killings occurred; he survived unharmed, although two of his close friends were also murdered. Craig's last interaction with his sister before she died had occurred that morning; that was slamming a car door at her when being dropped off at school, for which he later expressed extreme regret. Funeral Scott was buried at Chapel Hill Memorial Gardens in Centennial on April 24, 1999, following a two-hour funeral service held at the Trinity Christian Center. Her funeral was one of the first services following the massacre and was attended by more than 1,000 people that included friends and staff at Columbine High School. The Reverend Porter began the service by addressing the congregation with the question, "What has happened to us as a people that this should happen to us?" He then addressed the solemn crowd with a speech that included references to Scott's pious character, kind nature and love of her fellow human, before stating: "You have graduated early from this life to a far better one, where there is no sorrow, violence or death." Her friends from the Orchard Road Christian Church Youth Group also sang a song at the service, composed in her honor, entitled "Why Did You Have to Leave?" Attendees were invited to talk at the service, as "My Heart Will Go On" was played. Those conveying their eulogies included one youth who had been considered an outcast at Columbine High School, who stated: "All my life I prayed that someone would love me and make me feel wanted. God sent me an angel," before staring at Scott's casket and weeping. Nick Baumgart, who accompanied Rachel to the high school prom as her date three days before her murder, also spoke, saying: "A truer friend, you couldn't find. You could be having the worst day of your entire life; all she had to do was smile." Scott's parents chose not to speak at the service, but issued a statement in which they described their daughter as "a girl whose love of life was constantly reflected in her love and zeal for music, drama, photography, and for her friends". Prior to her burial, mourners who had known Scott throughout her life were invited to write messages of condolence, grief and thankfulness on her ivory white casket. Her coffin was adorned with messages of love, gratitude, and grief. The funeral service was broadcast by CNN and MSNBC. Legacy Martyrdom The deaths of Scott and fellow student Cassie Bernall—also a Christian—during the Columbine massacre led both to be subsequently depicted and remembered by groups of evangelical Christians as Christian martyrs. This began during her funeral on April 24, 1999, which was televised. At the beginning of the ceremony, Barry Palser, a pastor from an Assemblies of God organization, gave a speech in which he said she was "one who has given [her] life for the Lord Jesus Christ, a modern-day martyr." Pastor Bruce Porter delivered a sermon later in the service, in which he called Rachel a "warrior" who carried "a torch that was stained by the blood of the martyrs from the very first day of the Church's existence". Porter then requested that others pick up the "torch" in Scott's wake. In the following year's numerous books—termed "hagiographies" by sociologist Ralph Larkin—were published about Scott and Bernall with the assistance of or authorship by their parents. Porter also wrote a book about Scott, making frequent references to sacrifice. Many web pages have been published that are specifically dedicated to Scott and she is prominently featured in more broadly themed Columbine memorial websites. Some of these sites explicitly or implicitly refer to Scott's belief in Christianity and suggest that she was killed because of it. Journalist Hanna Rosin framed public remembrance of her death as part of a phenomenon in which teenage Christians began obsessing over Christian-based death. Scott's mother and her brother Craig toured many schools across the United States years after the shooting to speak about Rachel's life, asserting that she probably died because of her religious beliefs. Christian churches used the martyr narrative of Scott's and Bernall's deaths to promote themselves and recruit members. The circumstances surrounding Scott's death and its relation to her religious beliefs are disputed in the martyr narrative. Journalist Wendy Murray Zoba argued that the shooters targeted evangelical Christians during the massacre. As evidence for this, she claimed that Scott was shot execution-style, though the official report published by police stated that Scott was shot from a distance of 10 to 15 feet. Scott's mother claimed that she had offered to be friends to Klebold, that Klebold was romantically interested in her, and that Klebold and Harris mocked her for her religious beliefs. Scott's mother also asserted that her daughter was on a "target list." Investigations in the years following the shooting—especially Dave Cullen's findings in his book Columbine—have concluded that Klebold and Harris were not targeting people for their religion, ethnicity, or gender. Scott did not know the two boys personally and was in a different academic grade than them. A frequent feature of Rachel's martyr story is that she had a verbal exchange with Klebold and Harris about her religious beliefs before they killed her. The Hollywood Reporter accounts that Richard Castaldo, who was shot while sitting with Scott and survived, "told a newspaper that not only did the killers ask Rachel about her faith but that he, too, was asked if he believed in God, and he answered truthfully that he did not, and his life was spared." Other sources report that Castaldo had survived by "playing dead". Castaldo was in a coma in the immediate aftermath of the shooting, and thus did not testify to police and his account was not included in the police report on the event. Castaldo said in his speech at Scott's funeral, "People tell me I said she said she believed in God, and I can't remember it," and Larkin wrote in 2007 that Castaldo "could not remember Klebold or Harris saying anything." Rachel's Tears Reviewing their daughter's life and hearing firsthand just how profound an impact Scott's simple acts of kindness had imprinted on the lives of those who had known her, as well as recalling her repeatedly stated desire for her life to have an impact for the better on others, Darrell Scott and Beth Nimmo were inspired to write the book Rachel's Tears, a non-fiction book about their daughter, her faith, her inspirational journal entries, and the impact of her loss on their lives. The book was published on the first anniversary of her death, and is incorporated into the Rachel's Challenge program. Scott and Nimmo later published two more books inspired by their daughter and her legacy: Rachel Smiles: The Spiritual Legacy of Columbine Martyr Rachel Scott, and The Journals of Rachel Joy Scott: A Journey of Faith at Columbine High. These books were published in 2001 and 2002, respectively. Both parents have expressed their hope that those who did not know their daughter would find inspiration in the books' description of the principles their daughter had lived during her life. Rachel's Challenge After reading the essay, My Ethics; My Codes of Life, and the journals Scott had written in the last 16 months of her life, her father founded Rachel's Challenge in 2001. Rachel's Challenge is a national nonprofit and nonpolitical organization whose stated aims are to advocate a safe and positive climate and culture in schools in a campaign to quell school violence, bullying, discrimination, and both homicidal and suicidal thoughts in students. Through the more than 50 designated speakers and the international expansion of Rachel's Challenge, the annual international student outreach of the organization is estimated to be in excess of two million. The program itself typically involves a one-hour audio and video presentation, hosted by the Rachel's Challenge speaker, to assembled students, with the aim of motivating those present to analyze how they treat others. The Rachel's Challenge speakers include Darrell, Craig and Mike Scott; guest speakers include Nicole Nowlen, who was wounded at age 16 in the Columbine High School massacre, and Adam Kyler, a former Columbine student who had harbored suicidal thoughts until Rachel, noting he was the victim of bullying, offered her friendship and support. Each attendee is asked to pledge to accept the five principles discussed during the presentation before leaving the assembly: to eliminate any form of prejudice from their being, and seek only the best in others; to keep a journal and seek to achieve accomplishments; to choose to accept only positive influences in their lives; to commit to bringing a positive change in their home, school, and community through kind words, and undertaking tasks great and small; and to show care and compassion to those who are vulnerable, ridiculed, or in any form of need. A final impetus is to commit to Rachel's theory of the formation of a chain reaction through these five pledges by sharing these commitments with their family members, friends, and peers. At the close of the program, the audience is asked to close their eyes, and picture five or six people closest to them; they are then asked to tell them how much they mean to them. The initial presentation is followed by a 45-minute, interactive training session involving both adult and student leaders. Participants are trained to perpetuate the chain reaction of kindness envisioned by Scott. The participating school is provided with a curriculum and a training manual to ensure the continuity of the objectives of Rachel's Challenge, and the speaker typically holds a meeting later with parents and community leaders. Internationally, many schools have incorporated Rachel's Challenge into their internal character building programs, with active efforts made to eradicate any sense of alienation among the student population, and various initiatives implemented to increase cohesion. One initiative to achieve this objective is to establish a "Friends of Rachel" club, to sustain the campaign's goals on an ongoing basis. In addition, many students actively seek to honor Scott's theory of just one person displaying compassion having the potential to spark a chain reaction of the same by spreading her message of kindness, empathy and compassion with their fellow students. As a direct result of Rachel's Challenge, numerous child and teenage suicides have been prevented and in seven known cases, planned school shootings have been prevented. The Random Acts of Kindness Foundation posthumously awarded Scott the 2001 National Kindness Award for Student of the Year. The award was in recognition of her efforts to eradicate negativity, discord, and alienation in those she encountered during her life and to replace these negative influences with care and compassion. In the wake of the 2006 West Nickel Mines School shooting, Craig Scott was formally invited to address a National Council on issues relating to safety and security in schools. This meeting was held at the White House with president Bush and included White House staff and educators from across the nation. The conference focused on cultural issues and the accomplishments and personal experiences garnered through Rachel's Challenge. President Bush requested a copy of the speech, and Craig Scott was later invited back to the White House to speak further on these issues. In a direct recognition of the significant, ongoing, national benefits achieved in schools, colleges, and universities through Rachel's Challenge, the National Education Association of New York awarded Darrell Scott and Rachel's Challenge the "Friend of Education Award" in 2006. Darrell Scott was selected as the 2009 winner of the "All-Stars Among Us" initiative in recognition of his selfless dedication toward preserving his daughter's memory in a positive manner through Rachel's Challenge in the U.S. Along with 29 other recipients, Scott was formally honored as part of the 2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ceremonies, held in St. Louis, Missouri, on July 14 that year. At this ceremony, Darrell Scott stated: "Rachel loved to watch baseball. She had no clue that because of her memory ... I'd be here representing her." Both of Scott's parents have also spoken with entertainers, world leaders, and notable individuals including Miep Gies – one of the people who hid Anne Frank and her family from the Nazis, and preserved her diary after her capture. Darrell Scott has stated that reliving his daughter's death giving his Rachel's Challenge speeches is painful, but that he and his family consider the opportunity to be a worthwhile experience as they can turn a tragedy into triumph. He notes: "I feel that God has really called me to do this. To pick up the torch my daughter dropped. This is what my daughter would have wanted to see. If I died right now, I can tell you my daughter's prayer has been answered." Rachel's mother state on the 10th anniversary of her daughter's passing, "Only through eternal eyes will she ever know how powerful her life and death became." Media Film The 2016 film I'm Not Ashamed is directly based on the life and death of Scott. Directed by Brian Baugh and starring Masey McLain as Rachel Scott, the movie also uses some of the contents of Scott's journals for voice-overs. Books Nimmo, Beth; Klingsporn, Debra (2000). Rachel's Tears: The Spiritual Journey of Columbine Martyr Rachel Scott. Thomas Nelson Inc. Nimmo, Beth; Klingsporn, Debra (2001). The Journals of Rachel Joy Scott: A Journey of Faith at Columbine High. Thomas Nelson Inc. Scott, Darrell; Rabey, Steve (2001). Chain Reaction: A Call to Compassionate Revolution. Thomas Nelson Inc. Scott, Darrell; Rabey, Steve (2002). Rachel Smiles: The Spiritual Legacy of Columbine Martyr Rachel Scott. Thomas Nelson Inc. Scott, Darrell; Rabey, Steve (2009). Rachel's Tears: 10 Years after Columbine, Rachel Scott's Faith Lives on. Thomas Nelson Inc. See also Cassie Bernall Christianity in the United States Crime in Colorado Gun violence in the United States Notes References Cited works Further reading Brown, Brooks; Merritt, Robert (2002). No Easy Answers: The Truth Behind Death at Columbine High School. Lantern Books. . Cullen, David (2009). Columbine. Grand Central Publishing. 978-0-4465-4693-5 Keuss, Jeff; Sloth, Lia (2006). Rachel's Challenge: A Columbine Legacy. Positively for Kids. . Marsico, Katie (2010). The Columbine High School Massacre: Murder in the Classroom. Marshall Cavendish. . Scott, Darrell; Nimmo, Beth (2000). The Journal of Rachel Scott: A Journey of Faith at Columbine High. Thomas Nelson Inc. . Scott, Darrell; Nimmo, Beth; Rabey, Steve (2009). Rachel's Tears: 10th Anniversary Edition: The Spiritual Journey of Columbine. Thomas Nelson Inc. . Scott, Darrell; Rabey, Steve (2001). Chain Reaction: A Call to Compassionate Revolution. Thomas Nelson Publishers. . External links Contemporary news article detailing the funeral of Rachel Scott acolumbinesite.com: dedicated to those murdered, injured, and affected in the Columbine High School massacre Rachel's entry at acolumbinesite.com Official presentation video detailing the objectives and impact of Rachel's Challenge "My Ethics; My Codes of Life", as written by Rachel Scott one month before her death Rachel Joy Scott at Find a Grave Official website of I'm Not Ashamed Official website of Rachel's Challenge 1981 births 1999 deaths 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers American Christians American diarists American evangelicals American stage actresses American women non-fiction writers Burials in Colorado Columbine High School alumni Female murder victims Murdered American children Murdered American students People from Denver People murdered in Colorado Columbine High School massacre Women diarists 20th-century diarists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakili%20Muluzi

Bakili Muluzi

Elson Bakili Muluzi (born March 17, 1943 in Machinga, Nyasaland) is a Malawian politician who was the first freely elected president of Malawi from 1994 to 2004. He was also chairman of the United Democratic Front (UDF) until 2009. He succeeded Hastings Kamuzu Banda as Malawi's president. He also served in Banda's cabinet as minister without portfolio, before retiring in 1980. Presidency Muluzi was the candidate of the opposition UDF in the May 1994 presidential election, the country's first multiparty election. He won the election with 47% of the vote, defeating Malawi's leader since independence, Hastings Kamuzu Banda. There was no provision for a runoff election in Malawi, so this was enough for him to end Banda's 33-year rule (dating back to when Malawi was still a British colony). He was re-elected in June 1999, taking 52.4% of the vote and defeating challenger Gwanda Chakuamba who was the leader of the opposition movement. In 2002 he proposed an amendment to Malawi's constitution that would have allowed him to run for a third term, but this was abandoned in the face of demonstrations against him, as well as vigorous opposition from the legislature and courts. After serving two terms, he therefore handed over power to his successor after the May 2004 election, in which UDF candidate Bingu wa Mutharika (who was handpicked and groomed by Muluzi) was elected to succeed Muluzi as president. Muluzi came to lead the UDF after leaving the Banda government, and he became an advocate for democracy. Muluzi's time as President was marred by controversy and scandal, particularly due to the sale of Malawi's reserves of maize to other countries shortly before the onset of a drought, which resulted in famine throughout the country. Despite international pressure, the millions of dollars realized from the sale of Malawi's food reserves have never been turned over, and it is widely suspected that it wound up in foreign accounts belonging to Muluzi and his supporters. Post-presidency Even with the controversy and questionable dealings, Muluzi was a popular leader, particularly in the southern part of the country. He remained the Chairman of the UDF. After a dispute with his successor as president, Mutharika, the latter left the UDF and formed his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), in February 2005. In April 2005, Muluzi apologized to Malawians for choosing Mutharika as his successor "and imposing him on the country". On July 27, 2006, Muluzi was arrested on fraud and corruption charges; he was released on bail later that day. Hours after his arrest, the chief investigator Gustav Kaliwo was suspended by President Mutharika; Director of Public Prosecutions Ishmael Wadi said he had no choice but to drop the charges. Muluzi was once more arrested on 26 February 2009 and initially charged with 86 counts of corruption and abuse of office. The charges claimed that he had allegedly diverted 1.7 billion Malawi Kwacha (US$11m) of donor money into his personal account, funds that came from, among others, the Republic of China, the Kingdom of Morocco and Libya. As a former Commonwealth leader, Muluzi was invited by the Commonwealth Secretary-General to Chair the Commonwealth Observer Group which observed the 2012 general election in Lesotho. 2009 presidential candidacy In early March 2007, with many prominent members of the UDF calling for Muluzi to run for president in 2009, the party said that he would have until March 11 to declare whether he intended to run. Accordingly, on that date Muluzi announced that he would seek the party's nomination as its presidential candidate. The question of whether Muluzi is eligible to run again has raised some controversy. Because the constitution refers to a limit of two consecutive terms, this could be regarded as enabling Muluzi to run again after being out of office for a term. The Chairman of the Anti-Corruption Bureau (ACB), Alex Nampota, announced on March 17, 2008 that the ACB intended to prosecute Muluzi for allegedly diverting about 11 million dollars of donor money into his personal account; Nampota said that the ACB had asked the courts to lift an injunction that prevented it from questioning Muluzi. Kennedy Makwangwala, the Secretary-General of the UDF, denounced this as "political persecution". On April 24, 2008, a UDF convention chose Muluzi as the party's 2009 presidential candidate. He received 1,950 votes against 38 for Vice-President Cassim Chilumpha. On March 20, 2009 the Malawi Electoral Commission passed a judgement to bar Bakili Muluzi from running for the presidency for the third time. Muluzi challenged this, but on May 16, only three days before the election, the Constitutional Court ruled that Muluzi could not run again. By that point, Muluzi and the UDF had thrown their support behind the candidacy of John Tembo, the president of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). Muluzi announced on December 23, 2009, that he was retiring from active politics and that Friday Jumbe was replacing him as UDF leader. 2008 arrest After Mutharika formed the DPP in 2005, over 70 Members of Parliament joined the DPP; the opposition, including the UDF, has sought to have these MPs expelled from their seats for switching parties. In May 2008, Mutharika said that Muluzi was trying to remove him from office by depriving the DPP MPs of their seats; to press its demand for the removal of the DPP MPs, the opposition had refused to debate any government bills. Mutharika called Muluzi a "coward" and accused him of treason. Speaking on Joy Radio, a station he owns, on May 12, 2008, Muluzi denied any plot against Mutharika and expressed exasperation with threats made by Mutharika. Eight prominent associates of Muluzi were arrested shortly afterward in connection with the alleged plot to overthrow Mutharika; an arrest warrant was also issued for Muluzi, who was in the United Kingdom at the time on holiday. In connection with the investigation into this alleged plot, police attempted to search Muluzi's home on May 14, but his guards barred them from entry. According to an aide to Muluzi, Humphrey Mvula, the police said that they wanted to remove guns from the home, but Mvula said that these guns had been issued by the police themselves for Muluzi's protection. On the same day, Muluzi said on Joy Radio that he would return to Malawi from the United Kingdom regardless of the alleged plot. By May 25, all but one of the eight arrested associates of Muluzi had been released on bail. When Muluzi returned on May 25, 2008, he was arrested at the airport in Lilongwe. Muluzi had planned to address a UDF rally upon his arrival, and police surrounded the stadium where the rally was to be held. Thousands of infuriated supporters of Muluzi clashed with the police and blocked roads following his arrest. Muluzi was promptly flown to Blantyre, placed under house arrest at his home in Limbe, near Blantyre, and interrogated. His home was also searched by the police. Muluzi was questioned for about two hours and was shown documents which purportedly linked him to the alleged plot. Speaking on Joy Radio on May 27, Muluzi said that the documents were "laughable and fake" and accused the government of attempting to "intimidate and silence the opposition". His lawyers said on the same day that they would seek bail for Muluzi. According to one lawyer, the only people allowed into Muluzi's home by the police were four lawyers and a bodyguard, and he had been asked to name family members and lawyers who would be given permission to visit. On May 29, Muluzi, who had still not been charged, appeared at the High Court in Blantyre for his bail application. On his arrival, he declared that the government was "useless". Fahad Assani, the head of Muluzi's legal team, described the arrest as "illegal and unconstitutional" and demanded his release from house arrest. According to Assani, because more than 48 hours had passed and Muluzi had not been charged, it was necessary for him to be released "without any conditions". Wezi Kayira, the Director of Public Prosecutions, urged the court to reject the bail application, stressing that treason was "a very serious offence which carries a heavy penalty"; he said that investigations were continuing and expressed concern that they "would be jeopardised and evidence tampered with". Kayira also requested that the court impose "very strict conditions" if it chose to grant bail. Judge Joseph Manyumgwa granted Muluzi bail on May 30, saying that in the absence of any charges against Muluzi he had to be released. According to Manyumgwa, Muluzi had the right to bail regardless of "the gravity of the alleged offence". Kayira said the investigation was ongoing and that charges would follow. Allegations of intimidation and 2009 legal charges Speaking to Capital Radio on 22 February 2009, Muluzi accused the government of using intimidation against his presidential candidacy and warned that such conduct could lead to "problems". A few days later, he was charged by the Anti-Corruption Bureau with stealing 12 million dollars of aid money; he appeared before a court in Blantyre and was released on bail. He appeared in court again on 12 March 2009 but failed to enter a plea on the 86 graft charges against him. Kalekeni Kaphale, a lawyer for Muluzi, asked for a delay, arguing that "this is the first time someone has been charged with such a volume of cases" in Malawi and that, since the defense had not seen the charges until early March, it needed "at least 14 days to study them to make proper responses". On 10 July 2014, Muluzi was appointed Special Commonwealth Envoy to Swaziland, an appointment endorsed by the president of Malawi, Peter Mutharika. Personal life Muluzi was Malawi's first Muslim president. He was married to, Annie Chidzira Muluzi and then Patricia Shanil Muluzi, while in office. After divorcing Annie Muluzi, he married Shanil Muluzi. His children include Austin Atupele Muluzi. He is father-in-law to Angela Zachepa. Muluzi's first born daughter, Esme Atweni Muluzi, died after lightning struck her on December 12, 2016. She was pronounced dead in Mwaiwathu Private Hospital. References External links personal website Muluzi, Bakili Living people People from Machinga District Malawian Muslims United Democratic Front (Malawi) politicians Presidents of Malawi Malawian democracy activists Heads of government who were later imprisoned

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th%20Cavalry%20Regiment

7th Cavalry Regiment

The 7th Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army cavalry regiment formed in 1866. Its official nickname is "Garryowen", after the Irish air "Garryowen" that was adopted as its march tune. The regiment participated in some of the largest battles of the Indian Wars, including the infamous Battle of Little Bighorn, where its enigmatic commander, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, made his last stand. The 7th Cavalry became part of the 1st Cavalry Division in the 1920s and went on to fight in the Pacific Theater of World War II, and several key battles of the Korean War, in which it committed the No Gun Ri massacre, and participated in the Vietnam War. It distinguished itself in the Gulf War and in the Global War on Terror where its squadrons and battalions now serve as Combined Arms Battalions (involving tanks and mechanized infantry) or as reconnaissance squadrons for Brigade Combat Teams. American Indian Wars At the end of the American Civil War, the ranks of the Regular cavalry regiments had been depleted by war and disease, as were those of the other Regular regiments. Of the 448 companies of cavalry, infantry, and artillery authorized, 153 were not organized, and few, if any, of these were at full strength. By July 1866 this shortage had somewhat eased since many of the members of the disbanded Volunteer outfits had by then enlisted as Regulars. By that time, however, it became apparent in Washington, D.C. that the Army, even at full strength, was not large enough to perform all its duties. It needed occupation troops for the Reconstruction of the South and it needed to replace the Volunteer regiments still fighting Native Americans in the West. Consequently, on 28 July 1866 Congress authorized 4 additional cavalry regiments and enough infantry companies to reorganize the existing 19 regiments (then under two different internal organizations) into 45 regiments with 10 companies each. After this increase there were 10 regiments of cavalry, 5 of artillery, and 45 of infantry. The new cavalry regiments, numbered 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th, were organized under the same tables as the 6 already in existence. A regiment consisted of 12 companies formed into 3 squadrons of 4 companies each. Besides the commanding officer who was a colonel, the regimental staff included 7 officers, 6 enlisted men, a surgeon, and 2 assistant surgeons. Each company was authorized 4 officers, 15 non-commissioned officers, and 72 privates. A civilian veterinarian accompanied the regiment although he was not included in the table of organization. The 7th Cavalry Regiment was constituted in the Regular Army on 28 July 1866 at Fort Riley, Kansas and organized on 21 September 1866. Andrew J. Smith, a Veteran of the Mexican–American War, who had been a distinguished cavalry leader in the Army of the Tennessee during the Civil War, promoted to colonel, took command of the new regiment. Smith, however, commanded for only five months before Brevet Major General (Lieutenant Colonel) George Armstrong Custer assumed command on 26 February 1867. Custer graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1861 as the "class goat," (i.e., last in his class) served with the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, and later commanded the Michigan Brigade (Wolverines) from 1863 to 1865. He was brevetted to Major General on 29 June 1863. Soon after taking command in early 1867, Custer led the 7th Cavalry out onto the Kansas plains to protect the westward movement of pioneers. That same year, Custer was relieved of his command for pursuing a band of Sioux and Cheyenne at such a rapid pace that several men deserted. He issued orders to shoot on sight and one man was killed while three were wounded. After one year without pay or a command, Custer returned to the 7th in 1868 and began preparations for a winter campaign. First campaigns On 26 November 1868, Custer's Osage scouts located the trail of an Indian war party. Custer's troops followed this trail all day without a break until nightfall, when they rested briefly until there was sufficient moonlight to continue. They followed the trail to Chief Black Kettle's village, where Custer divided his force into four parts, moving each into position so that at first daylight they could simultaneously converge on the village. (Separating his forces into several columns in order to surround the faster Indians before they could flee became one of the 7th Cavalry's standard operating procedures.) At daybreak, the 7th charged as the Regimental band played Garryowen (many of the musicians' lips froze to their instruments), Double Wolf awoke and fired his gun to alert the village; he was among the first to die in the charge. The Cheyenne warriors hurriedly left their lodges to take cover behind trees and in deep ravines. The 7th Cavalry soon controlled the village, but it took longer to quell all remaining resistance. The Osage, enemies to the Cheyenne, were at war with most of the Plains tribes. The Osage scouts led Custer toward the village, hearing sounds and smelling smoke from the camp long before the soldiers. The Osage did not participate in the initial attack, fearing that the soldiers would mistake them for Cheyenne and shoot them. Instead, they waited behind the color-bearer of the 7th Cavalry on the north side of the river until the village was taken. The Osage rode into the village, where they took scalps and helped the soldiers round up fleeing Cheyenne women and children. Black Kettle and his wife, Medicine Woman, were shot in the back and killed while fleeing on a pony. Following the capture of Black Kettle's village, Custer was in a precarious position. As the fighting began to subside, he saw large groups of mounted Indians gathering on nearby hilltops and learned that Black Kettle's village was only one of many Indian encampments along the river, where thousands of Indians had gathered. Fearing an attack, he ordered some of his men to take defensive positions while the others seized the Indians' property and horses. They destroyed what they did not want or could not carry, including about 675 ponies and horses. They spared 200 horses to carry prisoners. Near nightfall, fearing the outlying Indians would find and attack his supply train, Custer began marching his forces toward the other encampments. The surrounding Indians retreated, at which point Custer turned around and returned to his supply train. This engagement would soon be known as the Battle of Washita River. Yellowstone Expedition From 20 June – 23 September 1873, Custer led ten companies of the 7th Cavalry in the Yellowstone Expedition of 1873, during which, they fought several engagements with the Lakota Sioux Indians. The first of which was the Battle of Honsinger Bluff, on 4 August 1873. Near present-day Miles City, Montana, the 7th Cavalry's horses were grazing when a raiding party led by Chief Rain-in-the-Face approached upon them. Custer ordered the men to saddle up and began pursuit of the band alongside LT Calhoun and his aide, LT William W. Cooke. The Indians retreated into a wooded area, where a hidden force of 100–300 rode out to counterattack. Custer and his men retreated, covered by C Company (led by CPT Thomas Custer, George's younger brother), and dismounted his troops, forming a semicircular perimeter along a former channel of the Yellowstone in a wooded area. The bank of the dry channel served as a natural parapet. The Indian forces laid siege to the cavalry troops, but with little effect. About an hour into the battle, a force of nearly 50 warriors attempted to flank the cavalry's perimeter by traveling down along the river. They were hidden by the high bank, however a scout accompanying them was spotted and drew fire. The group, thinking they had been discovered, retreated. The flanking tactic having failed, the Indians set fire to the grass hoping to use the smoke as a screen to approach the cavalry perimeter. However, 7th Cavalry Troopers likewise used the smoke as a screen to move closer to the Indian forces and the tactic did not favor either side. The siege continued for about three hours in reported heat. The 7th Cavalry's senior veterinary surgeon, Dr. John Horsinger, was riding approximately 2–3 miles from the battle with Suttler Augustus Baliran, and believed the sporadic shooting in the distance to be Custer's men hunting game. When warned by an Arikara scout, he ignored him. Meanwhile, PVTs Brown and Ball of CPT Yates' Troop were napping by the river. Ball saw Dr. Horsinger and rode to join him, however, Chief Rain in the Face and five warriors ambushed the men and killed all three. PVT Brown, unnoticed by the Indians, galloped toward friendly positions yelling "All down there are killed!" The remaining 7th Cavalry elements, under 2LT Charles Braden, charged the Indian positions. Simultaneously, Custer ordered his men to break out of the woods and charge, effectively scattering the Indians and forcing them to withdraw. A few days later, on the morning of 11 August 1873, the 7th Cavalry was encamped along the north side of the Yellowstone River near present-day Custer, Montana. In the early morning hours the Battle of Pease Bottom began when warriors from the village of Sitting Bull started firing at Custer's camp from across the river. By dawn skirmishing had broken out in several locations. After shooting at least 3 warriors across the river, Private John Tuttle of Company E, 7th Cavalry was killed in the morning fighting, warriors then crossed the Yellowstone River above and below the camp of the 7th Cavalry and attacked Custer's troops. The 7th Cavalry successfully defended their rear, front and center from this attack, then counter-attacked with a charge, breaking the warrior positions and driving the warriors eight or more miles from the battlefield. At about the same time, Colonel Stanley's column appeared in the distance several miles away and hurried to support the engagement. During the battle Second Lieutenant Charles Braden of the 7th Cavalry was critically wounded, along with three other Privates of the same regiment. Braden's thigh was shattered by an Indian bullet and he remained on permanent sick leave until his retirement from the Army in 1878. He would posthumously be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1925 for his actions during the battle. At least one army horse was wounded during the engagement. Indian losses were unknown, however, estimates from Custer's post-battle report claim "their losses in killed and wounded were beyond all proportion to that which they were enabled to inflict on us, our losses being one officer badly wounded, four men killed, and three wounded. Careful investigation justifies the statement that including both day's battles, the Indian losses will number forty warriors, while their wounded on the opposite bank of the river may increase this number." The Black Hills and Yellowstone Over the next several years, the 7th Cavalry Regiment was involved in several important missions in the American West; one of which was the Black Hills Expedition in 1874. The Troopers escorted prospectors into the Black Hills of South Dakota (considered sacred by many Indians, including the Sioux) to protect them as they searched for gold. In 1875, several 7th Cavalry Troops escorted a railroad survey team into the Yellowstone River Valley. This expedition brought them into constant contact with Native raiding parties. Custer repeatedly requested to share surplus food and grain with the Indians in order to prevent conflict, but was denied by the Standing Rock Indian Agency under the Department of the Interior. Corrupt Indian agents in the area sold food, supplies, and weapons promised to the Natives to white settlers, and what they did sell to the Indians was at unreasonable prices. Given their treatment at the hand of the Indian Agency, the Indians were forced to migrate. Custer found President Ulysses S. Grant's brother Orvil Grant to be the worst culprit of all. He was corrupt, paid and took bribes, and was accused of cheating, abuse, and dishonesty. President Grant promptly relieved COL Custer of his position when the latter spoke the truth about Orvil and other agents. The Battle of the Little Bighorn General Philip H. Sheridan intervened, however, and had Custer returned to his command in early 1876 in order to join the upcoming campaign against the Dakota Sioux. Custer's 7th Cavalry Regiment would be under the command of General Alfred H. Terry, and departed Fort Abraham Lincoln on 17 May 1876. The plan for the 1876 Sioux Expedition involved three marching columns under the commands of Major General George Crook, Colonel Custer, and Major General John Gibbon. Crook's column was stopped by the Indians at the Battle of the Rosebud, leaving two columns remaining. The 7th marched on 22 June with 700 troopers and Native Scouts, and made contact with the Indians the next day, causing him to turn west towards the Little Bighorn River. On 24 June, Custer's Arikara and Osage scouts identified a party of Sioux shadowing their movements, but they fled when approached. That night, Custer gave his attack plans for 25 June 1876, precipitating the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Reno's attack The first group to attack was Major Marcus Reno's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village's size, location, or the warriors' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle." Reno's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3:00 pm on 25 June. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away." Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty-man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow-shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap" and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment. He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard Army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), the mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno's line. After about 20 minutes of long-distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one), and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno's line, turning Reno's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position. After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me," and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13–18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno's face. Reno and Benteen on Reno Hill Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno's depleted and shaken troops were joined by Captain Frederick Benteen's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been returning from a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs.". Benteen's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were soon reinforced by CPT Thomas Mower McDougall's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all-around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4:20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno's badly wounded and hard-pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer's position. Around 5:00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5:25 pm, Custer's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill" at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill, some minutes earlier. The destruction of CPT Myles Keogh's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing attacks around Weir Ridge by natives coming from the concluded Custer engagement forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter-mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position. Benteen was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier's positions. Custer's fight The precise details of Custer's fight are largely conjectural since none of the men who went forward with Custer's battalion (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are useful, but sometimes conflicting and unclear. While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen's men was probably from Custer's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry's arrival on 27 June. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about to the north of Reno and Benteen's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included an apparent skirmish line on Calhoun Hill and apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in a state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell. Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right-handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill". There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry's casualties. Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle. According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes-Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "...and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two-bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag". In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big-nose. However, in Chief Gall's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men". Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died. By the end of the day on 26 June 1876, the 7th Cavalry Regiment has been effectively destroyed as a fighting unit. Although MAJ Reno's and CPT Benteen's commands managed to make good their escape, 268 Cavalrymen and Indian scouts lay dead. Among the fallen was Custer's younger brother, Thomas Custer, in command of C Company. Other 7th Cavalry officers who were killed or wounded in action include; Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, Regimental Commander 1st Lt. William W. Cooke, Adjutant Assistant Surgeon George Edwin Lord Acting Assistant Surgeon James Madison DeWolf 2nd Lt. Charles Varnum, Chief of Scouts (detached from A Company, wounded) 2nd Lt. Benjamin Hodgson, Adjutant to Major Reno Capt. Thomas Custer, C Company Commander 2nd Lt. Henry Moore Harrington, C Company 1st Lt. Algernon Smith, E Company Commander 2nd Lt. James G. Sturgis, E Company Capt. George Yates, F Company Commander 2nd Lt. William Reily, F Company 1st Lt. Donald McIntosh, G Company Commander Capt. Myles Keogh I Company Commander 1st Lt. James Porter, I Company 1st Lt. James Calhoun, L Company Commander 2nd Lt. John J. Crittenden, L Company Nez Perce War In 1877, one year after the 7th Cavalry's defeat at the Little Bighorn, the Nez Perce War began. The Nez Perce were a coalition of tribal bands led by several chiefs; Chief Joseph and Ollokot of the Wallowa band, White Bird of the Lamátta band, Toohoolhoolzote of the Pikunin band, and Looking Glass of the Alpowai band. Together, these bands refused to be relocated from their tribal lands to a reservation in Idaho, a violation of the 1855 Treaty of Walla Walla. When a US Army expedition loomed, the Nez Perce attempted to break out and flee to Canada to seek the aid of Sitting Bull, who had fled there after the Battle of Little Bighorn. Battle of Canyon Creek As the Army pursued the Indians through Idaho into Montana, elements of the 7th Cavalry joined the chase. Major Lewis Merrill and Captain Frederick Benteen, a veteran of the Little Bighorn, each led a battalion of the 7th. Merrill's Battalion consisted of Company F (CPT James M. Bell), Company I (CPT Henry J. Nowlan), and Company L (1LT John W. Wilkinson). Benteen's Battalion consisted of Company G (1LT George O. Wallace), Company H (2LT Ezra B. Fuller), and Company M (CPT Thomas H. French). In September 1877, these battalions were with COL Samuel D. Sturgis's column when they caught up to the Nez Perce raiding ranches up and down the Yellowstone River. The 7th Cavalry troopers were exhausted from their forced march and anticipated a rest after they crossed the Yellowstone River on the morning of 13 September, but Crow scouts reported the Nez Perce were moving up Canyon Creek six miles away. Seeing an opportunity, Sturgis sent Major Merrill and his battalion ahead atop a long ridge to head off the Nez Perce traversing the shallow canyon below. Benteen's battalion followed, while Sturgis stationed himself with the rear guard. Merrill was halted on the ridge by a scattering of rifle shots from Nez Perce warriors. In the words of his civilian scout, Stanton G. Fisher, Merrill's battalion dismounted and deployed "instead of charging which they should have done." According to Yellow Wolf, a single Nez Perce, Teeto Hoonod, held up the advance for a crucial ten minutes, firing 40 well-aimed shots at the cavalry from behind a rock. The caution of the soldiers was perhaps due to the formidable reputation of the Nez Perce for military prowess and marksmanship. Gale-force winds impacted marksmanship, a factor explaining low casualties on both sides. When Sturgis arrived at the battleground, he perceived that his troops still had the possibility of capturing the Nez Perce horse herd. He sent Captain Benteen and his men on a swing to the left to plug the exits from the canyon and trap the women, children, and horses. Merrill was told to advance into the canyon to threaten the rear of the Nez Perce column, but he was held up by an increasing number of Nez Perce warriors firing at long distance at his soldiers. He succeeded only in capturing a few horses. Benteen also ran into opposition and was unable to head off the horse herd, the Nez Perce occupying high ground and firing at the soldiers. A rearguard of the Nez Perce held off the soldiers until nightfall. Most of their horse herd and their women and children reached the plains and continued north. Three Troopers were killed and eleven wounded (one mortally) when the shooting stopped. Martha Jane Cannary, better known as "Calamity Jane," accompanied the wounded by boat down the Yellowstone River as a nurse. According to Yellow Wolf, three Nez Perce were killed and three wounded. Despite pursuing the band for two days (traveling 37 miles the first day alone), the weary 7th was unable to catch up to their quarry. They awaited reinforcements and supplies on the Musselshell River for two days and continued on once they arrived. Battle of Bear Paw In late September, the US Army expedition finally caught up with Chief Joseph's band of Nez Perce. Under General Oliver Otis Howard and Colonel Nelson A. Miles the expedition consisted of a Battalion of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, a Battalion of the 5th Infantry Regiment, Cheyenne and Lakota scouts (many of which had fought against Custer at the Little Bighorn a year earlier), and a Battalion of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. The 7th Cavalry element was commanded by Captain Owen Hale and consisted of Company A (CPT Myles Moylan), Company D (CPT Edward Settle Godfrey), and Company K (under CPT Owen Hale himself). Captains Moylan and Godfrey were both survivors of the Battle of Little Bighorn, as were many of their men, making them a battle-hardened outfit. On 30 September 1877, the Battle of Bear Paw began. Miles' Indian scouts located the Nez Perce camp and the Cavalry were hastily deployed. At 9:15 AM, while still about six miles from the camp, the cavalry started at a trot, organized as follows: the 30 Cheyenne and Lakota scouts led the way, followed by 160 Troopers of the 2nd Cavalry. The 2nd Cavalry was ordered to charge into the Nez Perce camp. 110 Troopers of the 7th Cavalry followed the 2nd as support on the charge into the camp. 145 Soldiers of the 5th Infantry, mounted on horses, followed as a reserve with a Hotchkiss gun and the pack train. Miles rode with the 7th Cavalry. The Nez Perce camp was alerted by sentries to the US charge and quickly began to prepare. Women and children rushed north towards Canada, some Nez Perce began gathering the horse herd, some began packing up the camp, and the warriors prepared to fight. Rather than rushing the camp directly, the Cheyenne scouts veered off to the Nez Perce horse herd for plunder, and the 2nd Cavalry followed them. However, the 7th under CPT Hale followed the plan and charged into the enemy camp. As they approached, a group of Nez Perce rose up from a coulee and opened fire, killing and wounding several soldiers, forcing them to fall back. Miles ordered two of the three companies in the 7th Cavalry to dismount and quickly brought up the mounted infantry, the 5th, to join them in the firing line. Hale's Company K meanwhile had become separated from the main force and was also taking casualties. By 3:00 PM, Miles had his entire force organized and on the battlefield and he occupied the higher ground. The Nez Perce were surrounded and had lost all their horses. Miles ordered a charge on the Nez Perce positions with the 7th Cavalry and one company of the infantry, but it was beaten back with heavy casualties. At nightfall on 30 September, Miles' casualties amounted to 18 dead and 48 wounded, including two wounded Indian scouts. The 7th Cavalry took the heaviest losses. Its 110 men suffered 16 dead and 29 wounded, two of them mortally. The Nez Perce had 22 men killed, including three leaders: Joseph's brother Ollokot, Toohoolhoolzote, and Poker Joe – the last killed by a Nez Perce sharpshooter who mistook him for a Cheyenne. Several Nez Perce women and children had also been killed. Miles later said of the battle that "the fight was the most fierce of any Indian engagement I have ever been in....The whole Nez Perce movement is unequalled in the history of Indian warfare." The end of the pitched battle marked the beginning of a long siege while negotiations commenced. As the year 1877 began falling to winter, the cold siege ended when Chief Joseph surrendered, famously saying Crow War In 1887, the state of Montana was host to a minor war between the Crow and the Blackfoot Indians where both tribes raided each other's reservations in order to steal horses. In late spring, a Blackfoot war party made off with several Crow horses, prompting Crow war-leader Sword Bearer to lead a retaliatory raid against his Chief's decision. The raid stepped off in September, and the war party consisted of teenage braves eager to prove themselves in battle. During the raid, a number of Blackfoot braves were killed and the Crow recovered their horses without loss, but when they returned to the reservation, on 30 September, Sword Bearer made the mistake of showing off his victory to the Indian agent, Henry E. Williamson, who was known for being disliked by the native population. In what was called the Crow Incident, Sword Bearer and his men circled around Williamson's home and fired into the air and at the ground near Williamson's feet, prompting him to wire the Army at Fort Custer for help. When the Army force arrived, their cannon failed to fire, allowing Sword Bearer and his men to flee into the Big Horn Mountains. An expedition under Brigadier General Thomas H. Ruger and Colonel Nathan Dudley was sent to occupy the reservation to hamper Sword Bearer's recruitment. The force included five troops of the 1st Cavalry Regiment, one Company from the 3rd Infantry Regiment, and A Company from the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Captain Myles Moylan, a veteran of the Battle of Little Bighorn and a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Bear Paw. Heading into the mountains on 4 November 1887, the expedition caught up with the Crow band camped on the Little Bighorn River, some three miles from the site of Custer's Last Stand (some of Sword Bearer's followers were veterans of the battle). Company A, 7th Cavalry was posted on the right flank of the US line at the time of the battle. Sword Bearer charged with 150 mounted warriors but was repulsed and forced to retreat to a series of rifle pits dug into a wooded area near the river. The American cavalry then counterattacked. In the words of Private Morris; "The cavalry charged and took a volley from the Indian camp. At 200 yards we leaped from our horses and flattened out behind clumps of sagebrush. We traded shots for a while, until two Hotchkiss field guns on the hill began dumping two-inch into the Indian camp. That broke them." During the fighting, Sword Bearer attempted to encourage his men by riding out in front of the soldiers but he was struck by rifle fire and fell to the ground wounded. Eventually some of the Crow began to surrender but Sword Bearer and the others remained in the mountains, only to surrender later on to the Crow police. It was during the march out of the Big Horn that one of the policemen shot Sword Bearer in the head, killing him instantly and ending the war. One soldier was killed and two others were wounded during what is now called the Battle of Crow Agency. Seven Crow warriors were killed and nine were wounded. An additional nine men were also taken prisoner and all of those who hadn't taken part in the battle were taken to Fort Snelling, Minnesota. The expedition returned to Fort Custer on 13 November. Ghost Dance War In 1890, a great phenomena spread among the Indian tribes of the Great Plains. It was called the Ghost Dance, and it promised its believers that the white man would be thrown from the American continent, and the bison herds would be returned to their former range and size. White settlers near the Standing Rock Indian Reservation were alarmed by the number of Ghost Dance performers, which included the famous Lakota Chief Sitting Bull. James McLaughlin, the Standing Rock Indian Agent, requested military aid to stop what he saw as the beginnings to a dangerous uprising. Military leaders wanted to use Buffalo Bill Cody, a friend of Sitting Bull's, as an intermediary to avoid violence, but were overruled by McLaughlin who sent in the Indian agency police to arrest Sitting Bull. On 15 December 1890, forty Indian Police arrived at Sitting Bull's house to arrest him. When he refused, the police moved in, prompting Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, to fire his rifle, hitting LT Bullhead. LT Bullhead responded by shooting Sitting Bull in the chest, and Policeman Red Tomahawk subsequently shot the Chief in the head, killing him. Fearing reprisals for the incident, 200 of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa fled to join Chief Spotted Elk at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation. Spotted Elk, in turn, fled to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to join Chief Red Cloud. A detachment of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under Major Samuel Whitside was sent to maintain order, and on 28 December they met with Red Cloud's band southwest of Porcupine Butte as they moved to Pine Ridge. John Shangreau, a scout and interpreter who was half Sioux, advised the troopers not to disarm the Indians immediately, as it would lead to violence. The troopers escorted the Native Americans about five miles westward to Wounded Knee Creek where they told them to make camp. Later that evening, Colonel James W. Forsyth and the rest of the 7th Cavalry arrived, bringing the number of troopers at Wounded Knee to 500. Wounded Knee At daybreak on 29 December 1890, Forsyth ordered the surrender of weapons and the immediate removal of the Lakota from the "zone of military operations" to awaiting trains. A search of the camp confiscated 38 rifles, and more rifles were taken as the soldiers searched the Indians. None of the old men were found to be armed. A medicine man named Yellow Bird allegedly harangued the young men who were becoming agitated by the search, and the tension spread to the soldiers. Yellow Bird began to perform the Ghost Dance, telling the Lakota that their "ghost shirts" were bulletproof. As tensions mounted, Black Coyote refused to give up his rifle; he spoke no English and was deaf, and had not understood the order. Another Indian said: "Black Coyote is deaf," and when the soldier persisted, he said, "Stop. He cannot hear your orders." At that moment, two soldiers seized Black Coyote from behind, and (allegedly) in the struggle, his rifle discharged. At the same moment, Yellow Bird threw some dust into the air, and approximately five young Lakota men with concealed weapons threw aside their blankets and fired their rifles at Troop K of the 7th. After this initial exchange, the firing became indiscriminate. At first all firing was at close range; half the Indian men were killed or wounded before they had a chance to get off any shots. Some of the Indians grabbed rifles from the piles of confiscated weapons and opened fire on the soldiers. With no cover, and with many of the Indians unarmed, this lasted a few minutes at most. While the Indian warriors and soldiers were shooting at close range, other soldiers (from Battery E, 1st Artillery) used the Hotchkiss guns against the tipi camp full of women and children. It is believed that many of the soldiers were victims of friendly fire from their own Hotchkiss guns. The Indian women and children fled the camp, seeking shelter in a nearby ravine from the crossfire. The officers had lost all control of their men. Some of the soldiers fanned out and finished off the wounded. Others leaped onto their horses and pursued the Natives (men, women, and children), in some cases for miles across the prairies. In less than an hour, at least 150 Lakota had been killed and 50 wounded. Historian Dee Brown, in Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, mentions an estimate of 300 of the original 350 having been killed or wounded and that the soldiers loaded 51 survivors (4 men and 47 women and children) onto wagons and took them to the Pine Ridge Reservation. Army casualties numbered 25 dead and 39 wounded. Drexel Mission Fight On 30 December 1890, the day after Wounded Knee, COL Forsyth and 8 Troops of the 7th Cavalry and one platoon of Artillery (the same units that had been engaged at Wounded Knee), conducted a reconnaissance to see if the nearby Catholic Mission had been torched by the Indians. In what became known as the Drexel Mission Fight, the 7th Cavalry was ambushed in a valley by Brulé Lakota under Chief Two Strike from the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Struggling through the thick snow and pinned in the valley, the Troopers' situation was perilous. After exchanging fire with the Indians, the shots were heard by the nearby 9th Cavalry (Buffalo Soldiers) under Major Guy Vernor Henry who rode to the rescue. The Indians were driven off. The 7th Cavalry suffered 2 killed and 7 wounded; 1LT James D. Mann – Troop K, DOW PVT Dominick Franceshetti – Troop G, KIA PVT Marrion C. Hillock – Troop B, WIA PVT William S. Kirkpatrick – Troop B, WIA PVT Peter Claussen – Troop C, WIA PVT William Kern – Troop D, WIA Farrier Richard J. Nolan – Troop I, WIA 1SG Theodore Ragnor – Troop K, WIA Medal of Honor recipients A total of 45 men earned the Medal of Honor while serving with the 7th Cavalry during the American Indian Wars: 24 for actions during the Battle of the Little Bighorn, two during the Battle of Bear Paw, 17 for being involved in the Wounded Knee Massacre or an engagement at White Clay Creek the next day, and two during other actions against the Sioux in December 1890. Little Bighorn, 25–26 June 1876 Private Neil Bancroft, Troop A Private Abram B. Brant, Troop D Private Thomas J. Callan, Troop B Sergeant Banjamin C. Criswell, Troop B Corporal Charles Cunningham, Troop B Private Frederick Deetline, Troop D Sergeant George Geiger, Troop H Private Theodore W. Goldin, Troop G Sergeant Richard P. Hanley, Troop C Private David W. Harris, Troop A Private William M. Harris, Troop D Private Henry Holden, Troop D Sergeant Rufus D. Hutchinson, Troop B Blacksmith Henry W. B. Mechlin, Troop H Sergeant Thomas Murray, Troop B Private James Pym, Troop B Sergeant Stanislaus Roy, Troop A Private George D. Scott, Troop D Private Thomas W. Stivers, Troop D Private Peter Thompson, Troop C Private Frank Tolan, Troop D Saddler Otto Voit, Troop H Sergeant Charles H. Welch, Troop D Private Charles Windolph, Troop H Bear Paw, 30 September 1877 Captain Edward Settle Godfrey Captain Myles Moylan Sioux campaign, December 1890 Sergeant Bernhard Jetter, Troop K Private Adam Neder, Troop A Wounded Knee and White Clay Creek, 29–30 December 1890 Sergeant William G. Austin, Troop E Private Mosheim Feaster, Troop E First Lieutenant Ernest Albert Garlington First Lieutenant John Chowning Gresham Private Mathew H. Hamilton, Troop G Private Marvin C. Hillock, Troop B Private George Hobday, Troop A Sergeant George Loyd, Troop I Sergeant Albert W. McMillan, Troop E Farrier Richard J. Nolan, Troop I First Sergeant Theodore Ragnar, Troop K Private Thomas Sullivan, Troop E First Sergeant Frederick E. Toy, Troop C First Sergeant Jacob Trautman, Troop I Captain Charles Varnum, Troop B Sergeant James Ward, Troop B Private Hermann Ziegner, Troop E Overseas and the Mexican border From 1895 until 1899, the regiment served in New Mexico (Fort Bayard) and Oklahoma (Ft. Sill), then overseas in Cuba (Camp Columbia) from 1899 to 1902. An enlisted trooper with the Seventh Cavalry, "B" Company, from May 1896 until March 1897 at Fort Grant Arizona Territory was author Edgar Rice Burroughs. The regiment served in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War from 1904 through 1907, with a second tour from 1911 through 1915. Here they conducted counter-insurgency operations against Filipino guerrillas in the jungles and rural areas of the islands. Border war Back in the United States, the regiment was again stationed in the southwest, in Arizona (Camp Harvey J. Jones), where it patrolled the U.S.-Mexico border and later was part of the Mexican Punitive Expedition of 1916 to 1917. During this expedition, the 7th Cavalry executed what is regarded as America's "last true Cavalry charge" at the Battle of Guerrero. Colonel George A. Dodd, commanding a force of 370 from the 7th Cavalry, led his Troopers into the Mexican State of Chihuahua in pursuit of Pancho Villa. After riding 400 miles in 14 days, Dodd's exhausted Troopers finally caught up with Villa's force in the town of Guerrero on 29 March 1916. The 7th Cavalry was low on rations, and had to fight a battle against a well defended town. According to varying sources, there were between 200 and 500 Villistas at Guerrero, spread out across the town, and for the first couple of hours after the 7th Cavalry's arrival, Dodd had his men attempt to ascertain the number of enemy forces. It wasn't until 8:00 am that the order to attack was given. Dodd divided his command into three contingents with instructions to charge and surround the town in order to cut off the Villistas's avenue of escape. When the Americans charged, fighting erupted at three points. After the charge the Americans dismounted to fight the Mexicans on foot. Guerrero was flanked by mountains on two sides which made it difficult to surround the town and the Villistas used them for cover. There were also not enough cavalrymen to cover all of the escape routes so the majority of the Mexicans got away, including Pancho Villa. Part of the Villista army mounted up and retreated east through a valley. They were pursued by some of the American cavalrymen in a ten-mile running engagement. Another force of Mexicans calmly rode out of Guerrero, pretending to be Carrancistas by displaying a Mexican national flag, this group went unmolested by the 7th Cavalry. Villa lost his friend, General Elicio Hernandez, and fifty-five others killed in the battle and another thirty-five wounded. The Americans suffered only five wounded during a five-hour battle. Colonel Dodd and his men also captured thirty-six horses and mules, two machine guns, many small arms and some war supplies. Several condemned Carrancista prisoners were liberated. Initially the Battle of Guerrero was thought to be a great opening success in the campaign but it later proved to be a disappointment as it would be the closest they came to capturing Villa in battle. However, the battle was considered the "most successful single engagement of Pershing's Punitive Expedition." After the retreat the Villista army dispersed and for the next three months they no longer posed a significant threat to the United States military. Villa himself hid out in the hills while his knee healed. One day, not long after the battle, Villa was camped at the end of a valley and watched a troop of Pershing's cavalrymen ride by. Villa heard them singing "It's a Long Way to Tipperary," this would be the last time Americans got so close to the rebel. News of the victory was widely circulated in the United States, prompting the Senate's approval of Colonel Dodd's promotion to brigadier general. In December 1917, eight months after the American entry into World War I, the 7th Cavalry was assigned to the 15th Cavalry Division, an on-paper organization designed for service in France during World War I that was never more than a simple headquarters. This was because no significant role emerged for mounted troops on the Western Front during the 19 months between the entry of the United States into the war and the Armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918. The 7th Cavalry was released from this assignment in May 1918. On 15 June 1919, Pancho Villa fought his last battle with the Americans. At the Battle of Ciudad Juárez, Villista and Carrancista forces engaged in combat in Ciudad Juárez just south of El Paso, Texas across the Rio Grande. The 7th Cavalry was temporarily at Fort Bliss and responded to the battle when Villista snipers killed and wounded US Soldiers of the 82nd Field Artillery Regiment. The 12th Infantry Regiment, the 82nd Field Artillery, the 5th Cavalry Regiment, and the 7th Cavalry Regiment quickly crossed the Santa Fe Bridge into Mexico to deal with the threat. Advancing towards the enemy, the 7th Cavalry covered the main body's flank, and then, under the protection of artillery fire, charged the Villistas and routed them. Interwar period On 13 September 1921, 7th Cavalry Regiment was assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division, which assignment was maintained until 1957. The division and its 2nd Cavalry Brigade was garrisoned at Fort Bliss, Texas, while the 1st Cavalry Brigade was garrisoned at Douglas, Arizona. Additional garrison points were used as well. The 7th Cavalry Regiment continued to train as horse cavalry right up to the American entry into World War II, including participation in several training maneuvers at the Louisiana Maneuver Area on 26 April – 28 May 1940; 12–22 August 1940; and 8 August – 4 October 1941. World War II On 7 December 1941, the Empire of Japan attacked the US fleet anchored at Pearl Harbor, thrusting the United States into World War II, which had already been raging since 1939. The Troopers of the 1st Cavalry Division readied their horses, their equipment, and themselves for the coming war, and were finally alerted for deployment in 1943. Despite being a mounted Cavalry unit since 1866, the 7th Cavalry left its mounts behind in Texas as they left for war; the age of the horse-cavalry was over. The newly dismounted 7th Cavalry Regiment was sent to fight in the Pacific Theater of Operations and the last units left Fort Bliss for Camp Stoneman, CA in June 1943. On 3 July, the 7th Cavalry boarded the SS Monterey and the SS George Washington bound for Australia. The regiment arrived on 26 July, and was posted to Camp Strathpine, Queensland where they underwent six months of intensive jungle warfare training, and conducted amphibious assault training at nearby Moreton Bay. Admiralty Islands campaign In January 1944, the 7th Cavalry sailed for Oro Bay on the island of New Guinea. Despite the ongoing New Guinea Campaign, the 7th Cavalry was held in reserve and was organized into "Task Force Brewer" for another mission. On 27 February, TF Brewer embarked from Cape Sudest under the command of Brigadier General William C. Chase. Their objective was the remote Los Negros Island in the Admiralty Islands which had an important airfield occupied by the Japanese. The 5th Cavalry Regiment landed on 29 February and began the invasion. The morning of 4 March saw the arrival of the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry, which relieved the 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry. The next day Major General Innis P. Swift, the commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, arrived aboard Bush and assumed command. He ordered the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry to attack across the native skidway. The 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry therefore went back into the line to relieve them. While the relief was taking place, the Japanese launched a daylight attack. This was repulsed by the cavalrymen, with the help of artillery and mortar fire, but the American attack was delayed until late afternoon. It then ran into a Japanese minefield and by dawn the advance had only reached as far as the skidway. On the morning of 6 March, another convoy arrived at Hyane Harbour: five LSTs, each towing an LCM, with the 12th Cavalry and other units and equipment including five Landing Vehicles Tracked (LVTs) of the 592nd EBSR, three M3 light tanks of the 603rd Tank Company, and twelve 105mm howitzers of the 271st Field Artillery Battalion. The 12th Cavalry was ordered to follow the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry in its advance to the north, and to capture the Salami Plantation. The road to Salami was little more than a muddy track in which vehicles soon became bogged. The Japanese also obstructed the route with ditches, felled trees, snipers, and booby traps. Despite incessant rain and suicidal Japanese counterattacks, the 7th Cavalry captured their objectives and mop-up operations were being conducted from 10 to 11 March. Manus Island, to the west, was the next target. The main landing was to be at Lugos Mission, but General Swift postponed the landing there and ordered the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry to capture Hauwei. The landing was covered by the destroyers Arunta, Bush, Stockton and ; a pair of rocket-firing LCVPs and the LCM (flak), which fired 168  rockets; the guns of the 61st Field Artillery Battalion on Los Negros; and six Kittyhawks of No. 76 Squadron dropped bombs. The assault was made from three cargo-carrying LVTs. To save wear and tear, they were towed across Seeadler Harbour by LCMs and cut loose for the final run in to shore. The cavalrymen found well constructed and sited bunkers with interlocking fields of fire covering all approaches, and deadly accurate snipers. The next morning an LCM brought over a medium tank, for which the Japanese had no answer, and the cavalrymen were able to overcome the defenders at a cost of eight killed and 46 wounded; 43 dead Japanese naval personnel were counted. The 8th Cavalry Regiment began the main assault on Manus on 15 March and attacked the important Lorengau Airfield on 17 March. After initially quickly overrunning the enemy positions, the cavalry resumed its advance, and occupied a ridge overlooking the airstrip without opposition. In the meantime, the 7th Cavalry had been landed at Lugos from the LST on its second trip and took over the defense of the area, freeing the 2nd Squadron, 8th Cavalry to join the attack on Lorengau. The first attempt to capture the airstrip was checked by an enemy bunker complex. A second attempt on 17 March, reinforced by the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry and tanks, made good progress. The advance then resumed, with Lorengau itself falling on 18 March. Although there had been plenty of fighting, the main Japanese force on Manus had not been located. Advancing inland towards Rossum, the 7th Cavalry found it on 20 March. Six days of fighting around Rossum were required before the 7th and 8th Cavalry reduced the entrenched Japanese positions there. The Japanese bunkers, actually log and earth pillboxes, proved resistant to artillery fire. These weary Troopers were relieved by the 7th Cavalry on 18 March. That day, the 7th Cavalry attacked, and drove the enemy out of Lorengau Village. The Admiralty Islands campaign ended on 18 May 1944 with the islands and airfields secured and 3,317 Japanese dead. The 7th Cavalry Regiment suffered 43 killed in action, 17 wounded, and 7 dead from non-battle injuries. Having faced down suicidal Japanese counterattacks and a stubborn defense in the rainy jungles of the Southwest Pacific, the 7th Cavalry Troopers were now veterans. Battle of Leyte After a period of 5 months in rehabilitation and extensive combat training, the 7th Cavalry Regiment received instructions on 25 September 1944 to prepare for future combat operations. On 20 October, the regiment began the assault of Leyte Island. The Battle of Leyte began when the first waves of the 7th Cavalry Regiment stormed ashore at White Beach at 1000, H-Hour, and were met with small arms and machine gun fire. 1st Squadron-7th Cavalry Regiment (1-7 Cavalry) landed on the right flank and was to attack north into the Cataisan Peninsula to capture Tacloban Aerodrome. To the left, 2-7 Cavalry was to attack inland, capture San Jose, and seize a beachhead line west of Highway 1. They were met with slight opposition, and within the first 15 minutes, 2-7 Cavalry knocked out two Japanese defensive pillboxes firing into the landing zone. After a house-to-house assault, San Jose was captured by 1230. 2-7 Cavalry's largest obstacle was the terrain. "Directly beyond the landing beaches the troops ran into a man-enveloping swamp. All along the line, men cursed as they wallowed toward their objective in mud of arm-pit depth. This unexpectedly tough obstacle however, failed to deter their dogged advance." By 1545 2-7 Cavalry had crossed Highway No 1. Meanwhile, 1-7 Cavalry, under the command of Major Leonard Smith, had secured the Cataisan Peninsula and the Tacloban Airfield with the aid of the 44th Tank Battalion. All the 7th Cavalry's A-Day objectives had been seized before nightfall. The following day, 21 October 1944, saw 7th Cavalry begin the attack on Tacloban. At 0800, the 1st and 2nd Squadrons advanced abreast toward the city. 1-7 Cavalry entered the city and were overwhelmed by crowds of exuberant Filipinos giving them gifts of eggs and fruit. 2-7 Cavalry, meanwhile, was halted by a force of 200 Japanese entrenched in prepared fighting positions. The Regimental Weapons Troop and Anti-Tank Platoon arrived to break the stalemate but were quickly pinned down by machine gun fire from a bunker as well. PFC Kenneth W. Grove, an ammunition carrier, singlehandedly cut through the jungle, charged the bunker and killed the weapons crew, and allowed the advance to resume. By the end of 22 October the capital of Leyte and its hill defenses were securely in American hands. The 7th Cavalry was one day ahead of schedule, a fact partly explained by the unexpectedly light resistance of the Japanese and partly by the vigor of the 7th Cavalry's advance On 23 October, the 7th was relieved by the 8th Cavalry and prepared to undertake operations to secure the San Juanico Strait across from the island of Samar. On 24, 1 October 7th Cavalry landed at Babatngon at 1330 and sent out patrols to secure the beachhead. The landing was unopposed, and 1-7 Cavalry made several other over-water movements to secure the area, making the most of the scant Japanese resistance. By 27, 7 October Cavalry (minus 1st Squadron) was in reserve. 1-7 Cavalry, in Babatngon, was ordered to secure the Barugo and Carigara area. Troop C, under 1LT Tower W. Greenbowe, advanced on 28 October without incident, but received fire from Carigara. In the ensuing firefight, C Troop eliminated 75 enemies at the cost of 3 killed, 9 wounded, and 1 missing (the mutilated body of the missing man was found later) before withdrawing to Barugo, where it was joined by the rest of the Squadron on the 29th for an assault on Carigara. They attacked across the Canomontag River by using 2 native canoes, and occupied Carigara by 1200 with no resistance. After remaining in a reserve role, 2-7 Cavalry relieved elements of the 12th Cavalry operating in the central mountain range of the island. Between 11 and 14 December, they continually assaulted a series of well-defended ridges and hills and only were able to wrest control over them by calling in over 5,000 rounds of artillery support. The 1st Cavalry Division continued to push west toward the coast through the mountainous and dense jungle interior of the island. On the morning of 23 December 1944, 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry assault units pushed across Highway 2 and set up night positions on line with the other divisional units. They pushed off for the attack the next morning meeting only scattered resistance. By 29, 7 December Cavalry units reached the west coast, north of the village of Tibur, and drove north, capturing the town of Villaba, and killing 35 Japanese there. On 31 December, the Japanese launched four counterattacks on the 7th Cavalry, each starting with a bugle call. The first occurred at 0230 and the last one was at dawn. An estimated 500 enemy attacked the positions, but they were driven off by the stalwart defenders and by American artillery superiority. 77th Infantry Division elements began relieving the 7th Cavalry later that day. Leyte was soon declared secure, despite the large number of Japanese soldiers remaining hidden in the thick jungle of the island's interior, and elements of the 7th Cavalry were kept busy by conducting mop-up missions and patrols until their next big operation. Battle of Luzon For the forces of General MacArthur's Southwest Pacific Area the reconquest of Luzon and the Southern Philippines was the climax of the Pacific war. Viewed from the aspect of commitment of U.S. Army ground forces, the Luzon Campaign (including the seizure of Mindoro and the central Visayan Islands) was exceeded in size during World War II only by the drive across northern France. The Luzon Campaign differed from others of the Pacific war in that it alone provided opportunity for the employment of mass and maneuver on a scale even approaching that common to the European and Mediterranean theaters. The initial Army units in the invasion had landed on 9 January and secured a beachhead, but GEN MacArthur needed more forces on the island to begin his drive to Manila. Despite not receiving adequate rest and replacements from the Battle of Leyte, the 1st Cavalry Division was sent ahead to take part in the Battle of Luzon and landed in Lingayen Gulf on 27 January 1945. The 7th Cavalry quickly moved inland toward Guimba, but as A Troop passed through Labit, they were attacked by a Japanese ambush unit. Technical Sergeant John B. Duncan, of Los Angeles, CA, was cited for his courageous and determined effort to drive the attackers back. He succeeded in doing so, but was mortally wounded. GEN MacArthur ordered that the 1st Cavalry Division assemble three "Flying Columns" for the drive on Manila. The 7th Cavalry was tasked with providing security for them. As elements of the 8th Cavalry swung south, the 7th Cavalry advanced by foot and kept the Japanese occupied while their counterparts broke through. On 4 February 1945, LTC Boyd L. Branson, the Regimental operation officer from San Mateo, CA, earned the Silver Star by voluntarily leading the advance units over more than 40 miles of un-reconnoitered, enemy-held terrain. While the rest of the Division was fighting in Manila, the 7th Cavalry engaged the enemy near the Novaliches watershed east of the city to prevent their reinforcement. On 20 February, they handed over their positions to elements of the 6th Infantry Division and moved south to begin the attack on the Shimbu Line. Attacking eastward on the 20th, 2-7 Cavalry spearheaded deep into the Japanese line but were quickly fired upon by a heavy barrage of artillery. Drawing on their experiences from the Admiralties and Leyte for attacking entrenched enemy positions in mountainous jungle terrain, the Troopers advanced and destroyed the pillboxes and mortar positions. By 25 February, the 7th Cavalry was 2 kilometers from their objective at Antipolo. The advance continued, and on 4 March, the 7th Cavalry was hit by a strong Japanese counterattack that managed to destroy two of the American's supporting tanks before it was defeated. The battle for Antipolo was marked by bitter struggle in unforgiving terrain, and the 1st Cavalry Division was relieved by the 43rd Infantry Division on 12 March after finally capturing the ruined village. Out of the 92 Silver Stars awarded to men of the 1st Cavalry Division in their drive to Antipolo, the largest share went to men of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, with 41 being awarded. PFC Calvin T. Lewis, of Glasgow, KY, B Troop 7th Cavalry, was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism in defeating an enemy bunker. After his platoon was halted by accurate machine gun fire from a concealed bunker, he volunteered to go find it. Wielding a Browning Automatic Rifle, he located the position and poured heavy and accurate fire through the bunker's opening. After pinning the enemy down, he moved up and fired into the opening from close range, but was mortally wounded in doing so. Despite his wounds he continued to engage the enemy until all were killed. After being relieved in their sector on 20 April, the 7th Cavalry prepared for another mission; the capture of Infanta to the south. On 6 May 1945 the 7th Cavalry began moving south into the Santa Maria Valley toward Lamon Bay along Route 455. Along the hairpin curves of the highway, they encountered tough Japanese resistance at the Kapatalin Sawmill. For several days the advance was stalled as patrols reconnoitered the position and pinpointed targets for US Army Air Corps planes. They overran the enemy by mid-afternoon of 9 May. They had killed 350 Japanese for the loss of 4 KIA and 17 WIA. They reached Lamon Bay on 13 May. Sweeping aside Japanese resistance on their march to the coast, the 7th Cavalry Troopers occasionally encountered determined defenders, and the fighting along the advance was characterized by small unit action. On 18 May, A Troop was moving to Real when the lead platoon was pinned down by enemy rifle and machine gun fire. Thinking quickly, Lieutenant Joe D. Crane of Athens, TX led his platoon in a flanking maneuver and annihilated the enemy force, saving his comrades. Near Gumian on 22 May, D Troop was attacked by a large force of 150 Japanese with machine guns, mortars, grenades, and rifles. The foliage was thick enough to conceal the enemy, allowing them to come within ten yards of the Cavalrymen's positions before being detected. LT Charles E. Paul of Camden, AR moved to an observation post in the thick of the fighting and called in close and accurate mortar fire, driving the enemy away, and earning the Silver Star for his actions. Accompanied by Philippines guerrillas, the 7th Cavalry captured Infanta on 25 May and soon after secured the surrounding rice-fields. They remained here for some time patrolling the area for Japanese holdouts. By 1 June 1945, most of southern Luzon was in American hands, but there were still determined Japanese forces in the area. On 2 June, 30 Japanese attacked F Troop's positions just before dawn broke and the Americans were forced to fight in hand-to-hand combat. SGT Jessie Riddell of Irvine, KY earned his second Silver Star in this attack when he saw one of his Troopers in a death struggle with a Japanese officer wielding a samurai sword. SGT Riddell ran to his aid, shooting 3 attackers on the way, and killed the enemy officer before he could kill the American. Continuing their patrolling of southern Luzon, a patrol from B Troop ran into an unexpectedly heavy ambush on 19 June 1945. Despite the shock of the ambush, PVT Bernis L. Stringer of Visalia, CA, the patrol's BAR-man, ran forward, killing one Japanese and wounding another. He then reloaded in plain sight of the last enemy soldier before dispatching him too. PVT Stringer lost his life soon after in the closing days of the campaign. The Battle of Luzon was officially declared over on 30 June 1945 but scattered Japanese resistance remained. The battle was the longest the 7th Cavalry had fought in World War II, and it would be their last. After pulling out of the combat zone on 4 July, The regiment began to rest and refit as it prepared for the inevitable invasion of the main Japanese islands. On 20 July, the 7th Cavalry again reorganized—this time entirely under Infantry Tables of Organization & Equipment, but still designated as a Cavalry Regiment, in order to bring it up to the full strength of a 1945 Army infantry regiment. Thankfully for the men of the 7th Cavalry, the invasion was terminated after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced the Japanese to surrender. 7th Cavalry Regiment was at Lucena, Tayabas (now. Quezon) in the Philippines until 2 September 1945, when it was moved to Japan to start occupation duty. Occupation of Japan On 13 August 1945, the 7th Cavalry was alerted that it would accompany General Douglas MacArthur to Tokyo and would be part of the Eighth Army's occupation force. On 2 September, the 7th Cavalry landed in Yokohama and began setting up a base of operation. On 8 September, the 1st Cavalry Division sent a convoy under Major General William C. Chase from Hara-Machida to Tokyo to occupy the city. This convoy was made up of one combat veteran from every Troop in the division, and it marched through Hachiōji, Fuchū, and Chōfu before reaching Tokyo; this convoy of the 1st Cavalry Division, with many veterans of the 7th Cavalry Regiment in the ranks, became the first Allied unit to enter the city. The 7th Cavalry set its headquarters at the Japanese Imperial Merchant Marine Academy and were assigned to guard the US embassy and GEN MacArthur's residence. For five years they remained in Tokyo. On 25 March 1949, the 7th Cavalry was reorganized under a new table of organization, and its Troops were renamed Companies as in a standard infantry division. Korean War When World War II ended, the communist Soviet Union and the countries of the Soviet bloc and the United States and its allies became locked in an ideological Cold War. They vied for power across the world using proxy states, but this tension boiled over in the Korean Peninsula. On 25 June 1950, the communist Democratic People's Republic of Korea crossed the 38th parallel and invaded the democratic Republic of Korea. Their military overwhelmed that of their southern neighbors and North Korean tanks were in Seoul within two days. The United States decided to intervene in favor of South Korea and quickly sent in troops with the promise that more were en route. On 18 July 1950, the 1st Cavalry Division's 5th and 8th Cavalry Regiments landed at Pohang-dong, 80 miles north of Pusan, in the war's first amphibious landing. The 7th Cavalry landed at Pohang-dong on July 22. The 7th Cavalry, under the command of Colonel Cecil W. Nist, was the 8th Army reserve at Pohang, but when the 5th Cavalry to the north was attacked in great force, the 7th moved up to reinforce them on 25 July. Between 26 and 29 July, 7th Cavalry troopers were dug in astride the main highway 100 miles southeast of Seoul, but were unprepared for the waves of refugees fleeing south. Commanders feared the refugee columns might harbor North Korean infiltrators, and orders came down to stop refugee movements, with gunfire if necessary. The troopers and officers of 2-7 Cavalry opened fire on innocent civilians, mostly women and children, in the No Gun Ri massacre. In 2005, a South Korean government inquest committee certified the names of 150 No Gun Ri dead, 13 missing, and 55 wounded, including some who later died of their wounds. It said reports were not filed on many other victims. Survivors claim the number of dead was closer to 400. During the next few days a defensive line was formed at Hwanggan with the 7th Cavalry moving east and the 5th Cavalry replacing elements of the 25th Infantry Division. On 1 August, the 1st Cavalry Division was ordered to set up a defensive position near Kumchon on the rail route from Taegu to Pusan. For more than 50 days between late July and mid September 1950, 7th Cavalry Troopers and UN Soldiers performed the bloody task of holding on the vital Pusan Perimeter. At dawn on 9 August, North Korea hurled five divisions against the American lines along the Naktong River near Taegu and managed to gain some high ground. Major General Hobart R. Gay, commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, withheld counterattacking until he had more information, but soon learned that 750 Korean People's Army (KPA) troops had occupied Hill 268, soon to be known as "Triangulation Hill. At about 09:30, General Gay ordered 1-7 Cavalry to counter the KPA penetration. The Battalion moved from its bivouac area just outside Taegu, accompanied by five tanks of A Company, 71st Heavy Tank Battalion. This motorized force proceeded to the foot of Hill 268. Meanwhile, the 61st Field Artillery Battalion shelled the hill heavily."However, 1st Battalion-7th Cavalry Regiment counterattacked their flanks at 0930 that day, and managed to seize Hill 268, "Trianglation Hill," and killed 400 enemy. The morning of 10 August, a combined tank and infantry attack next reached the crest of the Triangulation Hill without much trouble, and this battle was over by about 16:00. US artillery and mortar fire was now shifted westward, and this cut off the KPA retreat. White phosphorus shells fired from the 61st Field Artillery Battalion caught KPA troops in a village while they attempted to retreat, and they were then routed by US infantry, suffering over 200 killed. That evening the 1-7 Cavalry, returned to the serve as the division reserve, and elements of the 5th Cavalry finished securing Hill 268. On 26 August 1950, to replenish losses suffered in battle and to build the 7th Cavalry up to its authorized strength, 2nd Battalion-30th Infantry Regiment, from the 3rd Infantry Division, was attached to the 1st Cavalry Division and was redesignated as the 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment. By 5 September, enemy pressure along the sector of the 1st Cavalry Division had increased tremendously. General Gay ordered a general withdrawal of the 1st Cavalry Division in order to shorten lines and occupy better defensive positions. The withdrawal movement began on the right with the 8th Cavalry, then the 7th Cavalry in the Hill 518 area and finally the 5th Cavalry in vicinity of Waegwan. The key to the withdrawal was Hill 464, behind the 2nd Battalion-7th Cavalry, that dominated the Waegwan – Tabu-dong road. The withdrawal was slowed by mud created by heavy rains which fell 5–6 September, hampering the movement of wheeled and tracked vehicles. On 6 September, at 0300 hours, 2-7 Cavalry disengaged from the enemy on Hill 464 and fought its way to the east. The 5th Cavalry, occupying positions on Hill 303, came under heavy fire and was driven from key terrain, however, they were able to recapture the lost ground with the aid of elements of the 70th Tank Battalion attached to the 1st Cavalry Division. During the next few days, the situation was precarious. The North Koreans had gained large footholds east of Naktong and south to within about 8 miles of Taegu in the vicinity of Hills 314 and 570. On 12 September, the 3rd Battalion-7th Cavalry was tasked to retake Hill 314. After a fierce struggle, the hill was taken. The North Korean drive halted on 13 September, seven miles short of Taegu. Their momentum began to slow and plans were laid for an all-out offensive. The turning point in this bloody battle came on 15 September 1950, when GEN MacArthur unleashed his plan to go around the advancing North Korean Army; Operation Chromite – an amphibious landing at Incheon, far behind the North Korean lines. In spite of the many negative operational reasons given by critics of the plan, the Inchon landing was an immediate success allowing the 1st Cavalry Division to break out of the Pusan Perimeter and start fighting north. Task Force Lynch was formed to execute a rapid breakthrough to link up with the Inchon landing forces; it was composed of the 3rd Battalion-7th Cavalry, B Co 8th Engineer Battalion, C Co and the I&R Platoon of 70th Tank Battalion, 77th Field Artillery Battalion (-), 3rd Platoon Heavy Mortar Company, and a tactical air support liaison team. On 22 September, TF Lynch attacked north, breaking out of the Pusan Perimeter and fighting across 106 miles of enemy territory. On 27 September, north of Osan, at a small bridge, L Co, 3-7 Cavalry, linked up with H Co, 31st Infantry, 7th Infantry Division of the landing force. On 28 September, K Co, 3-7 Cavalry, along with C Co 70th Tank Battalion and with the strong assistance of fighter-bombers, destroyed at least seven of ten North Korean T-34's in the Pyongtaek area, five by air strikes. After linking up with the rest of the 1st Cavalry Division by 4, 7 October Cavalry continued its advance north, securing Kaesong by the 8th, and crossing the 38th parallel on 9 October 1950. The 7th Cavalry rounded up 2,000 prisoners. In one of the ironic moments of the war, Troopers took into custody a small North Korean cavalry unit and all its horses. The Troopers of the 1st Cavalry crashed into Pyongyang, capturing the capital city of North Korea on 19 October 1950. In late October 1950, the 7th Cavalry moved north again. The North Korean Army was shattered and the UN Troops were nearing the Chinese border; the war seemed to be all but over. On 25 October, Communist China intervened on behalf of North Korea and began pushing UN Troops back. On 24 November, the 7th Cavalry was involved in a grand UN counterattack, but Chinese attacks shattered the ROK Army II Corps on the 1st Cavalry Division's flank, leaving it exposed. On 26 November, the Chinese penetrated the front companies of the 1st and 2nd Battalions, 7th Cavalry and tried to exploit the gap. At 0200 hours they were hit by elements of the 3rd Battalion reinforced by tanks. Red troops were stopped and retreated back into an area previously registered for artillery fire. Enemy losses were high and the shoulder was held. On 29 November, the Chinese attacked the 7th Cavalry again, and the Americans were forced to fall back to Sinchang-ni. At midnight, the Chinese attacked again. They were repulsed, but small infiltration teams managed to attack a Battalion command post before being driven off. At the Battle of Sinchang-ni, 7th Cavalry suffered 39 KIA, 107 WIA, and 11 MIA. Enormous Chinese numbers, the surprise of their attack, and the bitter cold of the North Korean winter forced UN troops to fall back. During the withdrawal, the Greek Army's Sparta Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Georgios Koumanakos was attached to the 7th Cavalry Regiment and became 4th Battalion (GEF)-7th Cavalry on 16 December 1950. The Greeks soon proved themselves to be gallant soldiers in battle. By 28 December 1950, 7th Cavalry Troopers were in defensive positions near Uijeongbu. The year of 1951 would begin as a cold and dark time for the men of the 7th Cavalry. They had been pushed back into South Korea by the Chinese after having seemingly all but defeated North Korean Communist forces, but the fight wasn't over yet. On 22 January 1951, 7th Cavalry began an attack on Chinese lines near Kyong-ni. Here, the Greek Battalion on Hill 381 was counterattacked by a large enemy force. The battle began before dawn and raged on for the rest of the day. By afternoon, the Chinese had enough and retreated leaving 800 dead. The regiment continued its slow drive north. By 12 February, the 7th Cavalry ran into effective enemy defensive positions. On 14 February, heavy fighting erupted around an objective known as Hill 578, which was finally taken by the 7th Cavalry after overcoming stiff Chinese resistance. During this action General MacArthur paid a welcome visit to the First Team. By 22 April 1951, 1st Cavalry Division approached the Hwachon Reservoir on "Phase Line Kansas." The 7th Cavalry was ordered to capture the dam which would eliminate the possibility of the enemy destroying it and flooding the area. The approaches to the dam severely restricted vehicular movement and the artillery could not be brought into range to support an attack. In an alternate approach, the 4th Ranger Company, attached to the 7th Cavalry, was to cross the reservoir by boat and attack from the east as the 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry attacked from the southwest. The Troopers made three separate assaults on the defenders, but none was successful in evicting them. Before another attempt could be organized, the troopers were pulled out for another fight. From 9 June to 27 November, the 7th Cavalry took on various roles in the summer-fall campaign of the United Nations. On 18 July, a year after it had entered the war, the 1st Cavalry Division was assigned to a reserve status. This type of duty did not last for long. On the nights of 21 and 23 September, the 2nd and 3rd Battalions, 7th Cavalry repulsed waves of Red Chinese involving hand-to-hand fighting. Earlier in the war, the Chinese attacks, which were accompanied by a cacophony of bells, bugles, whistles, and war cries, terrified the Americans; but after stopping the Chinese counterattack, 7th Cavalry Troopers lost their fear and stood their ground against the sometimes relentless and self-sacrificial enemy. Harder fighting soon followed when Operation Commando, a mission to push the Chinese out of their winter defense positions south of the Yokkok River, was launched. During this operation, the objective was designated as the Jamestown Line. On 3 October 1951, the 5th and 7th Cavalry attacked abreast along the division front at 0600 hours. Attacking with the Greek, 2nd and 3rd Battalions abreast, they stormed Hills 313 and 418 along the ridge. Both the Greek and 2nd Battalion fought their way to the ridge line, but suffering heavy casualties, neither could hold the ground. Despite heavy fighting on 4 October, there was little forward progress. Elements of the 8th Cavalry reinforced the 7th Cavalry on the right and assaulted the ridges west of Hill 418, but the enemy clung stubbornly to its positions. During the day, elements of the Chinese 140th Division moved up to reinforce their 139th Division which had been hit hard by the constant attacks of the 1st Cavalry Division. On 5 October, it was discovered that the Chinese had withdrawn much of their force in the night and 2-7 Cavalry occupied Hills 418 and 313 without opposition. The following day, at Hill 287, 1-7 Cavalry, fought its way to the crest and held on to part of the hill at nightfall. Enemy prisoners taken indicated that many of the Chinese units were defeated in the opening days of the operation and were falling back to prepared defensive lines to the northwest. On 7 October, the 7th Cavalry effected the seizure of Hill 287 and sent the 3rd Battalion forward two miles southwest to take Hill 347. Attacking from the south, 3-7 Cavalry cleared the hill at the end of the day. The fall of Hill 347 meant that the 1st Cavalry Division now controlled the high ground overlooking the Jamestown Line. The 7th Cavalry Troopers did not know it, but the battle for Line Jamestown would be their last major combat of the Korean War. On 18 December 1951, the 7th Cavalry left for Hokkaido, Japan after 549 days of continuous fighting. On 12 December 1952, 7th Cavalry returned to Korea, relieving the 8th Cavalry, and held reserve defensive positions as forward UN troops continued skirmishing with Communist forces as the peace talks occurred. 7th Cavalry returned to Hokkaido on 20 February 1953, and the Korean War finally "ended" when the long-awaited armistice was signed at 10:00 on 27 July 1953. While still technically at war, UN and Communist forces ceased all combat operations. The war had been tough; the 7th Cavalry Regiment suffered defeats early in the 1950, but rebounded and took the fight to the northern end of North Korea, where they suffered an agonizing reverse at the hand of the Chinese in the harsh winter. Despite this, they managed to hold their lines and counterattack, learning from their early mistakes and serving with valor and skill. Cold War and Vietnam The regiment was relieved from its assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division on 15 October 1957, and reorganized under the Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS) on 1 November 1957. HQ & HQ Company transferred to the control of the Department of the Army. 1 November, As part of this reorganization, Company "A" was redesignated 1st Battle Group, 7th Cavalry and assigned to the 1st Cavalry Division. Company "B" was redesignated 2nd Reconnaissance Squadron, 7th Cavalry and Company "C" was redesignated 3rd Reconnaissance Squadron, 7th Cavalry and assigned to the 10th Infantry Division. After the Korean War, 7th Cavalry was used mainly in a reconnaissance role. It received the M14 rifle, along with various other new weapons and equipment (including the Patton tank). Also, a few OH-13 helicopters were used by the reconnaissance squadrons. Three battalions, the 1st, 2nd and 5th, served during the Vietnam War as the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Division. 3rd Brigade often referred to itself as the "Garryowen Brigade". These troopers were armed with the new M16 rifle, M1911A1 Pistols and the M79 grenade launcher. The use of Bell UH-1 Iroquois "Huey" helicopters transformed the 1st Cavalry into an "Air-mobile" unit. The 2nd Battallion of the 7th Cavalry fought in one of the first American engagements of the Vietnam War, the Battle of Ia Drang. Over the course of the war, seven men earned the Medal of Honor while serving with the 7th Cavalry in Vietnam: Private First Class Lewis Albanese, Company B, 5th Battalion; First Lieutenant Douglas B. Fournet, Company B, 1st Battalion; Sergeant John Noble Holcomb, Company D, 2nd Battalion; Second Lieutenant Walter Joseph Marm Jr., Company A, 1st Battalion; Private First Class William D. Port, Company C, 5th Battalion; Specialist Four Héctor Santiago-Colón, Company B, 5th Battalion; and First Lieutenant James M. Sprayberry, Company D, 5th Battalion. The other two units, the 3rd and 4th reconnaissance Squadrons, were based in Germany, and South Korea. The 1st, 2nd, and 5th Battalions were deactivated after the Vietnam War, and only the 3rd and 4th Squadrons remained as divisional reconnaissance squadrons assigned to the 3rd Infantry Division and 2nd Infantry Division respectively. Both the 3rd and 4th squadrons were aviation-tank cavalry squadrons using the M48 Patton tank, M113A1 Armored Personnel Carrier and M114A1E1 armored reconnaissance vehicle. Both squadrons had an air cavalry "Delta" Troop, that had both reconnaissance & gunship UH-1B's. The gunships were armed with M-5 rocket launchers, and M-22 anti-tank guided missiles. In 1963, the 3rd Squadron became the divisional cavalry squadron for the 3rd Infantry Division and was stationed at Ledward & Conn Barracks, Schweinfurt, West Germany. The squadron consisted of three ground troops and a Headquarters Troop at Ledward Barracks and an aviation troop at Conn Barracks in Schweinfurt. The ground troops were equipped with M60A3TTS tanks, M113A1 armored personnel carriers, ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle, an M113 variant) and a mortar section with the M106A1, an M113 variant with a 4.2 in mortar. In 1984 the M60A3TTS were replaced with M3 Bradley Cavalry Fighting Vehicle (CFV). The reorganization created two M3-equipped ground troops, one long range surveillance (LRSU) ground troop and two aviation troops equipped with OH-58 scout helicopters and AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters. On 16 November 1992, the squadron was inactivated in Germany and relieved of assignment to the 8th Infantry Division. The Headquarters and Headquarters Troop consolidated on 16 December 1992 with the 3rd Reconnaissance Company and designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry. On 16 February 1996, the squadron was assigned to the 3rd Infantry Division and activated at Fort Stewart, Georgia as the Division Cavalry Squadron. The squadron has been involved in several deployments since then, including Operation Desert Storm in Kuwait, Operation Joint Forge in Bosnia, and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The squadron was reassigned to the 2nd Brigade Combat Team of the 3rd Infantry Division in 2004 as the brigade's Armored Reconnaissance Squadron. Combat operations for Operation Iraqi Freedom III began on 4 February 2005 when the squadron arrived at Forward Operating Base Rustamiyah located in southeast Baghdad. Immediately on arrival, the squadron began patrolling the area east of the Tigris River in the Rusafa and New Baghdad districts as well as securing Route Pluto North, one of the primary supply routes for the division. Between 1974 and 1975, other units were reactivated. The 1st Battalion became an armored unit, the 2nd Battalion remained an air mobile unit with a recon platoon using motorcycles moved by helicopters. After 1975, the 2nd and 5th Battalion were reorganized as mechanized infantry. In 1978, the 5th Battalion was once again deactivated. The Persian Gulf War The 1st and 4th Squadrons fought in Operation Desert Storm in January/February 1991. Ground troops were armed with the M3A1 Bradley CFV. Air cavalry troops AH-1F Cobras, OH-58C scouts. The 1st Squadron, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter L. Sharp, was the divisional cavalry squadron for the 1st Cavalry Division and assigned to the division's aviation brigade. The squadron was organized as a headquarters troop, one ground troop (Troop A), and two air troops (Troops C and D). Prior to deployment, the squadron also attached two ground troops, Troop A, and Troop B, 2d Squadron, 1st Cavalry, from the inactivating 2d Armored Division, also at Fort Hood. After attachment, the additional troops were provisionally flagged as Troop B, and Troop E, 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry. The squadron was in Southwest Asia from October 1990 until May 1991. During the campaign, 1-7 CAV overwatched the border area of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait did numerous recon missions into Iraq and led the 1st Cavalry Division during its attack into Iraq after being released as the CENTCOM theater reserve. After the war, Trp E/1-7 CAV remained in the squadron's task organization through its reorganization in 1993, exchanging its guidons with Trp C/1-7 CAV in 1994. The 4th Squadron, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Terry L. Tucker, was the divisional cavalry squadron for 3rd Armored Division, taking part of the Battle of Phase Line Bullet. The squadron was inactivated in 1992 with the rest of the 3d Armored Division. In 1996, the squadron was reactivated as a subordinate element of Aviation Brigade, 2d Infantry Division at Camp Pelham, Korea (later renamed Camp Garryowen), using the equipment and personnel of the inactivating 5th Squadron, 17th Cavalry. In 2004, the squadron was reassigned as a subordinate element of the 1st Heavy Brigade Combat Team, 2d Infantry Division, Camp Hovey, Korea. The Iraq War The 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry was the spearhead and the screening force for the main elements of the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division during the Iraq War. The 3d Squadron launched an attack under the command of LTC Terry Ferrell on 20 March 2003. The 3rd Squadron was the "Eyes and Ears" for the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division (Mechanized) and the "Iron Fist" for the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps. The Squadron was engaged with the enemy earlier and more often during the war than any other unit in modern warfare history. Combat operations for Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March 2003, when the squadron crossed into Iraq as the lead element of the 3rd Infantry Division. The Squadron attacked towards Baghdad fighting both the Republican Guard and the Sadam Fedayeen. With the capture of Baghdad, the division and the squadron transitioned to stabilization operations. By the time the Squadron had redeployed, it had killed 2,200 Iraqi personnel, 64 tanks, 41 armored vehicles, numerous active air defense systems, as well as trucks and civilian vehicles used as suicide bombers. They were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation, the highest award given to a unit. The 3rd Squadron remains the only "spearhead" element to complete a combat tour without suffering a casualty. The 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry returned to Iraq as part of the 2nd Brigade Heavy Combat Team, 3rd Infantry Division during Operation Iraqi Freedom III. Between 21 January 2005 and 10 January 2006, the Squadron conducted combat operations in the burrough of Rustamiyah, in southern Baghdad, the town of Salman Pak, and the Tigris river. The Squadron was led by LTC Michael J. Johnson. The Squadron fought through multiple engagements with insurgent forces; which, unfortunately resulted in the death of several Troopers and attached personnel. The Squadron was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation for its performance in their Area of Operations. The 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry was mobilized yet again during the surge, OIV V May 9, 2007 – August 15, 2008, as part of the 2nd Brigade Heavy Combat Team, 3rd Infantry Division. As fate would have it, the 2nd HBCT was commanded by Colonel Terry L. Ferrel who commanded the Squadron during the drive to Baghdad in 2003. Unfortunately, the Squadron led by LTC Jeffery D. Broadwater was detached to a Brigade of the 82nd Airbone Division to conduct combat operations in the burrough of Adamiyah in Baghdad. The Squadron fought through tough built up conditions against a determined insurgency resulting again in Troopers and attachments making the ultimate sacrifice. The Squadron returned to Fort Stewart, Georgia knowing it will deploy in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in the near future. The 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry served in the 1st Cavalry Division's 5th Brigade Combat Team (BCT) during its first deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom II from 1 April 2004 to 1 April 2005. The 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry, commanded by LTC William R. Salter executed combat operations in the Al Rashid District of Baghdad, Iraq. The squadron defeated a surge of enemy attacks and neutralized insurgent and terrorist elements within its area of operations (AO) through a combination of constant day to day interaction with the populace and adaptable tactics. In addition to securing an AO of 68 km2 with a population of more than 1.2 million, the Squadron also secured Route Irish, a strategic highway and Multi-National Corps-Iraq (MNC-I) Main Supply Route connecting the International Zone (IZ) to the Baghdad International Airport (BIAP). The squadron also helped provide a secure environment during the first Iraqi democratic election in January 2005. 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation for its actions during this campaign. Most recently, 1-7 CAV, commanded by LTC Kevin S. MacWatters, deployed as the Armed Reconnaissance Squadron for 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 06-08 (6 October 2006 to 15 January 2008). The squadron conducted full-spectrum operations as a part of Multi-National Division-Baghdad (MND-B)in the Taji Area of Operations. During this deployment the squadron destroyed multiple improvised explosive device (IED) and vehicle borne improvised explosive devices (VBIED) terrorist cells as a part of the "Surge", enhancing MND-B's ability to secure Baghdad. The secure environment created by the squadron in the Taji area enabled local government to take hold, local police and Iraqi Army forces to take over security operations, and the "Reconciliation" to successfully spread throughout the Area of Operations. The 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry was attached to the 39th BCT although assigned to 3d BCT, 1st CAV. The unit deployed to Iraq under the command of LTC Charles Forshee seven months after arrival in Iraq and was succeeded by LTC James Eugene Rainey in August 2004, the 2nd Battalion supported US Marine Corps operations during the battle of Najaf (2004) and the Battle of Fallujah. The 2nd Battalion moved from 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Ft Hood Texas, to Ft Bliss to become part of the newly formed 4th BCT and in October 2006 The 2nd Battalion again headed for Iraq, this time to Mosul. 2-7 Cav consisting of only four infantry companies were tasked with eliminating AQI and patrolling Iraq's third largest city, dividing the sprawling urban area into quarters. Within the first several months the battalion took the first casualties of the 4th BCT. Since October 2006, C Co. 2-7 Cav. has endured 6 KIA and numerous wounded. 2nd Battalion redeployed in December 2007 to Fort Bliss, TX. In 2008, it deployed from Fort Hood, TX to Iraq in support of OIF 08–09. Maintaining control of the northern half of the Maysan province of Iraq, it operated out of FOB Garryowen. FOB Garryowen, located in Amarah, Iraq's border city with Iran, was established in June 2008 for the battalion by a team of 23 Air Force enlisted engineers. 08-09 B/2-7 CAV was relieved by the OIF 06-08 B 2-7 CAV (now 4-6 INF out of Ft.Bliss) who along with the Iraqi Police in Majar al Kabir captured the criminals responsible for murdering 6 British Military Police in November 2004. Among its other accomplishments, 2-7 CAV worked with the Iraqi Security Forces to provide successful security to Iraq's provincial elections in January 2009 and is responsible for several large volume cache finds. During its tour, the 10th Iraqi Army Division conducted Operation "Lion's Roar," a combined live-fire exercise in Maysan province in April 2009. As part of the Army's modularity program, the 3rd Infantry Division converted the 1-3 Air Defense Artillery battalion to become 5th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment, an armored reconnaissance squadron. The 5th Squadron deployed in 2005 and most recently in January 2007. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Cliff Wheeler, the squadron initially operated north of Ramadi, and remained under the operational control of the 1st Brigade Combat Team. In April 2007, the squadron conducted a full-scale movement to contact, clearing from Ramadi, to the south of Lake Habbaniyah, and then east to Route Iron in Fallujah, while attaching to the Marine Corps' 6th Regimental Combat Team and basing at Camp Baharia. Due to the firepower and mobility inherent within a cavalry squadron, 5-7 CAV was assigned the largest battlespace within RCT 6's area of operations. The squadron also suffered from the limitations in assigned troopers that also comes with the cavalry. For eight months, the squadron conducted security and COIN operations across the Warpaint AO. The squadron established and maintained freedom of movement along Routes Michigan, Iron, San Juan and Gold, and maintained a secure environment in the towns of Saqliwiyah, North Saqliwiyah, Amariyah, and Farris. Additional operations at both the troop and squadron level cleared and held new terrain within the regimental security zone. In December 2007, the squadron was attached to the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division's 2nd Brigade Combat Team at FOB Kalsu. The squadron conducted relief-in-place with two USMC rifle battalions and redeployed to Kalsu in approximately eight days. An additional week of training and preparations were required before they attacked into Arab Jabour and cleared the town of Sayafiyah (30,000 residents) in conjunction with the Iraqi "Sons of Iraq" program. The squadron occupied an area that had seen no long-term coalition forces presence, and conducted operations in an austere environment. The squadron secured all routes with fixed positions while simultaneously building COP Meade, clearing all routes, terrain and structures within the new Warpaint AO. The squadron completed the mission in March 2008, and conducted a relief-in-place with 1-187 IN, the Rakkasans, before redeploying to Fort Stewart in April 2008. During OIF V, the squadron suffered six KIA and numerous wounded. During 20 months of subsequent dwell time, the squadron participated, as part of the 1st Heavy Brigade Combat Team, in the chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, explosive consequence management reaction force (CCMRF) mission in support of the requirements of defense support to civil authority. This mission requires the unit, at the request of local, state or national civil authorities, to deploy within the United States in response to a catastrophic event. Operation Enduring Freedom In November 2012, 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry was deployed to Kapisa and Kabul provinces in RC-East, operating from FOBs Tagab and Naglu High, positions formerly held by the French Army. From September 2012 to May 2013, the 3rd Squadron, 7th Cavalry was mobilized to Region Command North (Major General Erich Pfeffer, Germany) Camp Marmal, Mazar – e- Sharif. Led by LTC Lance Varney, the Squadron operated with distinction as Task Force Garry Owen in the Kunduz province. In January 2013, 5th Squadron, 7th Cavalry was deployed to Qalat District, Zabul province, Afghanistan Operating from FOB Apache. Operation Atlantic Resolve 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment deployed from Fort Hood, Texas to Europe as part of 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division in support of Operation Atlantic Resolve from May 2018 to February 2019. 1st Squadron moved by sea, rail, and drove over 900 kilometers across Europe to establish their headquarters in Świętoszów, Poland. During their time in Poland, the Squadron partnered with their hosts, the Polish 10th Armored Cavalry Brigade. They maintained this partnership until the Squadron moved from Świętoszów, Poland to Hohenfels Training Area, Germany November 2018 in support of Combined Resolve XI. While the Squadron was headquartered in Świętoszów, Poland for a majority of the deployment, elements constantly deployed abroad across Europe in order to partner with various NATO Allies. A Troop, C Troop, and D Troop deployed to Pabradė, Lithuania; Tata and Várpalota, Hungary; and Lest, Slovakia, respectively. Each Troop, including B Troop who remained in Świętoszów, Poland, conducted joint combined arms live fire exercises with their partnered hosts. Live fire exercises were normally accompanied by "force-on-force" situational training exercises. In total, 1st Squadron partnered with 10th Armored Cavalry Brigade from Poland, Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf" from Lithuania, 5th and 25th Mechanized Infantry Brigades from the Hungarian Ground Forces, and 112th Mechanized Infantry Battalion from the Slovakian Ground Forces. The Squadron moved to Hohenfels Training Area, Germany in November 2018 in order to participate in Combined Resolve XI. The exercise included over 5500 participants from 16 different NATO allies and partners. A 10-day force-on-force exercise was held at Hohenfels Training Area where all 16 participants acted as either friendly or opposing forces (OPFOR). The Squadron relocated to Grafenwoehr Training Area in late December 2018, and participated in a Brigade live fire exercise from 13 to 25 January 2019. 1st Squadron conducted redeployment operations from February to April 2019. Current status 1st Squadron is an armored cavalry squadron of the 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas. 2nd Battalion is a combined arms battalion of the 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas. 3rd Squadron, part of the 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division at Fort Stewart, Georgia, was inactivated on 7 January 2015. 4th Squadron, an armored cavalry squadron of the 1st BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, was inactivated on 1 July 2015 in South Korea. 5th Squadron is an armored Cavalry squadron of the 1st ABCT, 3rd Infantry Division, at Fort Stewart, Georgia. Lineage 7th Cavalry Regiment Regiment Constituted 28 July 1866 in the Regular Army as the 7th Cavalry Regiment. Company A Organized 10 September 1866 at Fort Riley, Kansas Regiment Organized 21 September 1866 at Fort Riley, Kansas Cavalry companies officially designated as troops in 1883 Assigned in December 1917 to the 15th Cavalry Division Relieved in May 1918 from assignment to the 15th Cavalry Division Assigned 13 September 1921 to the 1st Cavalry Division. HHT, 4th Squadron, Constituted 13 November 1943 in the Regular Army as Troop D, 7th Cavalry Regiment. Regiment Reorganized 4 December 1943 partly under cavalry and partly under infantry tables of organization and equipment. Troop D concurrently reorganized and redesignated as Headquarters Troop, 1st Cavalry Division, Special. Replacement Troop D Activated concurrently in Australia, partly under cavalry and partly under infantry tables of organization and equipment. Regiment reorganized 25 July 1945 wholly as infantry, but retained cavalry designations. Regimental troops redesignated 25 March 1949 as companies (1st Cavalry Division, Special concurrently reorganized and redesignated as the 1st Cavalry Division) Regiment Relieved 15 October 1957 from assignment to the 1st Cavalry Division Regiment Reorganized and redesignated 1 November 1957 as a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System. Squadrons were concurrently redesignated as Battle Groups. Headquarters Company, 1st Cavalry Division (Ex-D Troop, 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment) Disbanded 1 July 1960 in Korea. EX-Headquarters Company, 1st Cavalry Division, EX-D Company, 7th Cavalry Regiment Reconstituted 2 July 1960 in the Regular Army, consolidated with Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 4th Reconnaissance Squadron, 7th Cavalry (see below), and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 4th Reconnaissance Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment. HHT, 4th Reconnaissance Squadron Redesignated 25 January 1963 as Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division (organic elements concurrently constituted). 4th Squadron activated 20 February 1963 at Fort Benning, Georgia. 1st Battle Group Redesignated 1 September 1963 as the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment. 1st Battalion Inactivated 22 August 1972 at Fort Hood, Texas. 1st Battalion Activated 20 June 1974 at Fort Hood, Texas 1st Battalion Reorganized and redesignated 16 October 1986 as the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment. 4th Squadron Inactivated 18 January 1988 in Korea and relieved from assignment to the 2d Infantry Division Regiment Withdrawn 16 February 1989 from the Combat Arms Regimental System and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System. 4th Squadron concurrently Assigned to the 3d Armored Division, and activated in Germany. 4th Squadron Inactivated 16 October 1991 in Germany and relieved from assignment to the 3d Armored Division. HHT, 4th Squadron consolidated 5 April 1996 with the 2nd Reconnaissance Company (see below) and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment; Squadron concurrently assigned to the 2d Infantry Division and activated in Korea 2nd Reconnaissance Company 2nd Reconnaissance Troop Constituted 20 July 1940 in the Regular Army and was assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division. 2nd Reconnaissance Troop Activated 1 August 1940 at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. 2nd Reconnaissance Troop Redesignated 1 April 1942 as the 2nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop. 2nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop Redesignated 1 March 1943 as the 2d Reconnaissance Troop. 2nd Reconnaissance Troop Redesignated 6 July 1944 as the 2nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop, Mechanized 2nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop, Mechanized Redesignated 16 June 1945 as the 2nd Mechanized Reconnaissance Troop. 2nd Mechanized Reconnaissance Troop Redesignated 30 July 1945 as the 2nd Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop 2nd Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop Reorganized and redesignated 15 October 1948 as the 2nd Reconnaissance Company 2nd Reconnaissance Company Inactivated 20 June 1957 in Alaska and relieved from assignment to the 2d Infantry Division. 2nd Reconnaissance Company consolidated with HHT, 4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment on 5 April 1996 and consolidated unit designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment; Squadron concurrently assigned to the 2d Infantry Division and activated in Korea. Honors Campaign participation credit Decorations Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for: Antipolo, Luzon Yonchon, Korea Taegu, Korea Pusan, Korea 4th Battalion Hongchon Pleiku province Troop B, 1st Battalion, Binh Thuan province 3rd Squadron embroidered Iraq (2003) HHC, A and C Companies 2d Battalion Fallujah (2004) Valorous Unit Award for: Troop B, 1st Battalion Tay Ninh province 1st, 2d, 5th Battalions Quang Tin province 1st, 2d, 5th Battalions Fish Hook 4th Squadron Southwest Asia (1991) HHT, A, B, C Troops of 1st Squadron, Iraq (2007) HHC, A, B, C, D, E Companies, 2nd BN, 7th Cavalry Regiment (2007) E Company, 27th Support BN (2007) HHT, A, B, C Troops of 3rd Squadron, Iraq (2008) HHT, A, B, C Troops of 1st Squadron, Iraq (2009) Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for: 1st Squadron Southwest Asia (1991) 1st Squadron Iraq (2004, 2008) 3rd Squadron Iraq (2006) 5th Squadron Iraq (2010) Navy Unit Commendation (NUC): HHC, A, B, C Companies, 2nd Battalion embroidered Anbar Province (2005) 5th Squadron 7th Cavalry Regiment, OIF with II MEF (23JUN07–09FEB08) Belgian Fourragere: 4th Squadron 1940 Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action: 4th Squadron In the Ardennes 4th Squadron At Elsenborn Crest French Croix de Guerre: World War II Streamer embroidered COLMAR (3rd Reconnaissance Trp, cited; DA GO 43, 1950) Streamer embroidered COLMAR (3rd Reconnaissance Squadron, 7th Cavalry, cited; WD GO 43, 1950) Fourragere (3rd Reconnaissance Trp cited; DA GO 43, 1950) Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for: 17 October 1944 to 4 July 1945 Republic of Korea presidential unit citation for: Waegwan-Taegu Korea 1952–1953 Greek Gold Cross of Valour for: Korea 1st Battalion Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965 (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 14 to 16 November 1965; DA GO 21, 1969, amended DA GO 48, 1968) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the periods 9 Aug – 13 November 1965 and 17 Nov Nov 1965 to 19 May 1969; DA GO 70, 1969, amended DA GO 59, 1969) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period May 1969 to Feb 1970; DA GO 11, 1973, amended DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1970–1971 (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 21 February 1970 to 28 February 1971; DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1972 (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 17 September 1965 to Jun 1972; DA GO 54, 1974) Troop B additionally entitled to: Streamer embroidered BINH THUAN PROVINCE ("B" Co, 1st Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 12 December 1966 to 18 February 1967; DA GO 02, 1973) Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class for: Streamer embroidered VIETNAM (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 1 January 1969 to 1 February 1970; DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM (1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 1 January 1969 to 1 February 1970; DA GO 42, 1972) 2nd Battalion Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965 ("A" Co, 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 15 to 16 November 1965; DA GO 21, 1969, DA GO 70, 1969, amended DA GO 46, 1968) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 ("A" Co, 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the periods 9 Aug – 14 November 1965 and 17 Nov Nov 1965 to 19 May 1969; DA GO 70, 1969, amended DA GO 59, 1969) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965 ("B" Co, 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 14 to 16 November 1965; DA GO 21, 1969, DA GO 70, 1969, amended DA GO 46, 1968) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 ("B" Co, 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the periods 9 Aug – 13 November 1965 and 17 Nov Nov 1965 to 19 May 1969; DA GO 70, 1969, amended DA GO 59, 1969) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 (2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period May 1969 to Feb 1970; DA GO 11, 1973, amended DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1970–1971 (2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 21 February 1970 to 28 February 1971; DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 (earned by the 3rd Reconnaissance Trp as part of the 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period ;) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 (earned by the 3rd Reconnaissance Trp as part of the 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period ;) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1970–1971 (earned by the 3rd Reconnaissance Trp as part of the 2nd Bn, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period ;) Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM (2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 1 January 1969 to 1 February 1970; DA GO 42, 1972) 5th Battalion Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1965–1969 (5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 9 Aug – 19 May 1969; DA GO 59, 1969) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1969–1970 (5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period May 1969 to Feb 1970; DA GO 11, 1973, amended DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM 1970–1971 (5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 21 February 1970 to 28 February 1971; DA GO 42, 1972) Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class, Streamer embroidered VIETNAM (5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, cited for the period 1 January 1969 to 1 February 1970; DA GO 42, 1972) In popular culture In the 1956 movie 7th Cavalry, directed by Joseph H. Lewis, Captain Benson (Randolph Scott), who has been on furlough, comes back to the fort just after the Battle of the Little Bighorn and discovers half of the men died. Others hold Benson in contempt, not only for not being at the battle in command of his company of men, but for what they perceived as Custer's favoritism of him. The 7th Is Made Up of Phantoms is Episode 130 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone in which the 7th Cavalry plays a major role. It originally aired on 6 December 1963 on CBS. The experiences of the 1st and 2nd Battalions at the November 1965 Battle of Ia Drang are recounted in the book We Were Soldiers Once...And Young by Lieutenant General Harold G. Moore, then a lieutenant colonel and commander of the 1st Battalion, and United Press International correspondent Joseph L. Galloway. The book was later adapted into the film We Were Soldiers, with Mel Gibson as Moore and Barry Pepper as Galloway. 1991 TV miniseries Son of the Morning Star based on the life of Lt. Col. George A. Custer, and the 7th Cavalry, which ends with the battle of Little Bighorn engagement where 5 companies of the 7th Cavalry are wiped out, along with George Custer, Thomas Custer, Boston Custer and Audie Reed. See also Cultural depictions of George Armstrong Custer Notes Further reading Willey, P. and Douglas D. Scott, ed. Health of the Seventh Cavalry: A Medical History (2015). excerpt Sources The 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment Association (Savage, James W.) Army Regulations 600-8-27 dated 2006 1st Cavalry Division – Army Modular Forces Webpage explaining division's transition to new modular organisation, along with new order of battle. United States Army Center of Military History; CMH Publication 60-1; "Army Lineage Series: Armor–Cavalry, Part I: Regular Army and Army Reserve." . Shelby L. Stanton; Order of Battle: U.S. ArmyR, World War II; 1984; Presidio Press; . Cavalrymen photos-Pictures of the cavalry during Custer's Last Stand Reenactment. External links 7th Cavalry Association Units: 1-7, 2-7, 3-7, 4-7, 5-7 1-7th Official Website 2-7th Official Website Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory 007th Cavalry Comanche campaign Cavalry regiments of the United States Army 007th Cavalry Regiment United States Army regiments in World War II 7th Cavalry Regiment 7th Cavalry Military units and formations established in 1866 United States Army units and formations in the Korean War Military units of the United States Army in South Korea 1866 establishments in Kansas United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Frank

Leo Frank

Leo Max Frank (April 17, 1884August 17, 1915) was an American factory superintendent who was convicted in 1913 of the murder of a 13-year-old employee, Mary Phagan, in Atlanta, Georgia. His trial, conviction, and appeals attracted national attention. His lynching two years later, in response to the commutation of his death sentence, became the focus of social, regional, political, and racial concerns, particularly regarding antisemitism. Today, the consensus of researchers is that Frank was wrongly convicted and Jim Conley was likely the actual murderer. Born to a Jewish-American family in Texas, Frank was raised in New York and earned a degree in mechanical engineering from Cornell University before moving to Atlanta in 1908. Marrying in 1910, he involved himself with the city's Jewish community and was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization, in 1912. At that time, there were growing concerns regarding child labor at factories. One of these children was Mary Phagan, who worked at the National Pencil Company where Frank was director. The girl was strangled on April 26, 1913, and found dead in the factory's cellar the next morning. Two notes, made to look as if she had written them, were found beside her body. Based on the mention of a "night witch", they implicated the night watchman, Newt Lee. Over the course of their investigations, the police arrested several men, including Lee, Frank, and Jim Conley, a janitor at the factory. On May 24, 1913, Frank was indicted on a charge of murder and the case opened at Fulton County Superior Court, July 28, 1913. The prosecution relied heavily on the testimony of Conley, who described himself as an accomplice in the aftermath of the murder, and who the defense at the trial argued was, in fact, the perpetrator of the murder. A guilty verdict was announced on August 25. Frank and his lawyers made a series of unsuccessful appeals; their final appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States failed in April 1915. Considering arguments from both sides as well as evidence not available at trial, Governor John M. Slaton commuted Frank's sentence from capital punishment to life imprisonment. The case attracted national press attention and many reporters deemed the conviction a travesty. Within Georgia, this outside criticism fueled antisemitism and hatred toward Frank. On August 16, 1915, he was kidnapped from prison by a group of armed men, and lynched at Marietta, Mary Phagan's hometown, the next morning. The new governor vowed to punish the lynchers, who included prominent Marietta citizens, but nobody was charged. In 1986, Frank was posthumously pardoned by the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles, although not officially absolved of the crime. The case has inspired books, movies, plays, and a TV miniseries. Background Social and economic conditions In the early 20th century, Atlanta, Georgia's capital city, underwent significant economic and social change. To serve a growing economy based on manufacturing and commerce, many people left the countryside to relocate in Atlanta. Men from the traditional and paternalistic rural society felt it degrading that women were moving to the city to work in factories. During this era, Atlanta's rabbis and Jewish community leaders helped to resolve animosity toward Jews. In the half-century from 1895, David Marx was a prominent figure in the city. In order to aid assimilation, Marx's Reform temple adopted Americanized appearances. Friction developed between the city's German Jews, who were integrated, and Russian Jews who had recently immigrated. Marx said the new residents were "barbaric and ignorant" and believed their presence would create new antisemitic attitudes and a situation which made possible Frank's guilty verdict. Despite their success, many Jews recognized themselves as different from the Gentile majority and were uncomfortable with their image. Despite his own acceptance by Gentiles, Marx believed that "in isolated instances there is no prejudice entertained for the individual Jew, but there exists wide-spread and deep seated prejudice against Jews as an entire people." An example of the type of tension that Marx feared occurred in April 1913: at a conference on child labor, some participants blamed the problem, in part, on the fact that many factories were Jewish-owned. Historian Leonard Dinnerstein summarized Atlanta's situation in 1913 as follows: Early life Leo Max Frank was born in Cuero, Texas on April 17, 1884 to Rudolph Frank and Rachel "Rae" Jacobs. The family moved to Brooklyn in 1884 when Leo was three months old. He attended New York City public schools and graduated from Pratt Institute in 1902. He then attended Cornell University, where he studied mechanical engineering. After graduating in 1906, he worked briefly as a draftsman and as a testing engineer. At the invitation of his uncle Moses Frank, Leo traveled to Atlanta for two weeks in late October 1907 to meet a delegation of investors for a position with the National Pencil Company, a manufacturing plant in which Moses was a major shareholder. Frank accepted the position, and traveled to Germany to study pencil manufacturing at the Eberhard Faber pencil factory. After a nine-month apprenticeship, Frank returned to the United States and began working at the National Pencil Company in August 1908. Frank became superintendent of the factory the following month, earning $180 per month plus a portion of the factory's profits. Frank was introduced to Lucille Selig shortly after he arrived in Atlanta. She came from a prominent, upper-middle class Jewish family of industrialists who, two generations earlier, had founded the first synagogue in Atlanta. They married in November 1910. Frank described his married life as happy. In 1912, Frank was elected president of the Atlanta chapter of the B'nai B'rith, a Jewish fraternal organization. The Jewish community in Atlanta was the largest in the Southern United States, and the Franks belonged to a cultured and philanthropic community whose leisure pursuits included opera and bridge. Although the Southern United States was not specifically known for its antisemitism, Frank's northern culture and Jewish faith added to the sense that he was different. Murder of Mary Phagan Phagan's early life Mary Phagan was born on June 1, 1899, into an established Georgia family of tenant farmers. Her father died before she was born. Shortly after Mary's birth, her mother, Frances Phagan, moved the family back to their hometown of Marietta, Georgia. During or after 1907, they again relocated to East Point, Georgia, in southwest Atlanta, where Frances opened a boarding house. Mary Phagan left school at age 10 to work part-time in a textile mill. In 1912, after her mother married John William Coleman, the family moved into the city of Atlanta. That spring, Phagan took a job with the National Pencil Company, where she earned ten cents an hour operating a knurling machine that inserted rubber erasers into the metal tips of pencils, and worked 55 hours per week. She worked across the hallway from Leo Frank's office. Discovery of Phagan's body On April 21, 1913, Phagan was laid off due to a materials shortage. Around noon on April 26, she went to the factory to claim her pay. The next day, shortly before 3:00 a.m., the factory's night watchman, Newt Lee, went to the factory basement to use the toilet. After leaving the toilet, Lee discovered Phagan's body in the rear of the basement near an incinerator and called the police. Her dress was up around her waist and a strip from her petticoat had been torn off and wrapped around her neck. Her face was blackened and scratched, and her head was bruised and battered. A strip of wrapping cord was tied into a loop around her neck, buried deep, showing that she had been strangled. Her underwear was still around her hips, but stained with blood and torn open. Her skin was covered with ashes and dirt from the floor, initially making it appear to first responding officers that she and her assailant had struggled in the basement. A service ramp at the rear of the basement led to a sliding door that opened into an alley; the police found the door had been tampered with so it could be opened without unlocking it. Later examination found bloody fingerprints on the door, as well as a metal pipe that had been used as a crowbar. Some evidence at the crime scene was improperly handled by the police investigators: a trail in the dirt (from the elevator shaft) along which police believed Phagan had been dragged was trampled; the footprints were never identified. Two notes were found in a pile of rubbish by Phagan's head, and became known as the "murder notes". One said: "he said he wood love me land down play like the night witch did it but that long tall black negro did boy his slef." The other said, "mam that negro hire down here did this i went to make water and he push me down that hole a long tall negro black that hoo it wase long sleam tall negro i write while play with me." The phrase "night witch" was thought to mean "night watch[man]"; when the notes were initially read aloud, Lee, who was black, said: "Boss, it looks like they are trying to lay it on me." Lee was arrested that morning based on these notes and his apparent familiarity with the bodyhe stated that the girl was white, when the police, because of the filth and darkness in the basement, initially thought she was black. A trail leading back to the elevator suggested to police that the body had been moved by Lee. Police investigation In addition to Lee, the police arrested a friend of Phagan's for the crime. Gradually, the police became convinced that these were not the culprits. By Monday, the police had theorized that the murder occurred on the second floor (the same as Frank's office) based on hair found on a lathe and what appeared to be blood on the ground of the second floor. Both Newt Lee, after the discovery of Phagan's body, and the police, just after 4 a.m., had unsuccessfully tried to telephone Frank early on Sunday, April 27. The police contacted him later that morning and he agreed to accompany them to the factory. When the police arrived after 7 a.m. without telling the specifics of what happened at the factory, Frank seemed extremely nervous, trembling, and pale; his voice was hoarse, and he was rubbing his hands and asking questions before the police could answer. Frank said he was not familiar with the name Mary Phagan and would need to check his payroll book. The detectives took Frank to the morgue to see Phagan's body and then to the factory, where Frank viewed the crime scene and walked the police through the entire building. Frank returned home about 10:45 a.m. At this point, Frank was not considered a suspect. On Monday, April 28, Frank, accompanied by his attorney, Luther Rosser, gave a written deposition to the police that provided a brief timeline of his activities on Saturday. He said Phagan was in his office between 12:05 and 12:10 p.m., that Lee had arrived at 4 p.m. but was asked to return later, and that Frank had a confrontation with ex-employee James Gantt at 6 p.m. as Frank was leaving and Lee arriving. Frank explained that Lee's time card for Sunday morning had several gaps (Lee was supposed to punch in every half-hour) that Frank had missed when he discussed the time card with police on Sunday. At Rosser's insistence, Frank exposed his body to demonstrate that he had no cuts or injuries and the police found no blood on the suit that Frank said he had worn on Saturday. The police found no blood stains on the laundry at Frank's house. Frank then met with his assistant, N. V. Darley, and Harry Scott of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, whom Frank hired to investigate the case and prove his innocence. The Pinkerton detectives would investigate many leads, ranging from crime scene evidence to allegations of sexual misconduct on the part of Frank. The Pinkertons were required to submit duplicates of all evidence to the police, including any that hurt Frank's case. Unbeknownst to Frank, however, was Scott's close ties with the police, particularly his best friend, detective John Black who believed in Frank's guilt from the outset. On Tuesday, April 29, Black went to Lee's residence at 11 a.m. looking for evidence, and found a blood-smeared shirt at the bottom of a burn barrel. The blood was smeared high up on the armpits and the shirt smelled unused, suggesting to the police that it was a plant. The detectives, suspicious of Frank due to his nervous behavior throughout his interviews, believed that Frank had arranged the plant. Frank was subsequently arrested around 11:30 a.m. at the factory. Steve Oney states that "no single development had persuaded ... [the police] that Leo Frank had murdered Mary Phagan. Instead, to the cumulative weight of Sunday's suspicions and Monday's misgivings had been added several last factors that tipped the scale against the superintendent." These factors were the dropped charges against two suspects; the rejection of rumors that Phagan had been seen on the streets, making Frank the last person to admit seeing Phagan; Frank's meeting with the Pinkertons; and a "shifting view of Newt Lee's role in the affair." The police were convinced Lee was involved as Frank's accomplice and that Frank was trying to implicate him. To bolster their case, the police staged a confrontation between Lee and Frank while both were still in custody; there were conflicting accounts of this meeting, but the police interpreted it as further implicating Frank. On Wednesday, April 30, a coroner's inquest was held. Frank testified about his activities on Saturday and other witnesses produced corroboration. A young man said that Phagan had complained to him about Frank. Several former employees spoke of Frank flirting with other women; one said she was actually propositioned. The detectives admitted that "they so far had obtained no conclusive evidence or clues in the baffling mystery ...". Lee and Frank were both ordered to be detained. In May, the detective William J. Burns traveled to Atlanta to offer further assistance in the case. However, his Burns Agency withdrew from the case later that month. C. W. Tobie, a detective from the Chicago affiliate who was assigned to the case, said that the agency "came down here to investigate a murder case, not to engage in petty politic[s]." The agency quickly became disillusioned with the many societal implications of the case, most notably the notion that Frank was able to evade prosecution due to his being a rich Jew, buying off the police and paying for private detectives. James "Jim" Conley The prosecution based much of its case on the testimony of Jim Conley, the factory's janitor, who is believed by many historians to be the actual murderer. The police had arrested Conley on May 1 after he had been seen washing red stains out of a blue work shirt; detectives examined it for blood, but determined that it was rust as Conley had claimed, and returned it. Conley was still in police custody two weeks later when he gave his first formal statement. He said that, on the day of the murder, he had been visiting saloons, shooting dice, and drinking. His story was called into question when a witness told detectives that "a black negro ... dressed in dark blue clothing and hat" had been seen in the lobby of the factory on the day of the murder. Further investigation determined that Conley could read and write, and there were similarities in his spelling with that found on the murder notes. On May 24, he admitted he had written the notes, swearing that Frank had called him to his office the day before the murder and told him to write them. After testing Conley again on his spellinghe spelled "night watchman" as "night witch"the police were convinced he had written the notes. They were skeptical about the rest of his story, not only because it implied premeditation by Frank, but also because it suggested that Frank had confessed to Conley and involved him. In a new affidavit (his second affidavit and third statement), Conley admitted he had lied about his Friday meeting with Frank. He said he had met Frank on the street on Saturday, and was told to follow him to the factory. Frank told him to hide in a wardrobe to avoid being seen by two women who were visiting Frank in his office. He said Frank dictated the murder notes for him to write, gave him cigarettes, then told him to leave the factory. Afterward, Conley said he went out drinking and saw a movie. He said he did not learn of the murder until he went to work on Monday. The police were satisfied with the new story, and both The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian gave the story front-page coverage. Three officials of the pencil company were not convinced and said so to the Journal. They contended that Conley had followed another employee into the building, intending to rob her, but found Phagan was an easier target. The police placed little credence in the officials' theory, but had no explanation for the failure to locate Phagan's purse that other witnesses had testified she carried that day. They were also concerned that Conley did not mention that he was aware a crime had been committed when he wrote the notes, suggesting Frank had simply dictated the notes to Conley arbitrarily. To resolve their doubts, the police attempted on May 28 to arrange a confrontation between Frank and Conley. Frank exercised his right not to meet without his attorney, who was out of town. The police were quoted in The Atlanta Constitution saying that this refusal was an indication of Frank's guilt, and the meeting never took place. On May 29, Conley was interviewed for four hours. His new affidavit said that Frank told him, "he had picked up a girl back there and let her fall and that her head hit against something." Conley said he and Frank took the body to the basement via the elevator, then returned to Frank's office where the murder notes were dictated. Conley then hid in the wardrobe after the two had returned to the office. He said Frank gave him $200, but took it back, saying, "Let me have that and I will make it all right with you Monday if I live and nothing happens." Conley's affidavit concluded, "The reason I have not told this before is I thought Mr. Frank would get out and help me out and I decided to tell the whole truth about this matter." At trial, Conley changed his story concerning the $200. He said Frank decided to withhold the money until Conley had burned Phagan's body in the basement furnace. The Georgian hired William Manning Smith to represent Conley for $40. Smith was known for specializing in representing black clients, and had successfully defended a black man against an accusation of rape by a white woman. He had also taken an elderly black woman's civil case as far as the Georgia Supreme Court. Although Smith believed Conley had told the truth in his final affidavit, he became concerned that Conley was giving long jailhouse interviews with crowds of reporters. Smith was also anxious about reporters from the Hearst papers, who had taken Frank's side. He arranged for Conley to be moved to a different jail, and severed his own relationship with the Georgian. On February 24, 1914, Conley was sentenced to a year in jail for being an accomplice after the fact to the murder of Mary Phagan. Media coverage The Atlanta Constitution broke the story of the murder and was soon in competition with The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Georgian. Forty extra editions came out the day Phagan's murder was reported. The Atlanta Georgian published a doctored morgue photo of Phagan, in which her head was shown spliced onto the body of another girl, and ran headlines "Says Women Overheard Conley Confess" and "Says Women Heard Conley Confess" on July 12. The papers offered a total of $1,800 in reward money for information leading to the apprehension of the murderer. Soon after the murder, Atlanta's mayor criticized the police for their steady release of information to the public. The governor, noting the reaction of the public to press sensationalism soon after Lee's and Frank's arrests, organized ten militia companies in case they were needed to repulse mob action against the prisoners. Coverage of the case in the local press continued nearly unabated throughout the investigation, trial, and subsequent appeal process. Newspaper reports throughout the period combined real evidence, unsubstantiated rumors, and journalistic speculation. Dinnerstein wrote, "Characterized by innuendo, misrepresentation, and distortion, the yellow journalism account of Mary Phagan's death aroused an anxious city, and within a few days, a shocked state." Different segments of the population focused on different aspects. Atlanta's working class saw Frank as "a defiler of young girls", while the German-Jewish community saw him as "an exemplary man and loyal husband." Albert Lindemann, author of The Jew Accused, opined that "ordinary people" may have had difficulty evaluating the often unreliable information and in "suspend[ing] judgment over a long period of time" while the case developed. As the press shaped public opinion, much of the public's attention was directed at the police and the prosecution, whom they expected to bring Phagan's killer to justice. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, had recently lost two high-profile murder cases; one state newspaper wrote that "another defeat, and in a case where the feeling was so intense, would have been, in all likelihood, the end of Mr. Dorsey, as solicitor." Trial On May 23, 1913, a grand jury convened to hear evidence for an indictment against Leo Frank for the murder of Mary Phagan. The prosecutor, Hugh Dorsey, presented only enough information to obtain the indictment, assuring the jury that additional information would be provided during the trial. The next day, May 24, the jury voted for an indictment. Meanwhile, Frank's legal team suggested to the media that Jim Conley was the actual killer, and put pressure on another grand jury to indict him. The jury foreman, on his own authority, convened the jury on July 21; on Dorsey's advice, they decided not to indict Conley. On July 28, the trial began at the Fulton County Superior Court (old city hall building). The judge, Leonard S. Roan, had been serving as a judge in Georgia since 1900. The prosecution team was led by Dorsey and included William Smith (Conley's attorney and Dorsey's jury consultant). Frank was represented by a team of eight lawyersincluding jury selection specialistsled by Luther Rosser, Reuben Arnold, and Herbert Haas. In addition to the hundreds of spectators inside, a large crowd gathered outside to watch the trial through the windows. The defense, in their legal appeals, would later cite the crowds as factors in intimidation of the witnesses and jury. Both legal teams, in planning their trial strategy, considered the implications of trying a white man based on the testimony of a black man in front of an early 1900s Georgia jury. Jeffrey Melnick, author of Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South, writes that the defense tried to picture Conley as "a new kind of African Americananarchic, degraded, and dangerous." Dorsey, however, pictured Conley as "a familiar type" of "old negro", like a minstrel or plantation worker. Dorsey's strategy played on prejudices of the white 1900s Georgia observers, i.e., that a black man could not have been intelligent enough to make up a complicated story. The prosecution argued that Conley's statement explaining the immediate aftermath of the murder was true, that Frank was the murderer, and that Frank had dictated the murder notes to Conley in an effort to pin the crime on Newt Lee, the night watchman. The prosecution presented witnesses who testified to bloodstains and strands of hair found on the lathe, to support their theory that the murder occurred on the factory's second floor in the machine room near Frank's office. The defense denied that the murder occurred on the second floor. Both sides contested the significance of physical evidence that suggested the place of the murder. Material found around Phagan's neck was shown to be present throughout the factory. The prosecution interpreted the scene in the basement to support Conley's storythat the body was carried there by elevatorwhile the defense suggested that the drag marks on the floor indicated that Conley carried the body down a ladder and then dragged it across the floor. The defense argued that Conley was the murderer and that Newt Lee helped Conley write the two murder notes. The defense brought many witnesses to support Frank's account of his movements, which indicated he did not have enough time to commit the crime. The defense, to support their theory that Conley murdered Phagan in a robbery, focused on Phagan's missing purse. Conley claimed in court that he saw Frank place the purse in his office safe, although he denied having seen the purse before the trial. Another witness testified that, on the Monday after the murder, the safe was open and there was no purse in it. The significance of Phagan's torn pay envelope was disputed by both sides. Frank's alleged sexual behavior The prosecution focused on Frank's alleged sexual behavior. They alleged that Frank, with Conley's assistance, regularly met with women in his office for sexual relations. On the day of the murder, Conley said he saw Phagan go upstairs, from where he heard a scream coming shortly after. He then said he dozed off; when he woke up, Frank called him upstairs and showed him Phagan's body, admitting that he had hurt her. Conley repeated statements from his affidavits that he and Frank took Phagan's body to the basement via the elevator, before returning in the elevator to the office where Frank dictated the murder notes. Conley was cross-examined by the defense for 16 hours over three days, but the defense failed to break his story. The defense then moved to have Conley's entire testimony concerning the alleged rendezvous stricken from the record. Judge Roan noted that an early objection might have been upheld, but since the jury could not forget what it had heard, he allowed the evidence to stand. The prosecution, to support Frank's alleged expectation of a visit from Phagan, produced Helen Ferguson, a factory worker who first informed Phagan's parents of her death. Ferguson testified that she had tried to get Phagan's pay on Friday from Frank, but was told that Phagan would have to come in person. Both the person behind the pay window and the woman behind Ferguson in the pay line disputed this version of events, testifying that in accordance with his normal practice, Frank did not disburse pay that day. The defense called a number of factory girls, who testified that they had never seen Frank flirting with or touching the girls, and that they considered him to be of good character. In the prosecution's rebuttal, Dorsey called "a steady parade of former factory workers" to ask them the question, "Do you know Mr. Frank's character for lasciviousness?" The answers were usually "bad". Timeline The prosecution realized early on that issues relating to time would be an essential part of its case. At trial, each side presented witnesses to support their version of the timeline for the hours before and after the murder. The starting point was the time of death; the prosecution, relying on the analysis of stomach contents by their expert witness, argued that Phagan died between 12:00 and 12:15 p.m. A prosecution witness, Monteen Stover, said she had gone into the office to get her paycheck, waiting there from 12:05 to 12:10, and did not see Frank in his office. The prosecution's theory was that Stover did not see Frank because he was at that time murdering Phagan in the metal room. Stover's account did not match Frank's initial account that he had not left the office between noon and 12:30. Other testimony indicated that Phagan exited the trolley (or tram) between 12:07 and 12:10. From the stop it was a two- to four-minute walk, suggesting that Stover arrived first, making her testimony and its implications irrelevant: Frank could not be killing Phagan because at the time she had not yet arrived. Lemmie Quinn, foreman of the metal room, testified that he spoke briefly with Frank in his office at 12:20. Frank had not mentioned Quinn when the police first interviewed him about his whereabouts at noontime on April 26. Frank had said at the coroner's inquest that Quinn arrived less than ten minutes after Phagan had left his office, and during the murder trial said Quinn arrived hardly five minutes after Phagan left. According to Conley and several experts called by the defense, it would have taken at least thirty minutes to murder Phagan, take the body to the basement, return to the office, and write the murder notes. By the defense's calculations, Frank's time was fully accounted for from 11:30 a.m. to 1:30 p.m., except for eighteen minutes between 12:02 and 12:20. Hattie Hall, a stenographer, said at trial that Frank had specifically requested that she come in that Saturday and that Frank had been working in his office from 11:00 to nearly noon. The prosecution labeled Quinn's testimony as "a fraud" and reminded the jury that early in the police investigation Frank had not mentioned Quinn. Newt Lee, the night watchman, arrived at work shortly before 4:00 and Frank, who was normally calm, came bustling out of his office. Frank told Lee that he had not yet finished his own work and asked Lee to return at 6:00. Newt Lee noticed that Frank was very agitated and asked if he could sleep in the packing room, but Frank was insistent that Lee leave the building and told Lee to go out and have a good time in town before coming back. When Lee returned at 6:00, James Gantt had also arrived. Lee told police that Gantt, a former employee who had been fired by Frank after $2 was found missing from the cash box, wanted to look for two pairs of shoes he had left at the factory. Frank allowed Gantt in, although Lee said that Frank appeared to be upset by Gantt's appearance. Frank arrived home at 6:25; at 7:00, he called Lee to determine if everything had gone all right with Gantt. Conviction and sentencing During the trial, the prosecution alleged bribery and witness tampering attempts by the Frank legal team. Meanwhile, the defense requested a mistrial because it believed the jurors had been intimidated by the people inside and outside the courtroom, but the motion was denied. Fearing for the safety of Frank and his lawyers in case of an acquittal, Roan and the defense agreed that neither Frank nor his defense attorneys would be present when the verdict was read. On August 25, 1913, after less than four hours of deliberation, the jury reached a unanimous guilty verdict convicting Frank of murder. The Constitution described the scene as Dorsey emerged from the steps of city hall: "...three muscular men swung Mr. Dorsey, (the prosecuting attorney,) on their shoulders and passed him over the heads of the crowd across the street to his office. With hat raised and tears coursing down his cheeks, the victor in Georgia’s most noted criminal battle was tumbled over a shrieking throng that wildly proclaimed its admiration." On August 26, the day after the guilty verdict was reached by the jury, Judge Roan brought counsel into private chambers and sentenced Leo Frank to death by hanging with the date set to October 10. The defense team issued a public protest, alleging that public opinion unconsciously influenced the jury to the prejudice of Frank. This argument was carried forward throughout the appeal process. Appeals Under Georgia law at the time, appeals of death penalty cases had to be based on errors of law, not a re-evaluation of the evidence presented at trial. The appeals process began with a reconsideration by the original trial judge. The defense presented a written appeal alleging 115 procedural problems. These included claims of jury prejudice, intimidation of the jury by the crowds outside the courthouse, the admission of Conley's testimony concerning Frank's alleged sexual perversions and activities, and the return of a verdict based on an improper weighing of the evidence. Both sides called forth witnesses involving the charges of prejudice and intimidation; while the defense relied on non-involved witness testimony, the prosecution found support from the testimony of the jurors themselves. On October 31, 1913, Judge Roan denied the motion, adding, "I have thought about this case more than any other I have ever tried. With all the thought I have put on this case, I am not thoroughly convinced that Frank is guilty or innocent. But I do not have to be convinced. The jury was convinced. There is no room to doubt that." State appeals The next step, a hearing before the Georgia Supreme Court, was held on December 15. In addition to presenting the existing written record, each side was granted two hours for oral arguments. In addition to the old arguments, the defense focused on the reservations expressed by Judge Roan at the reconsideration hearing, citing six cases where new trials had been granted after the trial judge expressed misgivings about the jury verdict. The prosecution countered with arguments that the evidence convicting Frank was substantial and that listing Judge Roan's doubts in the defense's bill of exceptions was not the proper vehicle for "carry[ing] the views of the judge." On February 17, 1914, in a 142-page decision, the court denied Frank a new trial by a 4–2 vote. The majority dismissed the allegations of bias by the jurors, saying the power of determining this rested strictly with the trial judge except when an "abuse of discretion" was proved. It also ruled that spectator influence could only be the basis of a new trial if ruled so by the trial judge. Conley's testimony on Frank's alleged sexual conduct was found to be admissible because, even though it suggested Frank had committed other crimes for which he was not charged, it made Conley's statements more credible and helped to explain Frank's motivation for committing the crime according to the majority. On Judge Roan's stated reservations, the court ruled that these did not trump his legal decision to deny a motion for a new trial. The dissenting justices restricted their opinion to Conley's testimony, which they declared should not have been allowed to stand: "It is perfectly clear to us that evidence of prior bad acts of lasciviousness committed by the defendant ... did not tend to prove a preexisting design, system, plan, or scheme, directed toward making an assault upon the deceased or killing her to prevent its disclosure." They concluded that the evidence prejudiced Frank in the jurors' eyes and denied him a fair trial. The last hearing exhausted Frank's ordinary state appeal rights. On March 7, 1914, Frank's execution was set for April 17 of that year. The defense continued to investigate the case and filed an extraordinary motion before the Georgia Supreme Court. This appeal, which would be held before a single justice, Ben Hill, was restricted to raising facts not available at the original trial. The application for appeal resulted in a stay of execution and the hearing opened on April 23, 1914. The defense successfully obtained a number of affidavits from witnesses repudiating their testimony. A state biologist said in a newspaper interview that his microscopic examination of the hair on the lathe shortly after the murder did not match Phagan's. At the same time that the various repudiations were leaked to the newspapers, the state was busy seeking repudiations of the new affidavits. An analysis of the murder notes, which had only been addressed in any detail in the closing arguments, suggested Conley composed them in the basement rather than writing what Frank told him to write in his office. Prison letters written by Conley to Annie Maude Carter were discovered; the defense then argued that these, along with Carter's testimony, implicated Conley was the actual murderer. The defense also raised a federal constitutional issue on whether Frank's absence from the court when the verdict was announced "constituted deprivation of the due process of law". Different attorneys were brought in to argue this point since Rosser and Arnold had acquiesced in Frank's absence. There was a debate between Rosser and Arnold on whether it should be raised at this time since its significance might be lost with all of the other evidence being presented. Louis Marshall, President of the American Jewish Committee and constitutional lawyer, urged them to raise the point, and the decision was made that it should be made clear that if the extraordinary motion was rejected they intended to appeal through the federal court system and there would be an impression of injustice in the trial. For almost every issue presented by the defense, the state had a response: most of the repudiations were either retracted or disavowed by the witnesses; the question of whether outdated order pads used to write the murder notes had been in the basement before the murder was disputed; the integrity of the defense's investigators were questioned and intimidation and bribery were charged; and the significance of Conley's letters to Annie Carter was disputed. The defense, in its rebuttal, tried to bolster the testimony relating to the murder notes and the Carter letters. (These issues were reexamined later when the governor considered commuting Frank's sentence.) During the defense's closing argument, the issue of the repudiations was put to rest by Judge Hill's ruling that the court could only consider the revocation of testimony if the subject were tried and found guilty of perjury. The judge denied Frank a new trial and the full court upheld the decision on November 14, 1914. The full court also said that the due process issue should have been raised earlier, characterizing what it considered a belated effort as "trifling with the court". Federal appeals The next step for the Frank team was to appeal the issue through the federal system. The original request for a writ of error on the absence of Frank from the jury's announcement of the verdict was first denied by Justice Joseph Rucker Lamar and then Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Both denied the request because they agreed with the Georgia court that the issue was raised too late. The full Supreme Court then heard arguments, but denied the motion without issuing a written decision. However, Holmes said, "I very seriously doubt if the petitioner ... has had due process of law ... because of the trial taking place in the presence of a hostile demonstration and seemingly dangerous crowd, thought by the presiding Judge to be ready for violence unless a verdict of guilty was rendered." Holmes's statement, as well as public indignation over this latest rejection by the courts, encouraged Frank's team to attempt a habeas corpus motion, arguing that the threat of crowd violence had forced Frank to be absent from the verdict hearing and constituted a violation of due process. Justice Lamar heard the motion and agreed that the full Supreme Court should hear the appeal. On April 19, 1915, the Supreme Court denied the appeal by a 7–2 vote in the case Frank v. Mangum. Part of the decision repeated the message of the last decision: that Frank failed "to raise the objection in due season when fully cognizant of the fact." Holmes and Charles Evans Hughes dissented, with Holmes writing, "It is our duty to declare lynch law as little valid when practiced by a regularly drawn jury as when administered by one elected by a mob intent on death." Commutation of sentence Hearing On April 22, 1915, an application for a commutation of Frank's death sentence was submitted to a three-person Prison Commission in Georgia; it was rejected on June 9 by a vote of 2–1. The dissenter indicated that he felt it was wrong to execute a man "on the testimony of an accomplice, when the circumstances of the crime tend to fix the guilt upon the accomplice." The application then passed to Governor John Slaton. Slaton had been elected in 1912 and his term would end four days after Frank's scheduled execution. In 1913, before Phagan's murder, Slaton agreed to merge his law firm with that of Luther Rosser, who became Frank's lead attorney (Slaton was not directly involved in the original trial). After the commutation, popular Georgia politician Tom Watson attacked Slaton, often focusing on his partnership with Rosser as a conflict of interest. Slaton opened hearings on June 12. In addition to receiving presentations from both sides with new arguments and evidence, Slaton visited the crime scene and reviewed over 10,000 pages of documents. This included various letters, including one written by Judge Roan shortly before he died asking Slaton to correct his mistake. Slaton also received more than 1,000 death threats. During the hearing, former Governor Joseph Brown warned Slaton, "In all frankness, if Your Excellency wishes to invoke lynch law in Georgia and destroy trial by jury, the way to do it is by retrying this case and reversing all the courts." According to Tom Watson's biographer, C. Vann Woodward, "While the hearings of the petition to commute were in progress Watson sent a friend to the governor with the promise that if Slaton allowed Frank to hang, Watson would be his 'friend', which would result in his 'becoming United States senator and the master of Georgia politics for twenty years to come.'" Slaton produced a 29-page report. In the first part, he criticized outsiders who were unfamiliar with the evidence, especially the press in the North. He defended the trial court's decision, which he felt was sufficient for a guilty verdict. He summarized points of the state's case against Frank that "any reasonable person" would accept and said of Conley that "It is hard to conceive that any man's power of fabrication of minute details could reach that which Conley showed, unless it be the truth." After having made these points, Slaton's narrative changed course and asked the rhetorical question, "Did Conley speak the truth?" Leonard Dinnerstein wrote, "Slaton based his opinions primarily upon the inconsistencies he had discovered in the narrative of Jim Conley." Two factors stood out to Slaton: the transporting of the body to the basement and the murder notes. Transport of the body During the initial investigation, police had noted undisturbed human excrement in the elevator shaft, which Conley said he had left there before the murder. Use of the elevator on the Monday after the murder crushed the excrement, which Slaton concluded was an indication that the elevator could not have been used as described by Conley, casting doubt on his testimony. During the commutation hearing, Slaton asked Dorsey to address this issue. Dorsey said that the elevator did not always go all the way to the bottom and could be stopped anywhere. Frank's attorney rebutted this by quoting Conley, who said that the elevator stops when it hits the bottom. Slaton interviewed others and conducted his own tests on his visit to the factory, concluding that every time the elevator made the trip to the basement it touched the bottom. Slaton said, "If the elevator was not used by Conley and Frank in taking the body to the basement, then the explanation of Conley cannot be accepted." Murder notes The murder notes had been analyzed before at the extraordinary motion hearing. Handwriting expert Albert S. Osborn reviewed the previous evidence at the commutation hearing and commented, for the first time, that the notes were written in the third person rather than the first person. He said that the first person would have been more logical since they were intended to be the final statements of a dying Phagan. He argued this was the type of error that Conley would have made, rather than Frank, as Conley was a sweeper and not a Cornell-educated manager like Frank. Conley's former attorney, William Smith, had become convinced that his client had committed the murder. Smith produced a 100-page analysis of the notes for the defense. He analyzed "speech and writing patterns" and "spelling, grammar, repetition of adjectives, [and] favorite verb forms". He concluded, "In this article I show clearly that Conley did not tell the truth about those notes." Slaton compared the murder notes, Conley's letters to Annie Maude Carter, and his trial testimony. Throughout these documents, he found similar use of the words "like", "play", "lay", "love", and "hisself". He also found double adjectives such as "long tall negro", "tall, slim build heavy man", and "good long wide piece of cord in his hands". Slaton was also convinced that the murder notes were written in the basement, not in Frank's office. Slaton accepted the defense's argument that the notes were written on dated order pads signed by a former employee that were only kept in the basement. Slaton wrote that the employee signed an affidavit stating that, when he left the company in 1912, "he personally packed up all of the duplicate orders ... and sent them down to the basement to be burned. This evidence was never passed upon by the jury and developed since the trial." Timing and physical evidence Slaton's narrative touched on other aspects of the evidence and testimony that suggested reasonable doubt. For example, he accepted the defense's argument that charges by Conley of perversion were based on someone coaching him that Jews were circumcised. He accepted the defense's interpretation of the timeline; citing the evidence produced at trialincluding the possibility that Stover did not see Frank because she did not proceed further than the outer officehe wrote: "Therefore, Monteen Stover must have arrived before Mary Phagan, and while Monteen Stover was in the room it hardly seems possible under the evidence, that Mary Phagan was at that time being murdered." Slaton also said that Phagan's head wound must have bled profusely, yet there was no blood found on the lathe, the ground nearby, in the elevator, or the steps leading downstairs. He also said that Phagan's nostrils and mouth were filled with dirt and sawdust which could only have come from the basement. Slaton also commented on Conley's story (that Conley was watching out for the arrival of a lady for Frank on the day of the murder): Conclusion On Monday, June 21, 1915, Slaton released the order to commute Frank's murder conviction to life imprisonment. Slaton's legal rationale was that there was sufficient new evidence not available at the original trial to justify Frank's actions. He wrote: The commutation was headline news. Atlanta Mayor Jimmy Woodward remarked that "The larger part of the population believes Frank guilty and that the commutation was a mistake." In response, Slaton invited the press to his home that afternoon, telling them: He also told reporters that he was certain that Conley was the actual murderer. Slaton privately told friends that he would have issued a full pardon, if not for his belief that Frank would soon be able to prove his own innocence. Reaction of the public The public was outraged. A mob threatened to attack the governor at his home. A detachment of the Georgia National Guard, along with county policemen and a group of Slaton's friends who were sworn in as deputies, dispersed the mob. Slaton had been a popular governor, but he and his wife left Georgia immediately thereafter. For Frank's protection, he was taken to the Milledgeville State Penitentiary in the middle of the night before the commutation was announced. The penitentiary was "strongly garrisoned and newly bristling with arms" and separated from Marietta by of mostly unpaved road. However, on July 17, The New York Times reported that fellow inmate William Creen tried to kill Frank by slashing his throat with a butcher knife, severing his jugular vein. The attacker told the authorities he "wanted to keep the other inmates safe from mob violence, Frank's presence was a disgrace to the prison, and he was sure he would be pardoned if he killed Frank." Antisemitism and media coverage The sensationalism in the press started before the trial and continued throughout the trial, the appeals process, the commutation decision, and beyond. At the time, local papers were the dominant source of information, but they were not entirely anti-Frank. The Constitution alone assumed Frank's guilt, while both the Georgian and the Journal would later comment about the public hysteria in Atlanta during the trial, each suggesting the need to reexamine the evidence against the defendant. On March 14, 1914, while the extraordinary motion hearing was pending, the Journal called for a new trial, saying that to execute Frank based on the atmosphere both within and outside the courtroom would "amount to judicial murder." Other newspapers in the state followed suit and many ministers spoke from the pulpit supporting a new trial. L. O. Bricker, the pastor of the church attended by Phagan's family, said that based on "the awful tension of public feeling, it was next to impossible for a jury of our fellow human beings to have granted him a fair, fearless and impartial trial." On October 12, 1913, the New York Sun became the first major Northern paper to give a detailed account of the Frank trial. In discussing the charges of antisemitism in the trial, it described Atlanta as more liberal on the subject than any other Southern cities. It went on to say that antisemitism did arise during the trial as Atlantans reacted to statements attributed to Frank's Jewish supporters, who dismissed Phagan as "nothing but a factory girl". The paper said, "The anti-Semitic feeling was the natural result of the belief that the Jews had banded to free Frank, innocent or guilty. The supposed solidarity of the Jews for Frank, even if he was guilty, caused a Gentile solidarity against him." On November 8, 1913, the executive committee of the American Jewish Committee, headed by Louis Marshall, addressed the Frank case. They did so following Judge Roan's reconsideration motion and motivated by the issues raised in the Sun. They chose not to take a public stance as a committee, instead deciding to raise funds individually to influence public opinion in favor of Frank. Albert Lasker, a wealthy advertising magnate, responded to these calls to help Frank. Lasker contributed personal funds and arranged a public relations effort in support of Frank. In Atlanta, during the time of the extraordinary motion, Lasker coordinated Frank's meetings with the press and coined the slogan "The Truth Is on the March" to characterize the efforts of Frank's defense team. He persuaded prominent figures such as Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Jane Addams to make statements supporting Frank. During the commutation hearing, Vice President Thomas R. Marshall weighed in, as did many leading magazine and newspaper editors, including Herbert Croly, editor of the New Republic; C.P.J. Mooney, editor of the Chicago Tribune; Mark Sullivan, editor of Collier's; R. E. Stafford, editor of the Daily Oklahoman; and D. D. Moore, editor of the New Orleans Times-Picayune. Adolph Ochs, publisher of The New York Times, became involved about the same time as Lasker, organizing a prolonged campaign advocating for a new trial for Frank. Both Ochs and Lasker attempted to heed Louis Marshall's warnings about antagonizing the "sensitiveness of the southern people and engender the feeling that the north is criticizing the courts and the people of Georgia." Dinnerstein writes that these attempts failed, "because many Georgians interpreted every item favorable to Frank as a hostile act." Tom Watson, editor of the Jeffersonian, had remained publicly silent during Frank's trial. Among Watson's political enemies was Senator Hoke Smith, former owner of The Atlanta Journal, which was still considered to be Smith's political instrument. When the Journal called for a reevaluation of the evidence against Frank, Watson, in the March 19, 1914 edition of his magazine, attacked Smith for trying "to bring the courts into disrepute, drag down the judges to the level of criminals, and destroy the confidence of the people in the orderly process of the law." Watson also questioned whether Frank expected "extraordinary favors and immunities because of his race" and questioned the wisdom of Jews to "risk the good name ... of the whole race" to save "the decadent offshoot of a great people." Subsequent articles concentrated on the Frank case and became more and more impassioned in their attacks. C. Vann Woodward writes that Watson "pulled all the stops: Southern chivalry, sectional animus, race prejudice, class consciousness, agrarian resentment, state pride." When describing the public reaction to Frank, historians mention the class and ethnic tensions in play while acknowledging the complexity of the case and the difficulty in gauging the importance of his Jewishness, class, and northern background. Historian John Higham writes that "economic resentment, frustrated progressivism, and race consciousness combined to produce a classic case of lynch law. ... Hatred of organized wealth reaching into Georgia from outside became a hatred of Jewish wealth." Historian Nancy MacLean writes that some historians have argued that this was an American Dreyfus affair, which she said "[could] be explained only in light of the social tensions unleashed by the growth of industry and cities in the turn-of-the-century South. These circumstances made a Jewish employer a more fitting scapegoat for disgruntled whites than the other leading suspect in the case, a black worker." Albert Lindemann said that Frank on trial found himself "in a position of much latent tension and symbolism." Stating that it is impossible to determine the extent to which antisemitism affected his image, he concluded that "[Frank was seen as] a representative of Yankee capitalism in a southern city, with row upon row of southern women, often the daughters and wives of ruined farmers, 'at his mercy'a rich, punctilious, northern Jew lording it over vulnerable and impoverished working women." Abduction and lynching of Frank The June 21, 1915 commutation provoked Tom Watson into advocating Frank's lynching. He wrote in The Jeffersonian and Watson's Magazine: "This country has nothing to fear from its rural communities. Lynch law is a good sign; it shows that a sense of justice lives among the people." A group of prominent men organized themselves into the "Vigilance Committee" and openly planned to kidnap Frank from prison. They consisted of 28 men with various skills: an electrician was to cut the prison wires, car mechanics were to keep the cars running, and there was a locksmith, a telephone man, a medic, a hangman, and a lay preacher. The ringleaders were well known locally but were not named publicly until June 2000, when a local librarian posted a list on the Web based on information compiled by Mary Phagan's great-niece, Mary Phagan Kean (b. 1953). The list included Joseph Mackey Brown, former governor of Georgia; Eugene Herbert Clay, former mayor of Marietta and later president of the Georgia Senate; E. P. Dobbs, mayor of Marietta at the time; Moultrie McKinney Sessions, lawyer and banker; part of the Marietta delegation at Governor Slaton's clemency hearing; several current and former Cobb County sheriffs; and other individuals of various professions. On the afternoon of August 16, the eight cars of the lynch mob left Marietta separately for Milledgeville. They arrived at the prison at around 10:00 p.m., and the electrician cut the telephone wires, members of the group drained the gas from the prison's automobiles, handcuffed the warden, seized Frank, and drove away. The trip took about seven hours at a top speed of through small towns on back roads. Lookouts in the towns telephoned ahead to the next town as soon as they saw the line of cars pass by. A site at Frey's Gin, two miles (3 km) east of Marietta, had been prepared, complete with a rope and table supplied by former Sheriff William Frey. The New York Times reported Frank was handcuffed, his legs tied at the ankles, and that he was hanged from a branch of a tree at around 7:00 a.m., facing the direction of the house where Phagan had lived. The Atlanta Journal wrote that a crowd of men, women, and children arrived on foot, in cars, and on horses, and that souvenir hunters cut away parts of his shirt sleeves. According to The New York Times, one of the onlookers, Robert E. Lee Howellrelated to Clark Howell, editor of The Atlanta Constitutionwanted to have the body cut into pieces and burned, and began to run around, screaming, whipping up the mob. Judge Newt Morris tried to restore order, and asked for a vote on whether the body should be returned to the parents intact; only Howell disagreed. When the body was cut down, Howell started stamping on Frank's face and chest; Morris quickly placed the body in a basket, and he and his driver John Stephens Wood drove it out of Marietta. In Atlanta, thousands besieged the undertaker's parlor, demanding to see the body; after they began throwing bricks, they were allowed to file past the corpse. Frank's body was then transported by rail on Southern Railway's train No. 36 from Atlanta to New York and buried in the Mount Carmel Cemetery in Glendale, Queens, New York on August 20, 1915. (When Lucille Frank died, she was not buried with Leo; she was cremated, and eventually buried next to her parents' graves.) The New York Times wrote that the vast majority of Cobb County believed he had received his "just deserts", and that the lynch mob had simply stepped in to uphold the law after Governor Slaton arbitrarily set it aside. A Cobb County grand jury was convened to indict the lynchers; although they were well known locally, none were identified, and some of the lynchers may have served on the very same grand jury that was investigating them. Nat Harris, the newly elected governor who succeeded Slaton, promised to punish the mob, issuing a $1,500 state reward for information. Despite this, Charles Willis Thompson of The New York Times said that the citizens of Marietta "would die rather than reveal their knowledge or even their suspicion [of the identities of the lynchers]", and the local Macon Telegraph said, "Doubtless they can be apprehendeddoubtful they will." Several photographs were taken of the lynching, which were published and sold as postcards in local stores for 25 cents each; also sold were pieces of the rope, Frank's nightshirt, and branches from the tree. According to Elaine Marie Alphin, author of An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank, they were selling so fast that the police announced that sellers would require a city license. In the postcards, members of the lynch mob or crowd can be seen posing in front of the body, one of them holding a portable camera. Historian Amy Louise Wood writes that local newspapers did not publish the photographs because it would have been too controversial, given that the lynch mob can be clearly seen and that the lynching was being condemned around the country. The Columbia State, which opposed the lynching, wrote: "The heroic Marietta lynchers are too modest to give their photographs to the newspapers." Wood also writes that a news film of the lynching that included the photographs was released, although it focused on the crowds without showing Frank's body; its showing was prevented by censorship boards around the U.S., though Wood says there is no evidence that it was stopped in Atlanta. After the trial The lynching of Frank and its publicity temporarily halted lynchings. Leo Frank's case was mentioned by Adolf Kraus when he announced the creation of the Anti-Defamation League in October 1913. After Frank's lynching, around half of Georgia's 3,000 Jews left the state. According to author Steve Oney, "What it did to Southern Jews can't be discounted ... It drove them into a state of denial about their Judaism. They became even more assimilated, anti-Israel, Episcopalian. The Temple did away with chupahs at weddingsanything that would draw attention." Many American Jews saw Frank as an American Alfred Dreyfus, like Frank a victim of antisemitic persecution. Two weeks after the lynching, in the September 2, 1915 issue of The Jeffersonian, Watson wrote, "the voice of the people is the voice of God", capitalizing on his sensational coverage of the controversial trial. In 1914, when Watson began reporting his anti-Frank message, The Jeffersonian's circulation had been 25,000; by September 2, 1915, its circulation was 87,000. The consensus of researchers on the subject is that Frank was wrongly convicted. The Atlanta Constitution stated it was investigating the case again in the 1940s. A reporter who visited Frank's widow (she never remarried), Lucille, stated that she started crying when he discussed the case with her. Jeffrey Melnick wrote, "There is near unanimity around the idea that Frank was most certainly innocent of the crime of murdering Mary Phagan." Other historians and journalists have written that the trial was "a miscarriage of justice" and "a gross injustice", "a mockery of justice", that "there can be no doubt, of course, that ... [Frank was] innocent", that "Leo Frank ... was unjustly and wrongly convicted of murder", that he "was falsely convicted", and that "the evidence against Frank was shaky, to say the least". C. Vann Woodward, like many other authors, believed that Conley was the actual murderer and was "implicated by evidence overwhelmingly more incriminating than any produced against Frank." Critics cite a number of problems with the conviction. Local newspaper coverage, even before Frank was officially charged, was deemed to be inaccurate and prejudicial. Some claimed that the prosecutor Hugh Dorsey was under pressure for a quick conviction because of recent unsolved murders and made a premature decision that Frank was guilty, a decision that his personal ambition would not allow him to reconsider. Later analysis of evidence, primarily by Governor Slaton and Conley's attorney William Smith, seemed to exculpate Frank while implicating Conley. Websites supporting the view that Frank was guilty of murdering Phagan emerged around the centennial of the Phagan murder in 2013. The Anti-Defamation League issued a press release condemning what it called "misleading websites" from "anti-Semites ... to promote anti-Jewish views". Applications for posthumous pardon First attempt In 1982, Alonzo Mann, who had been Frank's office boy at the time of Phagan's murder, told The Tennessean that he had seen Jim Conley alone shortly after noon carrying Phagan's body through the lobby toward the ladder descending into the basement. Though Mann's testimony was not sufficient to settle the issue, it was the basis of an attempt by Charles Wittenstein, Southern counsel for the Anti-Defamation League, and Dale Schwartz, an Atlanta lawyer, to obtain a posthumous pardon for Frank from the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles. The board also reviewed the files from Slaton's commutation decision. It denied the pardon in 1983, hindered in its investigation by the lack of available records. It concluded that, "After exhaustive review and many hours of deliberation, it is impossible to decide conclusively the guilt or innocence of Leo M. Frank. For the board to grant a pardon, the innocence of the subject must be shown conclusively." At the time, the lead editorial in The Atlanta Constitution began, "Leo Frank has been lynched a second time." Second attempt Frank supporters submitted a second application for pardon, asking the state only to recognize its culpability over his death. The board granted the pardon in 1986. It said: In response to the pardon, an editorial by Fred Grimm in the Miami Herald said, "A salve for one of the South's most hateful, festering memories, was finally applied." Comparison to 1913 Beilis trial Comparison has been made to the contemporaneous trial known as "the Beilis trial" and "the Beilis affair." A book titled The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894–1915 also compared aspects of these two trials to that of Alfred Dreyfus ("the Dreyfus affair"). Historical marker In 2008, a state historical marker was erected by the Georgia Historical Society, the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, and Temple Kol Emeth, near the building at 1200 Roswell Road, Marietta where Frank was lynched. In 2015, the Georgia Historical Society, the Atlanta History Center, and the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation dedicated a Georgia Historical Society marker honoring Governor John M. Slaton at the Atlanta History Center. Anti-lynching memorial In 2018, The Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, with support from the ADL, and Rabbi Steve Lebow of Temple Kol Emeth, placed the first national anti-lynching memorial at the Georgia Department of Transportation designated Leo Frank memorial site. The anti-lynching memorial was facilitated by a strong letter of support to the Georgia Department of Transportation by the late Congressman John Lewis when the Department turned down siting permission. The text of the anti-lynching memorial text reads, "In Respectful Memory of the Thousands Across America, Denied Justice by Lynching; Victims of Hatred, Prejudice and Ignorance. Between 1880-1946, ~570 Georgians Were Lynched." Conviction Integrity Unit In 2019, Fulton County District Attorney Paul Howard founded an eight-member panel called the Conviction Integrity Unit to investigate the cases of Wayne Williams and Frank. The board will re-examine the cases and make recommendations to Howard on whether they should be re-adjudicated. In popular culture During the trial, the Atlanta musician and millworker Fiddlin' John Carson wrote and performed a murder ballad entitled "Little Mary Phagan". During the mill strikes of 1914, Carson sang "Little Mary Phagan" to crowds from the Fulton County courthouse steps. His daughter, Moonshine Kate, later recorded the song. An unrecorded Carson song, "Dear Old Oak in Georgia", sentimentalizes the tree from which Leo Frank was hanged. The Frank case has been the subject of several media adaptations. In 1921, African-American director Oscar Micheaux directed a silent race film entitled The Gunsaulus Mystery, followed by Murder in Harlem in 1935. In 1937, Mervyn LeRoy directed They Won't Forget, based on the Ward Greene novel Death in The Deep South, which was in turn inspired by the Frank case. An episode of the 1964 TV series Profiles in Courage dramatized Governor John M. Slaton's decision to commute Frank's sentence. The episode starred Walter Matthau as Governor Slaton and Michael Constantine as Tom Watson. The 1988 TV miniseries The Murder of Mary Phagan was broadcast on NBC, starring Jack Lemmon as Gov. John Slaton and also featuring Kevin Spacey. The 1998 Broadway musical Parade, based on the case, won two Tony Awards. In 2009, Ben Loeterman directed the documentary film The People v. Leo Frank. See also Menahem Mendel Beilis Blood libel Antisemitism in the United States References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Alphin, Elaine Marie. An Unspeakable Crime: The Prosecution and Persecution of Leo Frank. Carolrhoda Books, 2010. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 10, 2011. . Carter, Dan. "And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank". Journal of Southern History, Vol. 71, Issue 2 (May 2005), p. 491. DOI: 10.2307/27648797. Chanes, Jerome. "Who Does What?". In Maisel, Louis; Forman, Ira; Altschiller, Donald; Bassett, Charles. Jews in American Politics: Essays. Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. p. 105. . Coleman, Kenneth. A History of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, 1991. . Dinnerstein, Leonard. Antisemitism in America. Oxford University Press, 1994. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 5, 2016. . Dinnerstein, Leonard. The Leo Frank Case. University of Georgia Press, 1987. . Eakin, Frank. What Price Prejudice?: Christian Antisemitism in America. Paulist Press, 1998. . Freedman, Eric. Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty. New York University Press, 2003. Retrieved August 23, 2014. . Frey, Robert Seitz; Thompson-Frey, Nancy. The Silent and the Damned: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. New York, New York: Cooper Square Press (of Rowman & Littlefield), 2002. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 17, 2015. . Friedman, Lawrence M. "Front Page: Notes on the Nature and Significance of Headline Trials". St. Louis University Law Journal, Vol. 55, Issue 4 (Summer 2011), pp. 1243–1284. Golden, Harry. A Little Girl is Dead. World Publishing Company, 1965. Retrieved June 25, 2011. (published in Great Britain as The Lynching of Leo Frank) Henig, Gerald. "'He Did Not Have a Fair Trial': California Progressives React to the Leo Frank Case". California History, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Summer 1979), pp. 166–178. DOI: 10.2307/25157909. Higham, John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925. Rutgers University Press, 1988. . Knight, Alfred H. The Life of the Law. Oxford University Press, 1996. Google Books abridged version. . Lawson, John Davison (ed.). American State Trials Volume X (1918), contains the abridged trial testimony and closing arguments starting on p. 182. Retrieved August 23, 2010. Lindemann, Albert S. The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894–1915. Cambridge University Press, 1991. Google Books abridged version. Retrieved June 11, 2011. . MacLean, Nancy. "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism". The Journal of American History, Vol. 78, No. 3 (December 1991), pp. 917–948. DOI: 10.2307/2078796. Melnick, Jeffrey Paul. Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South. University Press of Mississippi, 2000. Google Books abridged version. . Moore, Deborah. B'nai B'rith and the Challenge of Ethnic Leadership. State University of New York Press, 1981. . Moseley, Clement Charlton. "The Case of Leo M. Frank, 1913–1915". The Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 1 (March 1967), pp. 42–62. Oney, Steve. And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank. Pantheon Books, 2003. . Phagan Kean, Mary. The Murder of Little Mary Phagan. Horizon Press, 1987. . Samuels, Charles; Samuels, Louise Night Fell on Georgia, Dell, 1956 Theoharis, Athan; Cox, John Stuart. The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition. Temple University Press, 1988. . Watson, D. R. "Reviewed Works: Dreyfus: A Family Affair, 1789–1945 by Michael Burns; The Jew Accused: Three Anti-Semitic Affairs (Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank), 1894–1915 by Albert S. Lindemann". The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (June 1994), pp. 393–395. DOI: 10.1086/244854. Wood, Amy Louise. Lynching and Spectacle. The University of North Carolina Press, 2009. . Woodward, Comer Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1963. Google Books abridged version. External links Historical marker at the Old Marietta City Cemetery, Marietta, Georgia Leo Frank Clemency File from the Georgia Archives Leo Frank Exhibit from the Digital Library of Georgia Leo Frank Papers from the Digital Library of Georgia Leo M. Frank v. C. Wheeler Mangum, Sheriff of Fulton County, Georgia Writ of habeas corpus filed by Frank 1884 births 1915 deaths 1915 murders in the United States Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (New York City) Murdered American Jews 20th-century controversies in the United States Cornell University College of Engineering alumni Lynching deaths in Georgia (U.S. state) People convicted of murder by Georgia (U.S. state) People from Atlanta People from Brooklyn People from Cuero, Texas People murdered in Georgia (U.S. state) People who have received posthumous pardons Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Georgia (U.S. state) Recipients of American gubernatorial clemency Antisemitic attacks and incidents in the United States Jews and Judaism in Georgia (U.S. state) Cobb County, Georgia Marietta, Georgia 1915 in Judaism Victims of antisemitic violence Prisoners sentenced to death by Georgia (U.S. state) American prisoners sentenced to death

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolex

Rolex

Rolex SA () is a British-founded Swiss watch designer and manufacturer based in Geneva, Switzerland. Founded in 1905 as Wilsdorf and Davis by Hans Wilsdorf and Alfred Davis in London, England, the company registered the word 'Rolex' as the brand name of its watches in 1908, and it became Rolex Watch Co. Ltd. in 1915. After World War I, the company moved its base of operations to Geneva because of the unfavorable economy in the United Kingdom. In 1920, Hans Wilsdorf registered Montres Rolex SA in Geneva as the new company name (montre is French for a watch (timepiece)); it later became Rolex SA. Since 1960, the company has been owned by the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, a private family trust. Rolex SA and its subsidiary Montres TUDOR SA design, make, distribute, and service wristwatches sold under the Rolex and Tudor brands. Rolex did not produce their watches in-house since its foundation until the early 21st century where they bought over the components' manufacturers which made the watches for Rolex, notably Jean Aegler. Rolex's past business model consists of purchasing all the watch components from third-party manufacturers and finishing the final assembly in the Rolex headquarters. History Early history Alfred Davis and his brother-in-law Hans Wilsdorf founded Wilsdorf and Davis, the company that would eventually become Rolex S.A., in London, England, in 1905. Wilsdorf and Davis' main commercial activity at the time involved importing Hermann Aegler's Swiss movements to England and placing them in watch cases made by Dennison and others. These early wristwatches were sold to many jewellers, who then put their own names on the dial. The earliest watches from Wilsdorf and Davis were usually hallmarked "W&D" inside the caseback. In 1908, Wilsdorf registered the trademark "Rolex", which became the brand name of watches from Wilsdorf and Davis. He opened an office in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland. Wilsdorf wanted the brand name to be easily pronounceable in any language, and short enough to fit on the face of a watch. He also thought that the name "Rolex" was onomatopoeic, sounding like a watch being wound. In November 1915, the company changed its name to Rolex Watch Co. Ltd. In 1919, Hans Wilsdorf moved the company from England to Geneva, Switzerland because of heavy post-war taxes levied on luxury imports and high export duties on the silver and gold used for the watch cases. In 1920 the company's name was officially changed to Montres Rolex S.A. and later to Rolex S.A.With administrative worries attended to, Wilsdorf turned the company's attention to a marketing challenge: the infiltration of dust and moisture under the dial and crown, which damaged the movement. To address this problem, in 1926 third-party casemaker produced a waterproof and dustproof wristwatch for Rolex, giving it the name "Oyster". The original patent attributed to Paul Perregaux and Georges Peret, that allowed the watch to be adjusted while maintaining protection from water ingress was purchased - not invented - by Rolex and heavily marketed. The watch featured a hermetically sealed case which provided optimal protection for the movement. As a demonstration, Rolex submerged Oyster models in aquariums, which it displayed in the windows of its main points of sale. In 1927, British swimmer Mercedes Gleitze swam across the English Channel with an Oyster on her necklace, becoming the first Rolex ambassador. To celebrate the feat, Rolex published a full-page advertisement on the front page of the Daily Mail for every issue for a whole month proclaiming the watch's success during the ten hour plus swim. In 1931, Rolex patented a self-winding mechanism called a Perpetual rotor, a semi-circular plate that relies on gravity to move freely. In turn, the Oyster watch became known as the Oyster Perpetual. Upon the death of his wife in 1944, Wilsdorf established the Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, a private trust, in which he left all of his Rolex shares, ensuring that some of the company's income would go to charity. Wilsdorf died in 1960, and since then the trust has owned and run Rolex S.A. Recent development Rolex SA is owned by the private Hans Wilsdorf Foundation, which is registered as a charity and does not pay corporate income taxes. In 2011, a spokesman for Rolex declined to provide evidence regarding the amount of charitable donations made by the Wilsdorf Foundation, which brought up several scandals due to the lack of transparency. In Geneva where the company is based, it is said to have gifted, among many things, two housing buildings to social institutions of Geneva. According to the 2017 Brand Z report, the brand value is estimated $8.053 billion. Rolex watches continue to have a reputation as status symbols. It produces more than 1,000,000 timepieces each year. It is said that "The power of the Crown is never more felt than when trying to negotiate space in a retail environment for the product of another brand". Tudor SA Rolex SA offers products under the Rolex and Tudor brands. Montres Tudor (SA) has designed, manufactured and marketed Tudor watches since 6 March 1946. Rolex founder Hans Wilsdorf conceived of the Tudor Watch Company to create a product for authorized Rolex dealers to sell that offered the reliability and dependability of a Rolex, but at a lower price. The number of Rolex watches was limited by the rate that they could produce in-house Rolex movements, thus Tudor watches were originally equipped with off-the-shelf movements while using similar quality cases and bracelets. Historically, Tudor watches have been manufactured by Montres Tudor SA using movements supplied by ETA SA. Since 2015 Tudor has begun to manufacture watches with in-house movements. The first model introduced with an in-house movement was the Tudor North Flag. Following this, updated versions of the Tudor Pelagos and Tudor Heritage Black Bay have also been fitted with an in-house caliber. Tudor watches are marketed and sold in most countries around the world. Montres Tudor SA discontinued sales of Tudor-branded watches in the United States in 2004, but Tudor returned to the United States market in the summer of 2013 and to the UK in 2014. Tiffany, Birch and Gaydon, Cuervo y Sobrinos, Solar Aqua Rolex SA produced and sold watches for few markets with the co-operation of other companies, such as Tiffany for the United States, Birch and Gaydon for the England and all Great Britain, Solar Aqua for North America, Cuervo y Sobrinos for Cuba. Watch manufacturing Rolex mostly produced mechanical watches, but it has also participated in the development of the original quartz watch movements. Although Rolex has made very few quartz models for its Oyster line, the company's engineers were instrumental in design and implementation of the technology during the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1968, Rolex collaborated with a consortium of 16 Swiss watch manufacturers to develop the Beta 21 quartz movement used in their Rolex Quartz Date 5100 alongside other manufactures including the Omega Electroquartz watches. Within about five years of research, design, and development, Rolex created the "clean-slate" 5035/5055 movement that would eventually power the Rolex 'Oysterquartz'. Material-wise, Rolex first used its "Cerachrom" ceramic bezel on the GMT-Master II in 2005, and has since then implemented ceramic bezel inserts across the range of professional sports watches. They are available on the Submariner, Sea Dweller, Deepsea, GMT Master II and Daytona models. In contrast to the aluminum bezel which it replaced, the ceramic bezel color does not wear out from exposure to UV-light and is very scratch resistant. Rolex also uses 904L grade stainless-steel. Most Swiss watches are made with 316L grade steel. Rolex uses the higher grade, as it is more resistant to corrosion and when polished, leaves a beautiful luster. Rolex serial numbers Each Rolex comes with its own unique serial number, which can help indicate an approximate production period of the watch. Serial numbers were first introduced in 1926. Rolex serial numbers were issued sequentially, until 1954 when Rolex restarted from #999,999 to #0. Then in 1987 there was an addition of one letter to a 6-digit serial number. Then again in 2010 to the present date Rolex introduced random serial numbers. Notable inventions and patents Among the company's innovations are: In 1910, the first watchmaker to earn chronometer certification for a small lady wristwatch. In 1926, produced the Oyster case, the first reliable waterproof wristwatch case that was based on a screw-down crown. To this end, Rolex acquired the Perragaux-Perret screw-down patent, added a clutch and combined the screw-down crown with a threaded case back and bezel. Wilsdorf even had a specially made Rolex watch (the watch was called the "DeepSea") attached to the side of Trieste, which went to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. The watch survived and tested as having kept perfect time during its descent and ascent. This was confirmed by a telegram sent to Rolex the following day saying "Am happy to confirm that even at 11,000 metres your watch is as precise as on the surface. Best regards, Jacques Piccard". Earlier waterproof watches such as the "Submarine Watch" by Tavannes used other means to seal the case. In 1931, released a wristwatch winding mechanism featuring a rotor, a full 360 degrees rotating weight to power the watch by the movement of the wearer's arm. As well as making watch winding unnecessary, it also kept the power from the mainspring more consistent, resulting in more reliable timekeeping. Fully rotating weights later became part of the standard winding mechanism of self-winding wristwatches. A preceding self-winding mechanism by Harwood instead used a weight that moved in a 270 degrees arc hitting buffer springs on both sides. In 1945, introduced the first chronometer wristwatch with an automatically changing date on the dial (Rolex Datejust Ref. 4467). An earlier wristwatch with a date changing mechanism by Mimo was not chronometer certified. In 1953, released a case waterproof to 100 m (330 ft) (Rolex Oyster Perpetual Submariner Ref.6204, 1953). although this has been commonly publicized as the first diving watch, Omega made 21 years earlier, in 1932, the Marine, which could stand 135mts, 35mts more than the 1953 Rolex Submariner, and also Blancpain produced before Rolex their Fifthy Fathoms in 1953, 10 months before Rolex. In 1954, produced a wristwatch which showed two time zones at once (Rolex GMT Master ref.6542, 1954) Yet again, it was not the first company to do so, as the Longines DualTime preceded the GMT by a full quarter of a century. In 1956, made a wristwatch with an automatically changing day and date on the dial (Rolex Day-Date, 1956) Counterfeits Rolex watches are frequently counterfeited, and these are often illegally sold on the street and online. Counterfeit Rolex watches vary in quality: some use the cheapest of movements, while others use automatic movements, and some use an ETA movement. O. J. Simpson wore a counterfeit Rolex during his 1994 murder trial. Environmental rating In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released an official report giving environmental ratings for 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland. There are concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. Notable models In general, Rolex has three watch lines: Oyster Perpetual, Professional and Cellini (the Cellini line is Rolex's line of "dress" watches). The primary bracelets for the Oyster line are named Jubilee, Oyster, President, and Pearlmaster. The watch straps on the models are usually either stainless steel, yellow gold, white gold, or rose gold. In the United Kingdom, the retail price for the stainless steel 'Pilots' range (such as the GMT Master II) starts from GBP 5,600. Diamond inlay watches are more expensive. The book Vintage Wristwatches by Antiques Roadshow's Reyne Haines listed a price estimate of vintage Rolex watches that ranged between US$650 and US$75,000, while listing vintage Tudors between US$250 and US$9,000. Most expensive pieces On October 26, 2017, a Rolex Daytona (Ref. 6239) wristwatch, manufactured in 1968, was sold by Phillips in its New York auction for US$17.75 million. The watch was originally purchased by Joanne Woodward in 1968 and was given by Joanne to her husband Paul Newman as a gift. The auction price set a record at $15.5 million, plus buyer's premium of 12.5%, for a final price of $17,752,500 in New York City. As of 2018, it is the most expensive wristwatch and the second most expensive watch ever sold at auction. Notably, "[a]t the time that Newman gave the watch to James Cox [as a gift], the watch was selling for about $200." On May 28, 2018, a Rolex Daytona "Unicorn" Ref. 6265 was sold in auction by Phillips for US$5.937 million in Geneva, making it the second most expensive Rolex timepiece ever sold at auction (as of 2018). The most expensive Rolex (in terms of retail price) ever produced by the Rolex factory was the GMT Ice reference 116769TBR with a retail price of US$485,350. A Forbes magazine article on the Swiss watch industry compared the retail value of Rolex to that of competing brands Corum, Universal Genève and IWC. Air-Kings Rolex founder Hans Wilsdorf created the Air - Prince line to honor RAF pilots of the Battle of Britain, releasing the first model in 1958. By 2007, the 1142XX iteration of the Air-King featured a COSC-certified movement in a 34mm case, considered by some a miniaturized variant of the 39mm Rolex Explorer as both watches featured very similar styling cues; the 34mm Air-King lineup was the least expensive series of Oyster Perpetual. In 2014 the Air-King was dropped, making the Oyster Perpetual 26/31/34/36/39 the entry-level Rolex line. In 2016 Rolex reintroduced the Air-King, available as a single model (number 116900), largely similar to its predecessors but with a larger 40mm case, and a magnetic shield found on the Rolex Milgauss; indeed the new 40mm Air-King is slightly cheaper than the 39mm Explorer (the Explorer lacks the magnetic shield but its movement has Paraflex shock absorbers that are not found in the Air-King's movement). Oyster Perpetual The name of the watch line in catalogs is often "Rolex Oyster __" or "Rolex Oyster Perpetual __"; Rolex Oyster and Oyster Perpetual are generic names and not specific product lines, except for the Oyster Perpetual 26/31/34/36/39/41 and Oyster Perpetual Date 34.The Rolex Oyster Perpetual watch is a direct descendant of the original watertight Rolex Oyster watch created in 1926. Within the Oyster Perpetual lineup, there are three different movements; the 39 features the Caliber 3132 movement with the Parachrom hairspring and Paraflex shock absorbers (the Oyster Perpetual 39 is a less sporty variant of the Rolex Explorer 39mm as they share the same case, same bracelet and buckle, same bezel and same movement, with a different dial and different hands), while the 34 and 36 models have the Caliber 3130 featuring the Parachrom hairspring, and the smallest 28 and 31 models have Calibre 2231. The Oyster Perpetual Date 34 (or simply Date 34) adds a date display and date movement, plus the options of a white gold fluted bezel and diamonds on the dial. Certain models from the Date and Datejust are almost identical, however the Datejust have 36 mm and 41 mm cases paired with a 20 mm bracelet, compared to the Date's 34 mm case and 19 mm bracelet. Modern versions of the Oyster Perpetual Date and Datejust models share Rolex's 3135 movement, with the most recent change to the 3135 movement being the introduction of Rolex's "parachrom bleu" hairspring, which provides increased accuracy. As the Date and Datejust share a movement, both have the ability to adjust the date forward one day at a time without adjusting the time; this feature is not confined to the Datejust. Compared to the Date, the Datejust has a much wider range of customization options, including other metals beyond stainless steel, various materials for the dial, and optional diamonds on the dial and bezel. The Datejust II, which was released in 2009, has a bigger case (41mm diameter) than the standard Datejust and it also features an updated movement, being only available in steel with white, yellow or rose gold on an Oyster bracelet. In 2016, Rolex released the Datejust 41, which has the same 41mm diameter case as the Datejust II, however the Datejust 41 has smaller indexes and a thinner bezel compared to the Datejust II. Professional collections Rolex produced specific models suitable for the extremes of deep-sea diving, caving, mountain climbing, polar exploration, and aviation. Early professional models included the Rolex Submariner (1953) and the Rolex Sea Dweller (1967). The latter watch has a helium release valve, co-invented with Swiss watchmaker Doxa, to release helium gas build-up during decompression. The Explorer (1953) and Explorer II (1971) were developed specifically for explorers who would navigate rough terrain, such as the world-famous Mount Everest expeditions. Indeed, the Rolex Explorer was launched to celebrate the successful ascent of Everest in 1953 by the expeditionary team led by Sir John Hunt. The 39 mm Rolex Explorer was designed as a "tool watch" for rugged use, hence its movement has Paraflex shock absorbers which give them higher shock resistance than other Rolex watches. The 42mm Rolex Explorer II has some significant differences from the 39mm Explorer; the Explorer II adds a date function, and an orange 24-hour hand which is paired with the fixed bezel's black 24-hour markers for situations underground or around the poles where day cannot be distinguished from night. Another iconic model is the Rolex GMT Master (1955), originally developed at the request of Pan Am Airways to provide its crews with a dual time watch that could be used to display GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), which was the international time standard for aviation at that time (and still is) and was needed for Astronavigation during longer flights. Historic events POWs and the Great Escape By the start of World War II Royal Air Force pilots were buying Rolex watches to replace their inferior standard-issue watches. However, when captured and sent to prisoner of war (POW) camps, their watches were confiscated. When Hans Wilsdorf heard of this, he offered to replace all watches that had been confiscated and not require payment until the end of the war, if the officers would write to Rolex and explain the circumstances of their loss and where they were being held. Wilsdorf was in personal charge of the scheme.Time on your hands by James Cockington, The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 September 2006 As a result of this, an estimated 3,000 Rolex watches were ordered by British officers in the officer camp Oflag VII-B in Bavaria alone. This had the effect of raising the morale among the allied POWs because it indicated that Wilsdorf did not believe that the Axis powers would win the war. American servicemen heard about this when stationed in Europe during WWII and this helped open up the American market to Rolex after the war. On 10 March 1943, while still a prisoner of war, Corporal Clive James Nutting, one of the organizers of the Great Escape, ordered a stainless steel Rolex Oyster 3525 Chronograph (valued at a current equivalent of £1,200) by mail directly from Hans Wilsdorf in Geneva, intending to pay for it with money he saved working as a shoemaker at the camp.Times online For sale: Rolex sent by mail order to Stalag Luft III by Bojan Pancevski in Vienna 12 May 2007 The watch (Rolex watch no. 185983) was delivered to Stalag Luft III on 10 July that year along with a note from Wilsdorf apologising for any delay in processing the order and explaining that an English gentleman such as Corporal Nutting "should not even think" about paying for the watch before the end of the war. Wilsdorf is reported to have been impressed with Nutting because, although not an officer, he had ordered the expensive Rolex 3525 Oyster chronograph while most other prisoners ordered the much cheaper Rolex Speed King model which was popular because of its small size. The watch is believed to have been ordered specifically to be used in the Great Escape when, as a chronograph, it could have been used to time patrols of prison guards or time the 76 ill-fated escapees through tunnel 'Harry' on 24 March 1944. Eventually, after the war, Nutting was sent an invoice of only £15 for the watch, because of currency export controls in England at the time. The watch and associated correspondence between Wilsdorf and Nutting were sold at an auction for £66,000 in May 2007, while at an earlier auction in September 2006 the same watch fetched A$54,000.Australian auction house Through Internet Archive Nutting served as a consultant for both the 1950 film The Wooden Horse and the 1963 film The Great Escape. Related murder investigations In a famous murder case, the Rolex on Ronald Platt's wrist eventually led to the arrest of his murderer, Albert Johnson Walker—a financial planner who had fled from Canada when he was charged with 18 counts of fraud, theft, and money laundering. When the body was found in the English Channel in 1996 by a fisherman named John Coprik, a Rolex wristwatch was the only identifiable object on the body. Since the Rolex movement had a serial number and was engraved with special markings every time it was serviced, British police traced the service records from Rolex and identified the owner of the watch as Ronald Platt. In addition, British police were able to determine the date of death by examining the date on the watch calendar. Since the Rolex movement was fully waterproof and had a reserve of two days of operation when inactive, they were able to determine the time of death within a small margin of error.Discovery Channel Documentary on Ronald Platt's murder Also, in Singapore, on 20 April 1998, Jonaris Badlishah, a 23-year-old Malaysian freelance photographer, wielded a hammer to attack 42-year-old beautician Sally Poh Bee Eng, and killed her by inflicting more than ten blows on her head, leaving behind several fatal skull fractures. After killing Poh, Jonaris stole her Rolex watch, which he later gifted to his Thai prostitute girlfriend as a birthday gift (this was also his motive for murdering Poh). The case, which became known as the "Rolex watch murder" made headlines and shocked the whole of Singapore. Jonaris was later arrested and after a 19-day trial, he was sentenced to death in December 1998 for murder, and later executed after losing his appeal. Sponsorship Rolex sponsors several celebrities to wear and advertise their watches. Rolex is the top 1 spender in advertising and marketing in the watch industry since 2000 after they overtook Timex for the number 1 spot. In tennis, Rolex is the official timekeeper of Wimbledon, the Australian Open, the US Open, and the French Open, all four Grand Slams. In golf, it is the official time keeper for three of the four majors, The Open Championship, The PGA Championship and the U.S. Open, as well as the PGA Tour and European Tour; the presenting sponsor for one of the five senior majors, The Senior Open Championship; and the official sponsor of the Women's World Golf Rankings.Rolex is the title sponsor to the 24 Hours of Daytona, from which the Daytona model takes its name. In 2013, Rolex became the official timekeeper to the FIA Formula 1 motor racing championship. Rolex has also been the official timekeeper to the Le Mans 24 Hours motor race since 2001. Ex-Formula 1 driver Sir Jackie Stewart has advertised Rolex since 1968. Others who have done so for some years include Gary Player, Arnold Palmer, Roger Penske, Jean Claude Killy, and Dame Kiri Te Kanawa. It is also the sponsor of the Rolex International Jumping Riders Club Top 10 Final competition. Members of the Hunt expedition wore Rolex Oysters in 1953 on Mount Everest but the only watch that Hillary wore to the summit was a Smiths "De Luxe" (currently on display at the Clockmakers' Museum within the Science Museum, London). Both Rolex and Smiths initially claimed to be the first to the summit (Rolex even put out an advert saying as much). While feasible (e.g. if Hillary and/or Tenzing had carried both or if one had a Smiths and the other a Rolex) it was later admitted by Mr. R. A. Winter, Director of the Rolex Watch Co., Ltd that Hillary was only wearing one watch at the summit, "and that a Smiths watch." He goes on to congratulate Smiths "on the fact that their Smiths de Luxe ordinary wind wrist watch reached the summit with Sir Edmund Hillary." (BHI's Horological Journal, Letters, October 1953, 651) Also in the year 1953, one or several Rolex Oyster Perpetual (ref. 6098) watches were given to members of the Italian expedition "Sesto Continente", an exploration in the Red Sea, either underwater and on coasts of the surrounding countries- The expedition, organized and directed by Bruno Vailati, has been filmed in the homonymous documentary that was shot in the Red Sea and the Dahlak Islands and presented at the 15th Venice International Film Festival in 1954. The expedition included commander Raimondo Bucher as director of the sports section, accompanied by his wife Enza, Italian underwater hunting champion, Silverio Zecca, known as the amphibious man, the painter Priscilla Hastings, who would make her own works directly on the sea bed, the journalist Gianni Roghi, the hydrobiologists Francesco Baschieri Salvadori and Luigi Stuart Tovini of the University of Rome, dr. Alberto Grazioli, expedition doctor, film operator Masino Manunza and photographer Giorgio Ravelli. The Sesto Continente is a (edited 1954) film directed by Folco Quilici during the "National Underwater Expedition in the Red Sea" well organized by Bruno Vailati, the first in color in the history of Italian underwater cinema. The Rolex Oyster watches have been precious, and perfectly proper for the hard job to dive for thousand hours. Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh had a specially designed experimental Rolex Oyster Perpetual Deep-Sea Special strapped to the outside of their bathyscaphe during the 1960 Challenger Deep / Mariana Trench dive to a world-record depth of . When James Cameron conducted a similar dive in 2012, a specially designed and manufactured Rolex Oyster Perpetual Sea-Dweller Deep Sea Challenge watch was being "worn" by his submarine's robotic arm. Rolex is currently partnered with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences as a founding supporter of the upcoming Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles, which will explore the history of film. The brand has also partnered with four Oscar-winning film directors - Kathryn Bigelow, James Cameron, Alejandro G. Inarritu and Martin Scorsese - in a campaign aimed to inspire the next generation of filmmakers to pursue their craft. Mercedes Gleitze was the first British woman to swim the English Channel on 7 October 1927. However, as John E. Brozek (author of The Rolex Report: An Unauthorized Reference Book for the Rolex Enthusiast) points out in his article "The Vindication Swim, Mercedes Gleitze and Rolex take the plunge", some doubts were cast on her achievement when a hoaxer claimed to have made a faster swim only four days later. Hence Gleitze attempted a repeat swim with extensive publicity on 21 October, dubbed the "Vindication Swim". For promotional purposes, Hans Wilsdorf offered her one of the earliest Rolex Oysters if she would wear it during the attempt. After more than 10 hours, in water that was much colder than during her first swim, she was pulled from the sea semi-conscious seven miles short of her goal. Although she did not complete the second crossing, a journalist for The Times wrote "Having regard to the general conditions, the endurance of Miss Gleitze surprised the doctors, journalists and experts who were present, for it seemed unlikely that she would be able to withstand the cold for so long. It was a good performance". As she sat in the boat, the same journalist made a discovery and reported it as follows: "Hanging round her neck by a ribbon on this swim, Miss Gleitze carried a small gold watch, which was found this evening to have kept good time throughout". When examined closely, the watch was found to be dry inside and in perfect condition. One month later, on 24 November 1927, Wilsdorf launched the Rolex Oyster watch in the United Kingdom with a full front page Rolex advert in the Daily Mail. The Vienna Herald described the 1969 Apollo moon landing as: 'an event almost as significant as the time a woman swam most of the English Channel with a waterproof watch on.' See also Boule de Genève'' List of watch manufacturers Rolex Tower References External links 1905 establishments in England Luxury brands Clothing companies established in 1905 Companies based in Geneva Privately held companies of Switzerland Swiss watch brands Watch manufacturing companies of Switzerland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexton%20Blake

Sexton Blake

Sexton Blake is a fictional character, a detective who has been featured in many British comic strips, novels and dramatic productions since 1893. Sexton Blake adventures were featured in a wide variety of British and international publications (in many languages) from 1893 to 1978, comprising more than 4,000 stories by some 200 different authors. Blake was also the hero of numerous silent and sound movies, radio serials, and a 1960s ITV television series. Publication history The first decades The first Sexton Blake story was "The Missing Millionaire". Written by Harry Blyth (using the pseudonym Hal Meredeth), it was published in the story paper The Halfpenny Marvel number 6, on 20 December 1893. He featured thereafter also in a few more stories by Meredeth. His adventures were published subsequently in a variety of publications, primarily the magazine Union Jack, published first in April 1894. Blake featured in Issue 2 of Union Jack (with the title "Sexton Blake, Detective"), and from 1904, the character was featured regularly until Union Jack became Detective Weekly in 1933. Blake continued as the main feature until Detective Weekly ended in 1940. Blake also featured in a number of serials in the magazine The Boys' Friend beginning 1905 and in the magazine Penny Pictorial from 1907 to 1913 (when that magazine ended). The Boys' Friend introduced the first truly lengthy stories (of as many as 60,000 words), allowing for greater plot and character development. In 1907, a story entitled "Sexton Blake's Honour" dealt with Blake's pursuit of a criminal who turned out to be his brother, Henry Blake. Another bad brother, Nigel, was revealed in 1933 in the first issue of Detective Weekly, in a story titled "Sexton Blake's Secret". The Sexton Blake Library: 1915–1968 Perhaps most famously, Blake featured in his own long-running magazine, The Sexton Blake Library, from 1915 to 1968 which was published in five "series". The first issue of The Sexton Blake Library was published on 20 September 1915, entitled "The Yellow Tiger" and written by George Hamilton Teed. This issue introduced villains Wu Ling and Baron de Beauremon in an eleven chapter story, costing 3d (1.25p). The story is 107 pages; a second story, "The Great Cup-Tie!" (not featuring Blake) completes the remainder of the issue's 120 pages. The second issue, "Ill Gotten Gains (The Secret of Salcoth Island)", had Blake fight Count Carlac and Professor Kew. Issue three was entitled "The Shadow of his Crime" and issue four "The Rajah's Revenge". Publication was constant at 2–4 issues per month until the end of series 4 in 1964. Series 5, starting 1965, was a sporadic series of paperbacks. The last edition, "Down Among The Ad Men" written by W. A Ballinger (Wilfred McNeilly), was published in October 1968. Some additional Sexton Blake books were published during 1968 and 1969 that were not labelled explicitly as part of the Sexton Blake Library. The majority of Sexton Blake Library covers (prior to editor William Howard Baker's 1956 revamp of the character) were painted by master Sexton Blake illustrator Eric Parker. Writers who worked on Sexton Blake stories throughout this 53-year span included Charles Henry St. John Cooper, John Creasey, Jack Trevor Story, John G. Brandon, Michael Moorcock, and (allegedly) Brian O'Nolan (aka Flann O'Brien and Myles na gCoppaleen.) After Fleetway ceased publishing the Sexton Blake Library series at the end of its fourth volume, in 1963, Blake editor William Howard Baker licensed the character from IPC company and published a fifth volume independently, via Mayflower-Dell Books, that ran until 1968. He then published a final series of four Sexton Blake novels, using his Howard Baker Books imprint, in 1969. Comic strips: 1939–1979 Blake comic strips featured in The Knock-Out Comic (later Knock-Out Comic & Magnet and, finally, simply Knockout) from 1939 to 1960. The Blake strip was illustrated originally by artist Jos Walker and then by Alfred Taylor, who illustrated Blake's adventures for ten years. The undoubted highlight of Blake's 21-year run in Knockout was a 14-part 1949 strip drawn by Blake's greatest illustrator Eric Parker, entitled The Secret of Monte Cristo. This was Parker's only contribution to Blake's comic strip adventures. There was one Super Detective Library story about Blake: issue 68 (published November 1955), featuring a comic strip entitled Sexton Blake's Diamond Hunt. A final Sexton Blake comic strip (initiated to tie in with the 1967–1971 television show) featured in IPC's weekly boys' anthology Valiant, from January 1968 to May 1970. A seven-part Blake comic strip featured in IPC's comic Tornado from March 1979 to May 1979. A contract dispute (subsequently resolved in IPC's favour) caused the Tornado editorial team to rename Blake "Victor Drago" (and Tinker & Pedro "Spencer & Brutus") for the duration of this strip. Other publications A series of 160-page Sexton Blake annuals, featuring old stories and new material, began in 1938 and lasted till 1941. Four hardbacks designed for the younger market were published by Dean & Son Ltd during 1968. The third of these, Raffles' Crime in Gibraltar, portrayed Blake contending with A. J. Raffles, E.W. Hornung's amateur cracksman. In 2009, IPC's information manager, David Abbott, signed licenses to publish two Blake omnibus archive editions: The Casebook of Sexton Blake, published by Wordsworth Editions, and Sexton Blake, Detective published by Snowbooks. In 2013, Obverse Books licensed the character and published The Silent Thunder Caper by Mark Hodder, the first book in a proposed sixth series of the Sexton Blake Library, The imprint had previously published a collection of short stories featuring Blake villain Zenith the Albino. In 2020 Rebellion Developments released a Sexton Blake special under its Treasury of British Comics imprint. Blake's evolution As the years passed, Blake's character experienced various permutations. He was originally created to be similar to earlier 19th-century detectives, but during the late 1890s, Blake's authors consciously modelled him on Sherlock Holmes. It was not until 1919 that Blake was given a more distinctive personality. Blake became much more action-oriented than Holmes and duelled with a variety of memorable enemies. Blake used medical knowledge to solve some cases in the very early years. In "The Tattooed Eye" (21 November 1908) he says he is a duly qualified medical man but has never practised medicine. Many of Blake's writers had been men of adventure who had travelled the world. When World War II started, they enlisted, leaving just a small group of writers behind (with the addition of the occasional guest writer). Consequently, the standard of Blake's stories suffered. In November 1955, William Howard Baker became editor of the Sexton Blake Library and, during 1956, introduced a successful update of the Blake formula. The Sexton Blake Library found new popularity with faster-moving, more contemporary stories (often influenced by American pulp fiction). Blake, who had been relocated a number of times over the years, was relocated to a suite of plush offices in Berkeley Square (while retaining lodgings at Baker Street) and acquired a secretary, Paula Dane, who became a not-quite-love interest for Blake. Tinker was given a real name, Edward Carter, and Blake's office receptionist, Marion Lang, was introduced as his female counterpart. Covers, which had become rather staid during the early 1950s, became much more dynamic and a new group of authors was commissioned. Baker remained as editor until 1963 (his last story was "The Last Tiger") before becoming Blake's licensor/publisher and continuing to oversee Blake's print adventures until 1969. Blake's associates Blake's first associate from The Halfpenny Marvel No. 6 ("The Missing Millionaire") is the Frenchman Jules Gervaise, who gives him the first recorded case. By issue No. 7 ("A Christmas Crime"), they initiate an investigative company together. In the third story of issue No. 11 ("A Golden Ghost"), Gervaise is not mentioned. In Union Jack number 53, in a story titled "Cunning Against Skill", Blake picked up a wiry street-wise orphan as an assistant who was known only as "Tinker" until the 1950s. With the popularity of school stories during the early 1900s, Tinker's schooldays were chronicled in issues 229 and 232. Over the years, Tinker changed from a boy and good fighter to a rugged and capable young man. As well as assisting the "guv'nor", as he called Blake, Tinker kept Blake's crime files up to date with clippings from the daily newspapers, in addition to assisting Blake in his fully equipped crime laboratory. The Edwardian British private detective Herbert Marshall was a friend of one of the Blake authors', Charles Henry St John Cooper (1869–1926), and stated that Cooper had based the character of Tinker on Marshall's own teenaged assistant Henry Drummond. Drummond sold newspapers in Northumberland Avenue in order to support his widowed mother until, aged just 14, he was offered a job by Marshall. Drummond died in around 1905 from tuberculosis, aged 19. Other associates included Derek "Splash" Page of the Daily Radio; Ruff Hanson, a tough American investigator (both created by Gwyn Evans), and Blake's friends at Scotland Yard: Chief Detective Inspector Lennard, Detective Inspector Coutts, and Superintendent Venner. In 1905, Blake's bustling housekeeper Mrs Bardell (created by William Murray Graydon, who also created Pedro the bloodhound), was introduced and remained until the end. Her misuse of the English language was legendary in stories – she was a gifted cook and would always be on hand if a client needed food or a cup of tea. Mrs Bardell even featured as the main character in stories such as: "The Mystery Of Mrs Bardell's Xmas Pudding" in 1925 and "Mrs Bardell's Xmas Eve" in 1926. In Union Jack number 100 (9 September 1905), a story entitled "The Dog Detective" introduced Blake's faithful, wise and ferocious bloodhound, Pedro. Pedro was originally owned by Rafael Calderon, ex-president of a South American state, but after performing various services for Calderon, Blake was given Pedro by Calderon, using the guise of "Mr. Nemo". Pedro tracked many villains to their lairs in subsequent stories. Another notable non-human associate (and almost a character in itself) was Blake's bullet-proof Rolls-Royce, named The Grey Panther (introduced at a time when most other sleuths were still taking cabs). For a short while, Blake also flew a Moth monoplane (also called The Grey Panther and designed by Blake himself). One of Blake's friends and professional rivals was detective Nelson Lee. The two first appeared together in Christmas Clues in the 1895 Christmas issue of Pluck. The two would then team up again in 1909's The Winged Terror and then in several issues of the Union Jack. Blake's enemies Sexton Blake had a large rogues gallery of supervillains from around the globe. Some of the most famous included: George Marsden Plummer (created by Ernest Semphill), a dishonest Detective Sergeant at Scotland Yard, opposed Blake, but like many others, Plummer ended in a police cell. Unlike many before him, he repeatedly escaped and became Blake's arch-enemy. Waldo the Wonderman (created by Edwy Searles Brooks), a circus strongman who had tremendous strength, could contort his body like a rubber man, and was insensitive to pain. He first appeared as a villain and ended in later stories as a friend of Blake's, helping him with a number of cases. But despite his reformation, he continued to steal money (but his victims were now blackmailers, swindlers, and other no-good members of the underworld). Zenith the Albino (created by Anthony Skene) the Byronic master thief Dr Huxton Rymer (created by George Hamilton Teed) a world renowned surgeon turned master criminal Prince Wu Ling (created by George Hamilton Teed) a former Chinese royal bent on world domination The Criminals' Confederation (created by Robert Murray Graydon) was an insidious criminal organisation that spanned the globe Leon Kestrel, Gunga Dass, Prince Menes and many many more. The type of villain Blake opposed changed with the times (as did Blake himself). After World War II, his opponents became more ordinary, their personalities and motives less fantastic. Veteran writers John Hunter and Walter Tyrer excelled at this type of writing, but others failed to maintain their standards. Bibliography Stories Sexton Blake And The Demon God (1978) John Garforth Sexton Blake And The White Fairy (2000) John Hall Sexton Blake And The Curse Of Ozymandias (2000) John Hall The Seance At Stillwater Mansion (2006) Mark Hodder The Return Of The Yellow Beetle (2006) Mark Hodder Special Dispensation 5 And 6 (Plus 5, Appendix 1) (2006) Mark Hodder The Case Of The Left Hand Of Thoth (2006) Mark Hodder The Shades Of Pemberley (2007) Win Scott Eckert The Case Of The Flying Submarine (2009) Mark Hodder Pedro Pulls Through! (2009) Mark Hodder The Day Of The Dragon (2009) Mark Hodder The Mystery Of Devil's Forest (2009) Mark Hodder Sexton Blake Versus Doctor Fu Manchu (2009) Mark Hodder The Silent Thunder Caper (2014) Mark Hodder Sexton Blake And The Ghost Of Otis Maunder (2018) by David Friend Manuscripts Regan's Rum Racket by Edwy Searles Brooks The Doomed Valley by Rex Dolphin The Case Of The Missing Diplomat by Dail Ambler Riviera Racket by W. Howard Baker (?) as Peter Saxon A Pinch Of Sniff by W. Howard Baker (?) as Peter Saxon The Odd Affair Of Diane Starr by W. Howard Baker (?) as Peter Saxon The Branded Blonde by W. Howard Baker (?) as Peter Saxon Collections Sexton Blake: Star Of Union Jack And Detective Weekly (1972) Crime At Christmas (1974) Sexton Blake's Early Cases (1976) Sexton Blake Wins (1986) The Sexton Blake Casebook (1987) The Sexton Blake Detective Library (1989) The Casebook of Sexton Blake (2009) Sexton Blake, Detective (2009) Sexton Blake And The Great War (2020) Sexton Blake versus the Master Crooks (2020) Sexton Blake's Allies (2020) Sexton Blake on the Home Front (2021) Sexton Blake's New Order (2021) Sexton Blake: The Early Years (2020) Sexton Blake: The Answers Casebook (2020) Sexton Blake: Friends and Allies (2020) Sexton Blake: The First Super Villains (2020) Sexton Blake: The Master Criminals (2020) Sexton Blake: The Yvonne Cartier Files, Volume 1 (2020) Sexton Blake: The Yvonne Cartier Files, Volume 2 (2020) Sexton Blake: The Teed Files, Volume 1 (2020) Sexton Blake: The Teed Files, Volume 2 (2020) Sexton Blake: The Teed Files, Volume 3 (2020) Sexton Blake: The Storm Files, Volume 1 (2021) Sexton Blake: The Plummer Files (2021) Sexton Blake: The Kew Files (2021) Sexton Blake & Nelson Lee (2021) Sexton Blake: The Criminals’ Confederation Series (2021) Adaptations Stage There were several Sexton Blake stage plays: The Case of the Coiners (1907), was the earliest produced Percy Holmshaw produced Sexton Blake – a detective story in four acts in 1931. Blake was played by Arthur Wontner, whose performance then led to him being cast as Sherlock Holmes in five films. Movies Silent movies There was also a spoof film titled Sexton Pimple (1914), starring the comedian Fred Evans. Talkies Sexton Blake and the Bearded Doctor was the first of three Blake talkies produced during the 1930s. Based on a novel by Rex Hardinge, this movie featured George Curzon as Sexton Blake and Tony Sympson as Tinker. Sexton Blake and the Mademoiselle (featuring Mlle. Roxanne as the female villain from the books), from a story by G H Teed, followed soon afterwards. The third production was Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror with Tod Slaughter playing the villain. Two movies Meet Sexton Blake and The Echo Murders were made in 1945. They were directed by John Harlow, and featured David Farrar as Blake. (Farrar had played a small role in Sexton Blake and the Hooded Terror.) The Hammer film Murder at Site 3 (1958) featuring Geoffrey Toone did not launch a series. Radio On 26 January 1939, BBC Radio broadcast a serial named Enter Sexton Blake, featuring George Curzon as Blake and Brian Lawrence as Tinker. 30 March 1940, BBC broadcast A Case for Sexton Blake, adapted by Francis Durbridge. During 1967, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a popular series of Sexton Blake radio adventures starring William Franklyn as Blake, David Gregory as Tinker, and Heather Chasen as Blake's secretary, Paula Dane. Broadcast on Thursday nights at 7.00pm, this series of 17 programmes (which ran weekly from 24 August to 14 December) was scripted by Donald Stuart, devised for radio by Philip Ridgeway, and produced by veteran BBC radio producer Alastair Scott-Johnston. On 6 March 2006, after discussions between noted British radio producer Dirk Maggs and IPC publishing director Andrew Sumner, Maggs recorded a half-hour Adventures of Sexton Blake pilot show for his newly formed Perfectly Normal Productions. This humorous satire of Blake's adventures featured Simon Jones as Blake, Wayne Forester as Tinker, and a returning William Franklyn, in one of his final performances, as the elderly Blake (who narrates the adventure). As a result of the success of this pilot, Maggs directed a new series of Blake adventures for BBC Radio 2. The Adventures of Sexton Blake again featured Jones and Forester, joined by June Whitfield as Mrs Bardell, and Graham Hoadly as Professor Kew. The series was written by Jonathan Nash and Mil Millington and broadcast, in six weekly 15 minute instalments, during late summer 2009. An extended version of the complete series was released on CD by BBC Audiobooks on 10 September 2009. David Quantick's accompanying Blake documentary, The Hunt For Sexton Blake (also produced by Perfectly Normal Productions) was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 before the series started. Television Sexton Blake (1967–71) ITV broadcast Rediffusion/Thames Television's Sexton Blake featuring Laurence Payne as Blake and Roger Foss as Tinker from Monday 25 September 1967 to Wednesday 13 January 1971. In keeping with Sexton Blake's classic print adventures, Payne's Blake drove a white Rolls-Royce named "The Grey Panther" and owned a bloodhound named Pedro. The show was produced originally by Ronald Marriott for Associated Rediffusion, with Thames Television assuming production in 1968. Pedro was played by one or more bloodhounds (bitches), which doubled as 'Henry', for Chunky dog food advertisements with Clement Freud, and were owned by the then secretary of the Bloodhound Club, Mrs Bobbie Edwards. During rehearsals for the show in 1968, Laurence Payne was blinded in his left eye by a rapier. Typical of the TV series's sometimes-fantastic storylines (all of which lasted 2–6 episodes) was 1968's "The Invicta Ray" in which a villain dressed in a costume and hood of sackcloth-like material and, under the rays of The Invicta Ray, became invisible so that he could commit crimes without being seen. Of 50 episodes, only the first episode is thought to exist still. Season One: The Find-The-Lady Affair. 4 episodes. Monday 25 September 1967 to Monday 16 October 1967. Season One: Knave of Diamonds. 5 episodes. Monday 23 October 1967 to Monday 20 November. Season One: The Great Tong Mystery. 4 episodes. Monday 27 November 1967 to Monday 18 December 1967. Season One: The Vanishing Snowman. Christmas Special. Monday 25 December 1967. Season One: House of Masks. 4 episodes. Monday 1 January 1968 to Monday 22 January 1968. Season One: The Invicta Ray. 4 episodes. Monday 29 January 1968 to Monday 19 February 1968. Season Two: The Case of the Gasping Goldfish. 2 episodes. Thursday 14 November 1968 to Thursday 21 November 1968. Season Two: Return of the Scorpion. 2 episodes. Thursday 28 November 1968 to Thursday 5 December 1968. Season Two: The Great Train Robbery. 2 episodes. Thurs 16 January 1969 to Thurs 23 January 1969. Season Two: The Great Soccer Mystery. 3 episodes. Thurs 30 January 1969 to Thurs 13 Feb 1969. Season Three: Sexton Blake and Captain Nemesis. 3 episodes. Wed 8 Oct 1969 to Wed 22 Oct 1969. Season Three: Sexton Blake verses The Gangsters. 3 episodes. Wed 29 Oct 1969 to Wed 12 Nov 1969. Season Three: Sexton Blake and the Frightened Man. 2 eps. Wed 19 Nov 1969 to Wed 26 Nov 1969. Season Three: Sexton Blake and the Undertaker. 3 episodes. Wed 3 Dec 1969 to Wed 17 Dec 1969. Season Three: Sexton Blake and the Toy Family. 2 episodes. Wed 23 Dec 1969 to Wed 30 Dec 1969. Season Four: Sexton Blake and the Puff Adder. 6 episodes. Wed 9 Dec 1970 to Wed 13 January 1971. The cast: Laurence Payne as Sexton Blake Roger Foss as Edward Clark (Tinker) Dorothea Phillips as Mrs Bardell Ernest Clark as Inspector Coutts Leonard Sachs as Inspector Van Steen Meredith Edwards as Inspector (Taff) Evans Eric Lander as Inspector Cardish Charles Morgan as Inspector Davies Sexton Blake and the Demon God (1978) Simon Raven's Sexton Blake and the Demon God was a six-part television serial produced by Barry Letts for the BBC in 1978. The serial was broadcast by BBC One at tea-time from Sunday 10 September 1978 until Sunday 15 October 1978 and was directed by Roger Tucker. Jeremy Clyde played Blake, with Philip Davis appearing as Tinker and Barbara Lott playing Mrs Bardell. The Sexton Blake Library (Obverse Books) ) Sexton Blake and the Silent Thunder Caper by Mark Hodder (2014) Zenith Lives! (2012) Other Blake appearances A seven-minute 78 rpm record, titled Murder on the Portsmouth Road, had a script written by Donald Stuart and featured Arthur Wontner (who also featured as Sherlock Holmes in early British talkies) as Blake. Michael Moorcock used Blake as the basis for The Metatemporal Detective, Seaton Begg. Moorcock also borrowed the character of Zenith the Albino, both as partial inspiration for Elric of Melniboné and as an actual character (who was implied to be an avatar of Elric's). Both Begg and Zenith featured in Obverse Books' collection Zenith Lives! (2012), which includes a new Begg/Zenith novella from Moorcock. Seaton Begg was also the lead character in The novella Immortal Seaston Begg (2019). Which was released as part of Sextet (An Obverse Celebration), a series of six interconnected novellas released in the second half of 2019 to celebrate Obverse Books' tenth anniversary Bengali novelist Dinendra Kumar Roy wrote 217 stories in Bengali, following the Sexton Blake series in the name of Robert Blake. References Further reading History of British boys' weeklies from Victorian times up to the 1950s. External links Blakiana, The Sexton Blake Resource The Other Baker Street Detective, from a 1998 radio talk by Prof. Jeffrey Richards The Sexton Blake Archive: Rebellion Publishing Sexton Blake Anthologies: ROH Press Issues of The Sexton Blake Library at ComicBooksPlus Sexton Blake: The World's Greatest Detective Missing Sexton Blake Episode List BBC 7 – The Radio Detectives – Sexton Blake, the other Baker Street Detective — streaming audio David Quantick's BBC Radio 2 Documentary – The Hunt For Sexton Blake, 28 July 2009 – BBC iPlayer streaming audio Literary characters introduced in 1893 Sexton Blake Fictional detectives Characters in pulp fiction Sexton Blake Sexton Blake Fictional gentleman detectives

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20%28given%20name%29

John (given name)

John (; ) is a common masculine given name in the English language of Semitic origin. The name is derived from the Latin Ioannes and Iohannes, which are forms of the Greek name Iōánnēs (), originally borne by Hellenized Jews transliterating the Hebrew name Yohanan (), "Graced by Yah", or (), "Yahweh is Gracious". There are numerous forms of the name in different languages; these were formerly often simply translated as "John" in English but are increasingly left in their native forms (see sidebar). It is among the most common given names in Anglophone, Arabic, European, Latin American, Persian and Turkish countries. Traditionally in the Anglosphere, it was the most common, although it has not been since the latter half of the 20th century. John owes its unique popularity to two highly revered saints, John the Baptist (forerunner of Jesus Christ) and the apostle John (traditionally considered the author of the Gospel of John); the name has since been chosen as the regnal or religious name of many emperors, kings, popes and patriarchs. Initially, it was a favorite name among the Greeks but it flourished in all of Europe after the First Crusade. Origins The name John is a theophoric name originating from the Hebrew name (), or in its longer form (), meaning "Yahweh has been gracious". Several obscure figures in the Old Testament bore this name, and it grew in popularity once borne by the high priest Johanan and especially by King John Hyrcanus In the second temple period, it was the fifth most popular male name among Jews in Judaea and was borne by several important rabbis, such as Yochanan ben Zakai and Yochanan ben Nuri. The name has also long extended among Semitic women Near Eastern Christian peoples such as the Assyrians, Syriac Arameans and Maronites, with various derivatives extant, such as, Youkhanna Youkhanan and "Youhanan". The name John in its Greek form () features prominently in the New Testament, being borne by John the Baptist, John the Apostle, and several others; the Gospel of John, three epistles, and Revelation are each attributed to a "John". As a result, the name became immensely popular in Christian societies. In the Latin-speaking regions of the Roman Empire, the name was Latinized as (pronounced like the Greek). The local populations in these areas of the Roman Empire soon changed Roman names to fit their own dialect, which included dropping the suffixes -us and -es from such names. Romance derivatives In the Roman sphere of influence, Johannes became the Italian Giovanni (also Gianni, Gian and other derivatives). In the Black Sea region, the name became the Romanian Ioan and Ion. In Iberia the name eventually changed to the Spanish Juan, feminine Juana; in the medieval Portuguese it was Juo / Joane / Joan, now João (), feminine Joana, and also Ivo; in Galician, the orthography is Xan or Xoán, feminine Xoana. In Gaul, it became the Old French Jehan (the 16th century John Calvin still spelled his name Jehan Cauvin) and later Jean (); the female form was Jehanne (the 15th century Joan of Arc still spelled her name Jehanne) and later Jeanne. In the Occitano-Romance area, it became Joan (feminine, Joana) and Jan in Occitan and Catalan, from older Iouan and Iohan. In Ladin, it became Giuani. In Moldavia and Wallachia, the name became a title abbreviated as used mainly by the royalty. Germanic derivatives The Germanic languages (including German, English and Scandinavian) produced the masculine Johann (also Johan (Dutch)), Joan, Jan and Janke (Dutch), Jannis, Jens (Danish and Frisian), Jóhannes, Jóhann, (Icelandic and Faroese), Jön (Swedish), Hans (German, Dutch and Scandinavian) and the feminine Johanna (also the Dutch diminutives Johanneke, Hanneke, Janneke, and Joke). In England, the name John came from the Anglo-French language form Johan, itself from the Old French form Jehan. Prior to the standardization in English of the letter 'J', the letter 'I' was used interchangeably; following this shift, forms beginning in J- such as John began to be pronounced in their modern fashion with rather than (y). Seventeenth-century English texts still spelled the name Iohn. Since then, it has been spelled in its current form, John. The feminine form changed from Jehanne to Joanne, Joan and Jo. Celtic derivatives In Welsh, the name John is rendered as Ieuan (), Ifan (), Iwan (), Ioan () or, borrowed from English, Siôn (). A pet form is Ianto (). Ifan eventually became rendered into English as Evan. In Irish, it is written as (), Eóin, () or Seán (). The last is a Gaelicisation of the Norman–French 'Jean'. In some cases, the pronunciation of the original initial "Y"/"I" also changed to variants of "J". In Scotland, it is Iain or Ian. In Cornish (archaically; Jowan/Iowan) and Devon dialects, the form Jan gives rise to the nickname of Plymothians as 'Janners' and the midsummer festival of St. John, Golowan. The Breton form of this name is Yann, the Manx is Juan, and the Cornish is Yowann. Central and Eastern European derivatives In Hungarian, Johannes became János, and in the Slavic languages Ivan, Jan, Ján, Honza, Janez and Jovan. In Albanian, Gjoni , Gjin, and Jovan is used for males. Arabic derivatives Henna () is a common Arabic translation of John as are Yūḥannā () and Yaḥyā (). All are common Arabic male given names. And because Yahyā/John the Baptist is a prophet in Islam, Yahya is a very common name among Muslims. Name statistics John has been a common given name in English-speaking countries, and either it or William was the number one name in England and English-speaking North America from around 1550 until the middle of the 20th century. John was the most popular name given to male infants in the United States until 1924, and though its use has fallen off gradually since then, John was still the 20th most common name for boys on the Social Security Administration's list of names given in 2006. In modern times, John is the most common name in the United States, borne as a first or middle name by 39.93 people per thousand; of these, 72.86% have it as the first name. When the statistics of the name are compared to the population statistics of America, the approximate number of people named John in the US is 12,328,091 and the number of Johns in the country is increasing by 104,925 each year. John was also among the most common masculine names in the United Kingdom, but by 2004 it had fallen out of the top 50 names for newborn boys in England and Wales. By contrast Jack, which was a nickname for John but is now established as a name in its own right, was the most popular name given to newborn boys in England and Wales every year from 1995 to 2005. However, John has not been a popular one for members of the royal family. The memory of King John is tainted by negative depictions of his turbulent reign and troublesome personality and by his role as villain in the Robin Hood stories; Prince Alexander John, the youngest son of Edward VII, died shortly after birth; and another Prince John, the sickly youngest son of George V, died at age 13. In other languages People with name John Royalty John, King of England (1166–1216) Prince John of the United Kingdom (1905–1919), youngest son of King George V John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall (1316–1336), second son of Edward II John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (1340–1399), third son of Edward III John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford (1389–1435), second son of Henry IV Prince Alexander John of Wales (1871), third son and youngest child of Edward VII Politicians John Adams (1735–1826), American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the 2nd President of the United States from 1797 to 1801 John Adams (Virginia politician) (1773–1825), Mayor of Richmond, Virginia John Adams (New York politician) (1778–1854), Congressman from New York John Adams (Ohio politician) (born 1960), Ohio House of Representatives John Adams (journalist) (1819–1???), American lawyer, politician and journalist in Maine John Adams Sr. (1691–1761), father of John Adams and grandfather of John Quincy Adams John Adams Sr. (Nebraska politician) (1876–1962), American minister, lawyer, and politician John Adams Jr. (Nebraska politician) (1906–1999), American lawyer and politician John Adams II (1803–1834), American government functionary and businessman, son of John Quincy Adams and grandson of John Adams John Quincy Adams (1767–1848), American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the 6th President of the United States from 1825 to 1829, son of John Adams John Quincy Adams II (1833–1894), American lawyer, politician, and member of the Adams political family, grandson of John Quincy Adams II, great-grandson of John Adams John Attygalle (1906–1981, Inspector-General of Sri Lanka Police from 1966 to 1967 John Bacon (Massachusetts politician) (1738–1820), US Representative from Massachusetts John F. Bacon (1789–1860), Clerk of the New York State Senate, and U.S. Consul at Nassau, Bahamas John L. Bacon (1878–1961), mayor of San Diego, California John Bailey (MP) (died 1436), MP for Cricklade and Calne John Bailey (Australian politician) (born 1954), Australian politician John Bailey (Massachusetts politician) (1786–1835), Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts John Edgar Bailey (1897–1958), Northern Irish politician John H. Bailey (1864–1940), American politician, senator and representative in Texas John Moran Bailey (1904–1975), United States politician, chair of the Democratic National Committee John Mosher Bailey (1838–1916), U.S. Representative from New York John Bailey (Irish politician) (1945–2019), member of Dun Laoghaire/Rathdown County Council John Bailey (Victorian politician) (1826–1871), Australian politician John D. Bailey (1928–2018), American mayor of St. Augustine, Florida John Baker (fl.1388), English Member of Parliament (MP) for Horsham, 1388 John Baker (died 1406), English MP for Southwark, 1406 John Baker (fl. 1407), English MP for Lyme Regis, 1407 John Baker (MP for Lewes), see Lewes John Baker (died c.1421), English MP for Helston, 1414 John Baker (fl. 1421), English MP for Devizes, 1421 John Baker (died 1544) (by 1503–44), English MP for Radnorshire Sir John Baker (died 1558) (1488–1558), English speaker of the House of Commons John Baker (MP for Bedford) (by 1501–1538 or later), English mayor and MP of Bedford John Baker (by 1531–1604/6), English MP for Horsham and Bramber John Baker (MP for East Grinstead), English MP for East Grinstead in 1648 John Baker (MP for Canterbury) ( – 1831), British MP for Canterbury John Baker (representative) (1769–1823), United States congressman from Virginia John Baker (Baker Brook) (1796–1868), Canadian political activist in Baker Brook, New Brunswick John Baker (Australian politician) (1813–1872), briefly the Premier of South Australia Sir John Baker (Portsmouth MP) (1828–1909), British MP for Portsmouth John Tamatoa Baker (1852–1921), Hawaiian rancher, sheriff and governor John Baker (Labour politician) (1867–1939), British Labour MP for Bilston John Baker (Wisconsin politician) (1869–1???), American politician from Wisconsin John Baker (defensive lineman, born 1935) (1935–2007), American football player and then sheriff of Wake County, North Carolina John Baker (Indiana politician) (1832–1915), United States congressman from Indiana John S. Baker (1861–1955), American politician from Washington Sir John Baker, 2nd Baronet (1608–1653), English politician John A. Baker Jr. (1927–1994), U.S. diplomat John Arnold Baker (1925–2016), British judge and politician John Baker II (1780–1843), sheriff of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, 1834–1843 Jeb Bush (John Ellis Bush, born 1953), American politician who served as the 43rd Governor of Florida from 1999 to 2007 John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (1845–1926), American politician and businessman from Vermont, father of Calvin Coolidge Calvin Coolidge (John Calvin Coolidge Jr., 1872–1933), American politician and lawyer, 30th President of the United States from 1923 to 1929 John Davies (British businessman) (1916–1979), British businessman, director-general of the CBI, and Conservative MP and cabinet minister John Edgar (politician) (1750–1832), Irish-American pioneer and politician John Edwards John De Saram (born 1929), Permanent Representative of Sri Lanka to the United Nations from 1998 to 2002 John F. Fitzgerald John Church Hamilton John Willie Kofi Harlley (1919–1980s), Ghanaian senior police officer and politician John Harrison (diplomat), 17th-century English diplomat John Harrison (died 1669) (1590–1669), English politician who sat in the House of Commons as MP for Lancaster variously between 1640 and 1669 John Harrison (Canadian politician) (1908–1964), member of Parliament for Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan John Harrison (mayor), mayor of North Tyneside, England John Scott Harrison (1804–1878), American Congressman for Ohio, 1853–1857; son of President William Henry Harrison and the father of President Benjamin Harrison John Jay, American politician, statesman, revolutionary, diplomat, and the first Chief Justice of the United States John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), American politician, served as the 35th President of the United States form 1961 to 1963 John Johnson (Ohio congressman) (1805–1867), politician John A. Johnson (Minnesota politician) (1883–1962), Minnesota politician John A. Johnson (Wisconsin), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Madison John Albert Johnson (1861–1909), 16th governor of Minnesota John Anders Johnson (1832–1901), Wisconsin state senator John E. Johnson (Brandon) (1873–1951), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Brandon, Wisconsin John E. Johnson (Utica) (fl. circa 1868), Wisconsin state assemblyman from Utica, Wisconsin John J. Johnson (1926–2016), Missouri state senator John Warren Johnson (born 1929), Minnesota state legislator John Telemachus Johnson (1788–1856), U.S. Representative from Kentucky John Johnson (Kansas City mayor) (1816–1903), mayor of Kansas City, Missouri J. Neely Johnson (1825–1872), California politician and politician John Johnson (b. 1833) (1833–1892), Wisconsin State Assemblyman John Johnson (Ohio state representative) (born 1937), member of the Ohio House of Representatives John Johnson (New Jersey), mayor of Paterson, New Jersey John Johnson Sr. (1770–1824), Chancellor of Maryland John Johnson Jr. (1798–1856), Chancellor of Maryland John Johnson (Indiana judge) (1776–1817), associate justice of the Indiana Supreme Court John T. Johnson (Oklahoma judge) (1856–1???), associate justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court John B. Johnson (politician) (1885–1985), American politician in the South Dakota State Senate John Ramsey Johnson, associate judge of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia J. B. Johnson (Florida politician) (1868–1940), 23rd Florida Attorney General John S. Johnson (North Dakota politician) (1854–1941), member of the North Dakota House of Representatives John H. Trumbull (1873–1961), American politician who served as the 70th Governor of Connecticut from 1925 to 1931 John Kerry (born 1943), American politician and diplomat who served as the 68th United States Secretary of State from 2013 to 2017 John Lionel Kotelawala (1895–1980), Prime Minister of Sri Lanka from 1953 to 1956 John B. Macy (1799–1856), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin John Mahama (born 1958), Ghanaian politician and former president of Ghana John McCain (1936–2018), American statesman and US Navy officer, United States Senator for Arizona from 1987 to 2018 John Verdun Newton (1916–1944), Australian politician John Nkadimeng (1927–2020), South African politician and anti-apartheid activist John Reagan (New Hampshire politician) (born 1946), New Hampshire politician John Henninger Reagan (1818–1905), American politician John Roberts (born 1955), American lawyer and jurist who serves as Chief Justice of the United States John Tyler (1790–1862), 10th President of the United States John Tyler Sr., 15th Governor of Virginia, United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Virginia, father of John Tyler John Van Buren, United States lawyer, official, politician, son of Martin Van Buren John Walker (Arkansas politician) (1937–2019), member of the Arkansas House of Representatives John Walker (Missouri politician) (1770–1838), State Treasurer of Missouri John Walker (Virginia politician) (1744–1809), U.S. Senator, public official, and soldier John A. Walker (Iowa politician) (1912–2012), American politician John M. Walker Jr. (born 1940), chief judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit John M. Walker (Pennsylvania politician) (1905–1976), Pennsylvania State Senator and lieutenant-gubernatorial nominee John Randall Walker (1874–1942), U.S. Representative from Georgia John Smith Walker (1826–1893), Minister of Finance of the Kingdom of Hawaii John Williams Walker (1783–1823), U.S. Senator from Alabama John Young (died 1589) (by 1519–1589), of Bristol, MP for Devizes, West Looe, etc. John Young (MP for Marlborough), in 1559, MP for Marlborough John Young (MP for New Shoreham) (fl. 1586–1597), MP for New Shoreham, Sussex John Allan Young (1895–1961), politician in Saskatchewan, Canada John Andrew Young (1916–2002), American politician from Texas John Duncan Young (1823–1910), US congressman from Kentucky John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar (1807–1876), UK MP, NSW Governor, Canadian Governor General John Young (Canadian politician) (1811–1878), member of the Canadian House of Commons John Young (governor) (1802–1852), Governor of New York John Young (advisor) ( – 1835), British-born government advisor of Kamehameha I John Young (Australian politician) (1842–1893), New South Wales politician John Young (judge), Federal Court of Australia judge John Young (jurist) (1919–2008), Australian jurist John Young (Scottish politician) (1930–2011), Conservative and Unionist Member of the Scottish Parliament John Young (seigneur) ( – 1819), Scottish-born Canadian land entrepreneur, jurist, and politician John Darling Young (1910–1988), Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire, 1969–1984 John M. Young (1926–2010), American politician from Wisconsin John Young (New Brunswick politician, born 1841) (1841–1907), Canadian politician John Young (New Brunswick politician, born 1854) (1854–1934), Canadian politician Businessmen John Aspinall (zoo owner) (1926–2000), British casino and zoo owner John Aspinwall Roosevelt (1916–1981), American businessman, sixth and youngest son of Franklin D. Roosevelt John Vernou Bouvier Jr. John Vernou Bouvier III John Coolidge John Davis (British businessman) (1906–1993), English managing director of the Rank Organisation, later Chairman John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), American business tycoon John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874–1960), American financier, philanthropist, son of John D. Rockefeller John D. Rockefeller III (1906–1978), American philanthropist, son of John D. Rockefeller Jr. John Ellis Roosevelt, Roosevelt family member John McAfee, (1945–2021), British-American computer programmer, businessman and prisoner Military John Joseph Abercrombie (1798–1877), American brigadier general John Worthington Adams (1764–1837), British general in India John Giles Adams (1792–1832), U.S. commander at the Battle of Stillman's Run during the 1832 Black Hawk War John Adams (Confederate Army officer) (1825–1864), US Army officer John G. B. Adams (1841–1900), Civil War Medal of Honor recipient John Mapes Adams (1871–1921), Boxer Rebellion Medal of Honor recipient John Adams (Royal Navy officer) (1918–2008), British rear admiral John G. Adams (1932–2003), Army counsel in the Army-McCarthy hearings John Adams (Canadian general) (born 1942), Canadian military leader John Cushing Aylwin (1780–1813), Officer in the United States Navy during the War of 1812 John Babcock (1900–2010), last known surviving veteran of the Canadian military to have served in the First World War John M. Bacon (1844–1913), American general John Bacon (Loyalist) (died 1783), Loyalist guerilla fighter during the American Revolutionary War John Baker (American Revolutionary War) (1731–1787), American Revolutionary War hero, for whom Baker County, Georgia was named John Baker (RAF officer) (1897–1978), British air marshal John Drayton Baker (1915–1942), United States Navy officer John Baker (general) (1936–2007), Australian Chief of the Defence Force John F. Baker Jr. (1945–2012), American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient John Baker (Royal Navy officer) (1660–1716), English naval officer, MP for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis John Baker (Medal of Honor, 1876) (1853–1???), American soldier John Bush (Royal Navy officer) (1914–2013), British Royal Navy officer John Cooke (Royal Navy officer) (1762–1805), English Royal Navy officer John Eisenhower, United States Army officer, diplomat, and military historian, second and youngest son of Dwight D. Eisenhower John C. England (1920–1941), United States Navy officer John Harrison (VC 1857) (1832–1865), Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross John Martin Howard (1917-1942), United States Navy officer John Johnson, 8th Seigneur of Sark (died 1723), Seigneur of Sark, 1720–1723 Sir John Johnson, 2nd Baronet (1741–1830), loyalist leader during the American Revolution John "Liver-Eating" Johnson (1824–1900), American frontier figure John Johnson (Medal of Honor, 1839) (1839–1???), United States Navy sailor John Johnson (Medal of Honor, 1842) (1842–1907), Norwegian-American Medal of Honor recipient John D. Johnson (general), U.S. Army general John Kennedy (Medal of Honor) (1834–1910), American soldier John Doby Kennedy (1840–1896), general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War John J. Kennedy (Republic of Texas politician) (1814–1880), soldier, lawyer and sheriff Sir John Kennedy (British Army officer, born 1878) (1878–1948), British general Sir John Kennedy (British Army officer, born 1893) (1893–1970), British general John Pitt Kennedy (1796–1879), British military engineer John Thomas Kennedy (1885–1969), American soldier John Minor Maury (1795–1824), Lieutenant in the United States Navy John S. McCain Jr. (1911–1981), United States Navy admiral who served in conflicts from the 1940s through the 1970s, including as the Commander, United States Pacific Command, father of John McCain John S. McCain Sr. (1884–1945), U.S. Navy admiral and the patriarch of the McCain military family, grandfather of John McCain John Hamilton Roberts (1881–1962), Canadian Army two-star general John Q. Roberts (1914–1942), United States Navy officer, pilot, and Navy Cross recipient John W. Roberts (1921–1999), United States Air Force four-star general John Roberts (Royal Navy officer) (born 1924), British admiral John Alexander Tyler, Son of John Tyler John P. Van Leer (1825-1862), Union Army officer John Walker (RAF officer) (born 1936), Chief of Defence Intelligence John Walker (Medal of Honor) (1845–1???), American Indian Wars soldier and Medal of Honor recipient John Walker (officer of arms) (1913–1984), English officer of arms John Anthony Walker (1937–2014), American communications specialist convicted in 1985 of spying for the Soviet Union John C. Walker, Indiana physician and officer during the American Civil War John George Walker (1821–1893), general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War John Grimes Walker (1835–1907), United States Navy admiral John T. Walker (USMC) (1893–1955), United States Marine Corp general Musicians John Adams (born 1947), American composer John Luther Adams (born 1953), American composer John Addison (1920–1998), English composer John Bailey (luthier) (1931–2011), maker of fine guitars in England John Bailey (producer), Canadian recording engineer, producer John Barry (1933–2011), English film composer John Blow (1649–1708), English composer John Bonham (1948-1980), drummer/percussionist for Led Zeppelin John Bull (1562-1628), English composer John Bush (musician) (born 1963), American metal vocalist for Armored Saint and Anthrax John Cage (1912-1992), American composer John Casken (born 1949), English composer John Cooper (musician) (born 1975), American bassist and vocalist for Skillet (band) John Corigliano (born 1938), American composer John Dankworth (1927–2010), English jazz musician John David Davis (1867-1942), English composer John Denver (1943–1997), American folk and country singer John Deacon (born 1951), British bass player for Queen John Dowland (1563-1626), English composer John W. Duarte (1919–2004), English composer and guitarist John Dunstaple (1390-1453), English composer John Farmer (c.1570–c.1601), English madrigal composer John Field (1782-1837), Irish composer John Conant Flansburgh (born 1960), American singer-guitarist, founder of Mono Puff, and one half of They Might Be Giants John Frusciante (born 1970), guitarist for Red Hot Chili Peppers John Fogerty (born 1945), lead singer and guitarist for Creedence Clearwater Revival John Foulds (1880–1939), English composer John Gardner (1917–2011), English composer John Maxwell Geddes (1941–2017), Scottish composer and academic John D. H. Greenwood (1889-1975), English composer John Harbison (born 1938), American composer John Ireland (1879-1962), English composer John Jenkins (1592–1678), English composer John Joubert (1927–2019), English composer John Kander (born 1927), American musical theatre composer John Kinsella (1932-2021), Irish composer John Lanchbery (1923–2003), English-Australian composer John Lennon (1940–1980), English singer-songwriter and founding member of the Beatles John Charles Julian Lennon (born 1963), English singer, son of John Lennon John Sidney Linnell (born 1959), American singer-songwriter and one half of They Might Be Giants John Henry Maunder (1858–1920), English composer and organist John McCabe (1939–2015), British composer and classical pianist John Blackwood McEwen (1868–1948), Scottish composer John Newman (singer) (born 1990), English singer, musician, songwriter and record producer John Oates (born 1948), American musician, half of Hall & Oates John Knowles Paine (1839-1906), American composer John Pickard (born 1963), British composer John Rutter (born 1945), English composer, conductor and choral arranger John Philip Sousa (1854-1932), American composer John Stainer (1840–1901), British composer John Stanley (1712-1786), English composer John Sykes (1909-1962), English composer John Sykes (born 1959), guitarist for Thin Lizzy and Whitesnake John Tavener (1944-2013), 20th century English composer John Taverner (1490-1545), 16th century English composer John Veale (1922-2006), English composer John White (born 1936), English experimental composer John Wilbye (1574–1638), English composer John Woolrich (born 1954), English composer John Zorn (born 1953), American composer, saxophonist and bandleader Scientists John Adams (physicist) (1920–1984), British accelerator physicist John Couch Adams (1819–1892), British mathematician and astronomer John Franklin Adams (1843–1912), British amateur astronomer and author of stellar maps John Stacey Adams, behavioral psychologist known for equity theory John Till Adams (1748–1786), English Quaker physician John Baker (biologist) (1900–1984), British biologist and anthropologist John Baker, Baron Baker (1901–1985), British engineer John Gilbert Baker (1834–1920), British botanist John Norman Leonard Baker (1893–1971), British geographer John Holland Baker (1841–1930), New Zealand surveyor and public servant John Roosevelt Boettiger, grandson of Franklin D. Roosevelt John G. Trump, uncle of Donald Trump John Wood (surgeon) (1825–1891), British surgeon at King's College Hospital John Henry Wood (1841–1914), English entomologist John L. Wood (born 1964), American chemist John Medley Wood (1827–1915), South African botanist John Nicholas Wood, British neurobiologist John Turtle Wood (1821–1890), British architect, engineer, and archaeologist Writers John Baker (author) (born 1942), British novelist John Baker (legal historian) (born 1944), English legal historian and academic John Roman Baker (born 1944), British playwright and activist John Banville (born 1945), Irish writer John Barth (born 1930), American writer John Betjeman (1906–1984), English poet, writer and broadcaster John Braine (1922–1986), English writer John Bunyan (1628–1688), English writer and preacher John Bryant (journalist) (1944–2020), British journalist John Buchan (1875–1940), British author and politician John Cheever (1912–1982), American novelist and short story writer John Clare (1793–1964), English poet John Maxwell Coetzee (born 1940), South African-Australian novelist and essayist John Donne (1572-1631), English poet and cleric John Dryden (1631-1700), English poet and playwright John Fowles (1926-2005), English novelist John Galsworthy (1867-1933), English novelist and playwright John Gardner (1933–1982), American novelist and educator John Gardner (1926-2007), English spy and thriller novelist John Gray (1866-1934), English poet John Grisham (born 1955), American writer M. John Harrison (born 1945), author John Hersey (1914-1993), American journalist and novelist John Irving (born 1942), American novelist and screenwriter John Keats (1795-1821), English romantic poet John le Carré (1931-2020), British-Irish author John McPhee (born 1931), American writer John Masefield (1878-1967), English poet and writer John Milton (1608-1674), English poet and intellectual John Muir (1838–1914), Scottish-born American naturalist and author John Mulaney (born 1982), American comedian known for his work on Saturday Night Live John Dos Passos (1896–1970), American novelist John Pudney (1909–1977), British poet, journalist and author John Romita Sr., father of John Romita Jr. John Romita Jr., son of John Romita Sr. John Steinbeck (1902–1968), American writer John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (1892–1973), English writer and philologist John Updike (1932–2009), American novelist John Whittington, American screenwriter John Wyndham (1903–1969), English writer Actors John Barrowman (born 1967), British-American actor John Belushi (1949–1982), American actor and comedian John Boyega (born 1992), English actor John Candy (1950–1994), Canadian actor John Challis (1942–2021), English actor John Estrada (born 1973), Filipino film and TV actor John DiMaggio (born 1968), American actor and voice actor John Gielgud (1904–2000), English actor John Goodman (born 1952), American actor John Gordon Sinclair (born 1962), British voice actor John Hannah (born 1962), Scottish actor John Hasler (born 1974), English actor and voice actor John Hurt (1940–2017), English actor John M. Jackson (born 1950), American actor John Kassir (born 1957), American actor, voice actor and stand-up comedian John Krasinski (born 1979), American actor, director and producer John Lone (born 1952), Hong Kong-born American actor John Lithgow (born 1945), American actor, author, musician, poet and singer John Malkovich (born 1953), American actor, voice actor, producer, director and fashion designer John C. McGinley (born 1959), American actor John Alexander Luft "Xander" Mobus, American voice actor John O'Hurley (born 1954), American actor, comedian, author, game show host and television personality John Ratzenberger (born 1947), American actor, voice actor, director and entrepreneur John C. Reilly (born 1965), American actor, comedian, screenwriter, producer and musician John Ritter (1948–2003), American actor John Schwab (born 1972), American actor, voice actor, musician and producer John Stephenson (1923/1924–2015), American actor John Travolta (born 1954), American actor and singer John Wayne (1907–1979), American actor and filmmaker Sportsmen John (footballer) (born 1996), Brazilian footballer John H. Adams (jockey) (1914–1995), American Hall of Fame jockey John Adams (basketball) (1917–1979), All-American basketball player from Arkansas John Adams (drummer) (born 1951), perennial attendee of Cleveland Indians baseball home games John Adams (golfer) (born 1954), American professional golfer John Adams (judoka) (born 1960), Dominican Republic judoka John Adams (ice hockey, born 1920) (1920–1996), Canadian ice hockey winger in the NHL with the Montreal Canadiens John Adams (ice hockey, born 1946), Canadian ice hockey goaltender John Andrews (American football) (born 1948), American football player John Babcock (wrestler) (fl. 1904), American Olympic wrestler John Bacon (footballer) (born 1973), Irish footballer John Bacon (cricketer) (1871–1942), English cricketer John Bailey (footballer, born 1950), English footballer and chairman John Bailey (footballer, born 1957), English footballer John Bailey (footballer, born 1969), English footballer John Bailey (rugby league) (born 1954), Australian rugby league footballer and coach John Bailey (English cricketer) (born 1940), English cricketer John Bailey (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1941), New Zealand cricketer John Bates (American football) (born 1997), American football player John Brannon (American football) (born 1998), American football player John Cena (born 1977), American professional wrestler, actor, television presenter and rapper John Edgar (English footballer) (1930–2006), English footballer John Edgar (Scottish footballer), Scottish footballer John Hawley Edwards (1850–1893), footballer; a founder of Welsh Football Association John Dunlop Edwards (1860–1911), Jack Edwards, Australian cricketer John Edwards (footballer, born 1875) (1875–1???), English footballer John Edwards (Canadian football) (1912–2005), Canadian football player John Edwards (cricketer, born 1928) (1928–2002), Australian cricketer John Edwards (Barbadian cricketer) (1909–1976), Barbadian cricketer John Edwards (Australian footballer) (born 1942), Australian rules footballer John Edwards (canoeist) (born 1954), Canadian sprint canoer John Edwards (basketball) (born 1981), American basketball player John Edwards (racing driver) (born 1991), American racing driver John "Johnny" Gargano (born 1987), American professional wrestler John Henderson (darts player) (born 1973), Scottish darts player John McMullin (1849–1881), American baseball player John McMullin (golfer), American golfer John McSeveney (1931–2020), Scottish footballer and manager John Morrison (born 1979), American professional wrestler John Moll (1913-1942), English rugby union player John Morkel (1928–2010), South African born Rhodesian international rugby union player John Hunter Nemechek (born 1997), American racing driver John Nogowski (born 1993), American baseball player Johnny Reagan (1926–2018), baseball coach John Roberts (Australian rules footballer) (born 1956), Australian rules footballer who played for South Melbourne/Sydney Swans and in South Australia John Roberts (footballer, born 1881) (1881–1956), Australian rules footballer who played for South Melbourne John Roberts Jr. (billiards player) (1847–1919), player of English billiards John Roberts (Shropshire cricketer) (born 1948), Shropshire cricketer John Roberts (Lancashire cricketer) (1933–2019), English cricketer John Roberts (Somerset cricketer) (born 1949), Somerset cricketer John Roberts (footballer, born 1857) (1857–1???), Welsh (from Llangollen) international footballer John Roberts (footballer, born 1858) (1858–1???), Welsh international footballer John Roberts (footballer, born 1885) (1885–19??), English footballer who played for Wolverhampton Wanderers and Bristol Rovers John Roberts (footballer, born 1887) (1887–19??), English-born footballer active in Italy for Milan and Modena John Roberts (footballer, born 1891) (1891–19??), Scottish footballer John Roberts (footballer, born 1944), Australian soccer player John Roberts (footballer, born 1946) (1946–2016), Welsh international footballer who played for Wrexham and Arsenal John Roberts (hurler) (1895–1987), Irish hurler John Roberts (rower) (born 1953), British Olympic rower John Roberts (rugby player) (1906–1965), Welsh rugby player John Roberts (American football) (1920–2012), American football, wrestling and track coach John Stones (born 1994), English footballer John Wood (baseball) (1872–1929), baseball player John Wood (canoeist) (1950–2013), Canadian Olympic flatwater canoer John Wood (racing driver) (born 1952), CART driver John Wood (rugby league) (born 1956), English rugby league footballer who played for Great Britain Jon Wood (born 1981), NASCAR driver John Young (first baseman) (1949–2016), American baseball first baseman John Young (cricketer, born 1863) (1863–1933), English cricketer John Young (cricketer, born 1876) (1876–1913), English cricketer John Young (cricketer, born 1884) (1884–1960), English cricketer John Young (cyclist) (1936–2013), Australian cyclist John Young (field hockey) (born 1934), Canadian Olympic hockey player John Young (footballer, born 1888) (1888–1915), Scottish footballer John Young (footballer, born 1889) (1889–1???), Scottish footballer John Young (footballer, born 1891) (1891–1947), Scottish footballer John Young (footballer, born 1951), Scottish footballer and manager John Young (footballer, born 1957), Scottish footballer (Denver Avalanche) John Young (ice hockey), American ice hockey and roller hockey player John Young (rugby union) (1937–2020), English rugby union player John Young (swimmer) (1917–2006), Bermudian swimmer Criminals John Arthur Ackroyd (died 2016), American murderer John Bodkin Adams (1899–1983), British criminal John Allen (1934–2015), British criminal John Ashley (1888 or 1895–1924), American outlaw John Battaglia (1955–2018), American murderer John Baughman (1941–2000), American murderer John William Bean (1824–1882), British criminal who attempted to assassinate Queen Victoria John Billee (1873–1890), American outlaw and Creek Indian John Bittrolff (born 1966), American murderer John Wilkes Booth (1838–1865), American stage actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865 John Paul Chase (1901–1973), American robber John Childs, British hit man and serial killer John William Clouser (born 1932), American robber John Cooper (born 1944), Welsh serial killer John Coxon, pirate and fugitive John Martin Crawford (1962–2020), Canadian serial killer John Brennan Crutchley (1946–2002), American convicted kidnapper, rapist, and suspected serial killer John Darwin (born 1950), British criminal John Dillinger (1903–1934), American gangster of the Great Depression John Factor (1892–1984), American prohibition-era gangster and con artist John Wayne Gacy (1942–1994), American serial killer and sex offender John Geoghan (1935–2003), American serial child rapist John K. Giles (1895–1979), American inmate at Alcatraz prison John Gotti (1940–2002), American gangster John Haigh (1909–1949), English serial killer John Hamilton (gangster) (1899–1934), Canadian fugitive John Wesley Hardin (1853–1895), American Old West outlaw John Hinckley Jr. (born 1955), American criminal John Hirst (born 1950), British convicted murderer John Kinney (outlaw) (1847–1919), American outlaw of the Old West, who formed the John Kinney Gang John M. Larn (1849–1878), American lawman and later outlaw John List (1925–2008), American mass murderer and fugitive John Ingvar Lövgren (1930–2002), Swedish serial killer John Mason (outlaw) (18??–April 1866), American fugitive and one of the leaders of the Mason Henry Gang John McAfee (1945–2021), British-American computer programmer and businessman who committed suicide in prison John Middleton (1854–1885), American outlaw and friend of Billy the Kid John Paul Sr. (racing driver) (born 1939), American racing driver, convicted felon and fugitive whose whereabouts are unknown John Parsons (born 1971), American fugitive John M. Pyle (born 1956), American fugitive John Roselli (1905–1976), American influential mobster for the Chicago Outfit John Ruffo (born 1954), American fugitive whose whereabouts are unknown John Selman (1839–1896), American fugitive John Sontag (1861–1893), American outlaw John Svahlstedt (born 1947), Swedish serial rapist John Anthony Walker (1937–2014), American Navy chief warrant officer and Soviet spy John Wojtowicz (1945–2006), American bank robber John Younger (1851–1874), American outlaw Colonial people John Custis (1678–1749) John Parke Custis (1754–1781), son of Martha Washington John Wayles (1715–1773) Others John Price Durbin (1800–1876), Chaplain of the Sentae, president of Dickinson College John Gray (died 1858), owner of Greyfriars Bobby John Hartwell Harrison, M.D. (1909–1984), urologic surgeon John Harrison (director) (born 1948), writer, director, producer, and music composer John Harrison (Leeds) (1579–1656), benefactor of the Yorkshire town John C. Harrison, American law professor John Kent Harrison, television producer, director and writer John Leonard Harrison (1917–1972), British zoologist John Harrison (historian) (1847–1922), Scottish merchant, master tailor and historical author John Harrison (engraver) (1872–1954), British stamp engraver John Harrison (ice cream taster) (born 1942), American ice cream taster John B. Harrison (1861–1947), justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court John Vernon Harrison (1892–1972), British structural geologist, explorer and cartographer John F. Kennedy Jr. (1960–1999), American political-family member and journalist, son of John F. Kennedy John M. Lloyd (1835–1892), American police officer, tavern owner, and bricklayer, known for testifying in the Abraham Lincoln assassination conspiracy trials John McMullin (silversmith) (1765–1843), American silversmith John G. Palfrey (1796–1881), American clergyman and historian John Palfrey (born 1972), American educator, scholar, and law professor John Neil Reagan (1908–1996), American radio station manager, elder brother of Ronald Reagan John Payne Todd (1792–1852), first son of Dolley Madison, adopted son of James Madison John Traill (1835–1897), Scottish coffee house owner John Anderson Truman (1851–1914), father of Harry S. Truman John M. Wallace (1815–1880), granduncle of Bess Truman John B. Wood (1827–1884), American journalist John H. Wood Jr. (1916–1979), U.S. federal judge John Wood (millowner) (1758–1???), created the Howard Town Mills complex in Glossop, England John Wood (Bradford manufacturer) (1793–1871), English industrialist and factory reformer John Wood (explorer) (1812–1871), Scottish explorer of central Asia John Wood (photographer), Civil War photographer for Union Army Pseudonyms John Doe, placeholder name for an anonymous person Bible John, unidentified serial killer Fictional characters "Honest" John Worthington Foulfellow, a character in the 1940 film Pinocchio John-117, central character in the Halo franchise John (John and Gillian), appearing in the Doctor Who TV comic strip John-Boy, eldest son in The Waltons TV series John, in the 1994 American black-comedy movie The Ref John, in the American TV miniseries V (1983 miniseries) and V The Final Battle John "Jack" Arnold, in the American coming-of-age, comedy-drama television series The Wonder Years John Clark (Tom Clancy character), in Tom Clancy's Ryanverse John Connor, in Arnold Schwarzenegger movies, Terminator John Darling, one of the Darling children and a character in the 1953 Walt Disney's animated film Peter Pan John Diggle (Arrowverse), from the Arrowerse franchise John Ellis, in the Netflix series Grand Army John Jonah Jameson, a newspaper publisher in Marvel Comics Det. John Kimble, the main character played by Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 1990 American action comedy movie Kindergarten Cop John Locke, one of the central characters in the American TV series Lost John Marston, central character in the Red Dead franchise John "Soap" MacTavish, in the Call of Duty franchise John McClane, the main protagonist of the Die Hard film series Father John Patrick Francis Mulcahy and Trapper John McIntyre, characters in the American war comedy-drama television series M*A*S*H John Murphy, in the TV series The 100 John Nana, the main character played by Roddy Piper in the 1988 American science-fiction action thriller movie They Live John Rainbird, in the 1984 American science fiction horror movie Firestarter Long John Silver, antagonist of Stevenson's Treasure Island Sergeant John Spartan, a character played by Sylvester Stallone in the 1993 American science fiction action movie Demolition Man John "Hannibal" Smith, in the 1980s action-adventure television series The A-Team John (Tomorrow People), appearing in the children's science-fiction TV series The Tomorrow People John Walker (comics), a superhero in Marvel Comics John Walker (Marvel Cinematic Universe), the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe adaptation of the character John "John-Boy" Walton Jr and John Walton Sr., characters in the American historical drama television series The Waltons John H. Watson, associate of Sherlock Holmes John Wick (character), main character in the John Wick movies See also Hanan (given name) References Hebrew-language names English-language masculine given names English masculine given names Given names Masculine given names Irish masculine given names Welsh masculine given names Scottish masculine given names Norwegian masculine given names Swedish masculine given names Theophoric names

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20in%20Canada

1974 in Canada

Events from the year 1974 in Canada. Incumbents Crown Monarch – Elizabeth II Federal government Governor General – Roland Michener (until January 14), then Jules Léger Prime Minister – Pierre Trudeau Chief Justice – Gérald Fauteux (until January 7), then Bora Laskin Parliament – 29th (until 9 May) then 30th (from 30 September) Provincial governments Lieutenant governors Lieutenant Governor of Alberta – Grant MacEwan (until July 2) then Ralph Steinhauer Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia – Walter Stewart Owen Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba – William John McKeag Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick – Hédard Robichaud Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland – Ewart John Arlington Harnum (until July 2) then Gordon Arnaud Winter Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – Clarence Gosse Lieutenant Governor of Ontario – William Ross Macdonald (until April 10) then Pauline Mills McGibbon Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island – John George MacKay (until October 21) then Gordon Lockhart Bennett (from October 24) Lieutenant Governor of Quebec – Hugues Lapointe Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan – Stephen Worobetz Premiers Premier of Alberta – Peter Lougheed Premier of British Columbia – Dave Barrett Premier of Manitoba – Edward Schreyer Premier of New Brunswick – Richard Hatfield Premier of Newfoundland – Frank Moores Premier of Nova Scotia – Gerald Regan Premier of Ontario – Bill Davis Premier of Prince Edward Island – Alexander B. Campbell Premier of Quebec – Robert Bourassa Premier of Saskatchewan – Allan Blakeney Territorial governments Commissioners Commissioner of Yukon – James Smith Commissioner of Northwest Territories – Stuart Milton Hodgson Events January 1 Maurice Nadon is appointed as the 16th commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), becoming the first French Canadian to hold the post. The Canadian Stock Exchange merges with the Montreal Stock Exchange, with the merged entity operating under the latter name. Woodsworth College at the University of Toronto is founded, formally integrating part-time degree students into the University. January 6 – Global Television becomes Canada's third English-language television network when it begins broadcasting in southern Ontario. January 7 – Bora Laskin is sworn in as the 14th chief justice of Canada to replace the retiring Gérald Fauteux. In appointing Laskin, Prime Minister Trudeau breaks with tradition by passing over the more senior justice, Ronald Martland. January 14 – Jules Léger is sworn in as the 21st governor general of Canada, succeeding the retiring Roland Michener. January 15 – The Knight Street Bridge opens, joining Vancouver and Richmond, British Columbia. January 17 – Pauline McGibbon of Ontario becomes the first female lieutenant governor of a province. March 13 – A treaty between Canada and Denmark is ratified, establishing the maritime border between Ellesmere Island (Canada) and Greenland (Denmark). Measuring approximately , it is the longest negotiated international continental shelf boundary. However, the boundary line has a gap around Hans Island, with both nations claiming sovereignty. April 3 – A tornado strikes Windsor, Ontario, killing 9 people. The tornado was part of the 1974 Super Outbreak. May 23 New Brunswick becomes the first province to be officially bilingual. The RCMP accepts applications from women for regular police duties for the first time. The first 32 women formed Troop 17, were sworn in on September 16, 1974, and graduated on March 3, 1975. Beverly Busson, a member of Troop 17, became the first female RCMP commissioner on December 16, 2006. June 29 – Soviet ballet dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov defects in Toronto. July 2 – Ralph Steinhauer becomes the first Aboriginal person to be a lieutenant governor when he is appointed lieutenant governor of Alberta. July 3 – Canada first demands that its territorial waters be extended to . Vote of no-confidence in parliament forces election. July 8 – Federal election: Pierre Trudeau's Liberals win a majority. July 31 – Bill 22 is passed making French the official language of government and business in Quebec. August 1 – The Elections Act is passed, limiting campaign contributions. August 9 – Nine Canadians are killed when Buffalo 461 is shot down during a peacekeeping mission in Syria. September 1 - CFVO-TV commences Broadcasting but later gains a regional scandal. November 29 – An aircraft is hijacked over Saskatchewan. It is recovered in Saskatoon. Full date unknown Dorothea Crittenden of Ontario becomes Canada's first female deputy minister, Ministry of Community & Social Services. Paul Joseph Martin made president of Canada Steamship Lines. The Waffle disbands. The report of the Le Dain Commission argues marijuana should be decriminalized. Robert Cliche chairs a Royal Commission investigating corruption in Quebec's construction industry. Brian Mulroney, later to become prime minister, first comes to national attention as a panelist on the commission. Arts and literature New works bill bissett – Living with the Irving Layton – The Pole-Vaulter Margaret Atwood – You Are Happy Alice Munro – Something I've Been Meaning to Tell You Margaret Laurence – The Diviners Awards See 1974 Governor General's Awards for a complete list of winners and finalists for those awards. Stephen Leacock Award: Donald Jack, That's Me in the Middle Vicky Metcalf Award: Jean Little Sport March 16 – The Waterloo Warriors win their first University Cup by defeating the Sir George Williams Georgians, 6 to 5. The final game was played at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto. May 12 – The Regina Pats win their fourth Memorial Cup by defeating the Quebec Remparts, 7 to 4. The final game is played at the Stampede Corral in Calgary. May 19 – Montreal's Bernie Parent of the Philadelphia Flyers is awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy. September 22 – Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi wins the Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park in Bowmanville, Ontario. November 21 – The Western Ontario Mustangs win their second Vanier Cup by defeating the Toronto Varsity Blues by a score of 19–15. November 24 – The Montreal Alouettes win their third Grey Cup by defeating the Edmonton Eskimos, 20 to 7. The 62nd Grey Cup was played at Empire Stadium in Vancouver. Montreal's Don Sweet won the game's Most Valuable Player award and Edmonton's Don Barker won the game's Most Valuable Canadian award. Births January to March January 14 – Hugues Legault, swimmer January 19 – Diane Cummins, middle-distance runner January 21 – Robert Ghiz, politician and 31st Premier of Prince Edward Island January 23 – Joel Bouchard, ice hockey player January 24 – Kristy Sargeant, pair skater January 25 – Robert Budreau, director, producer, and screenwriter January 29 – Kris Burley, artistic gymnast January 31 – Anna Silk, actress February 7 – Steve Nash, basketball player February 21 – Mary Fuzesi, rhythmic gymnast March 20 – Kevin Sullivan, runner and coach April to June April 11 – Tricia Helfer, model and actress April 26 – Jacinthe Pineau, swimmer May 9 – Stéphane Yelle, Canadian ice hockey player May 10 – Jon Beare, rower and Olympic bronze medalist May 16 – Yannick Keith Lizé, water polo player and scientist May 18 – Chantal Kreviazuk, singer-songwriter May 18 – Carolyn Russell, squash player June 1 – Alanis Morissette, singer-songwriter, record producer and actress June 6 – Anson Carter, ice hockey player June 9 – Jackie Lance, softball player July to September July 4 -Kevin Hanchard actor July 6 – Steve Sullivan, ice hockey player July 7 – Patrick Lalime, ice hockey player July 13 – Deborah Cox, singer-songwriter and actress July 26 - Daniel Negreanu poker player August 9 – Mara Jones, rower August 15 – Natasha Henstridge, actress and model September 6 - Sarah Strange actress and voice actress September 8 – Becky Price, field hockey player September 18 – Nicole Haynes, heptathlete September 28 – Alison Parrott, murder victim (d. 1986) October to December October 6 – Madonna Gimotea, rhythmic gymnast October 10 – Chris Pronger, ice hockey player October 11 – Jason Arnott, ice hockey player October 16 – Paul Kariya, ice hockey player October 22 – Paul Duerden, volleyball player November 4 – Amy MacFarlane, field hockey player November 10 - Michael Greenspan filmmaker and writer November 15 - Chad Kroeger singer November 21 – Casey Patton, boxer November 22 – David Pelletier, pair skater November 25 – David Cadieux, boxer December 7 - Nicole Appleton singer Deaths February 21 – Tim Horton, ice hockey player and businessman (b.1930) April 2 – Douglass Dumbrille, actor (b.1889) April 5 – A. Y. Jackson, painter, one of the Group of Seven (b.1882) April 8 – James Charles McGuigan, Cardinal (b.1894) June 21 - Merton Yarwood Williams, geologist and academic (b.1883) August 25 – Major James Coldwell, politician (b.1888) See also 1974 in Canadian television List of Canadian films of 1974 References Years of the 20th century in Canada Canada 1974 in North America

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahm%20Emanuel

Rahm Emanuel

Rahm Israel Emanuel (; born November 29, 1959) is an American politician who is the United States Ambassador to Japan since 2022. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 55th Mayor of Chicago from 2011 to 2019 and the 23rd White House Chief of Staff from 2009 to 2010, and as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois between 2003 and 2009. Born in Chicago, Emanuel is a graduate of Sarah Lawrence College and Northwestern University. Early in his career, Emanuel served as director of the finance committee for Bill Clinton's 1992 presidential campaign. In 1993, he joined the Clinton administration, where he served as assistant to the president for political affairs and as Senior Advisor to the President for policy and strategy. Emanuel worked at the investment bank Wasserstein Perella & Co. from 1998 for 2½ years and served on the board of directors of Freddie Mac. In 2002, Emanuel ran for the seat in the U.S. House of Representatives vacated by Rod Blagojevich, who resigned to become governor of Illinois. Emanuel won the first of three terms representing Illinois's 5th congressional district, a seat he held from 2003 to 2009. As chair of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, he oversaw Democratic wins in the 2006 United States House of Representatives elections, allowing the party to gain control of the chamber for the first time since 1994. After the 2008 presidential election, President Barack Obama appointed Emanuel to serve as White House chief of staff. In October 2010, Emanuel resigned as chief of staff to run for Mayor of Chicago in 2011. Emanuel won with 55% of the vote over five other candidates in the non-partisan mayoral election. Although he failed to obtain an absolute majority in the February 2015 mayoral election, Emanuel defeated Cook County board commissioner Jesús "Chuy" García in the subsequent run-off election in April. In late 2015, Emanuel's approval rating plunged to "the low 20s" in response to a series of scandals. Emanuel announced in October 2017 he planned to run for a third term, but on September 4, 2018, he reversed his decision. The Chicago Tribune assessed Emanuel's performance as mayor as "mixed." At one point, half of Chicagoans favored Emanuel's resignation. He later made steady progress in recovering his political support. He left office in May 2019 and was succeeded by Lori Lightfoot. In August 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Emanuel to be the United States Ambassador to Japan; he was confirmed by the Senate in December of that year. Early life and family Emanuel's paternal grandfather was a Moldovan Jew who emigrated from Bessarabia. The surname Emanuel (Hebrew: ), which means "God is with us", was adopted by their family in honor of Rahm's uncle (his father's brother) Emanuel Auerbach, who was killed in 1933 in an altercation with Arabs in Jerusalem. Emanuel's father, Benjamin M. Emanuel, was a Jerusalem-born pediatrician at Michael Reese Hospital who was once a member of the Irgun, a Jewish paramilitary organization that operated in British Mandate Palestine. His mother, Marsha (née Smulevitz), is the daughter of a West Side Chicago union organizer who worked in the civil rights movement. She briefly owned a local rock and roll club, and later became an adherent of Benjamin Spock's writings. Emanuel's parents met during the 1950s in Chicago. Emanuel was born on November 29, 1959, in Chicago, Illinois. His first name, Rahm () means high or lofty in Hebrew. He attended Bernard Zell Anshe Emet Day School in Lakeview for elementary school. He has been described by his older brother Ezekiel, an oncologist and bioethicist at the University of Pennsylvania, as "quiet and observant" as a child. Ari, his younger brother, is the CEO of Endeavor, an entertainment agency with headquarters in Beverly Hills, California. Rahm Emanuel also has a younger adopted sister, Shoshana. Education and ballet dance While he lived in Chicago, Emanuel attended the Bernard Zell Anshe Emet Day School. After his family moved to Wilmette, north of the city, Emanuel attended public schools: Romona School, Locust Junior High School, and New Trier High School. He and his brothers attended summer camp in Israel, including the summer following the June 1967 Six-Day War. Ezekiel has written that their father "did not believe in falsely building his sons' self-esteem by purposefully letting us win, or tolerating sloppy play". About Rahm, he also wrote: Rahm was encouraged by his mother to take ballet lessons, and is a graduate of the Evanston School of Ballet, as well as a student of The Joel Hall Dance Center, where his children later took lessons. He won a scholarship to the Joffrey Ballet, but turned it down to attend Sarah Lawrence College, a liberal arts school with a strong dance program. This background, as well as the mayor's short stature, has led critics of the Mayor to nickname him "tiny dancer". While an undergraduate, Emanuel was elected to the Sarah Lawrence Student Senate. He graduated from Sarah Lawrence in 1981 with a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts, and went on to receive a Master of Arts in Speech and Communication from Northwestern University in 1985. Emanuel took part in a two-week civilian volunteer holiday, known as the Sar-El, where, as a civilian volunteer, he assisted the Israel Defense Forces during the 1991 Gulf War, helping to repair truck brakes in one of Israel's northern bases. While a high school student working part-time at an Arby's restaurant, Emanuel severely cut his right middle finger on a meat slicer, which was later infected from swimming in Lake Michigan. His finger was partially amputated due to the severity of the infection. Political staffer career Emanuel began his political career with the public interest and consumer rights organization Illinois Public Action. He went on to serve in a number of capacities in local and national politics, initially specializing in fund-raising for Illinois campaigns, and then nationally. Emanuel worked for Democrat Paul Simon's 1984 election to the U.S. Senate. He also worked as the national campaign director for the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee in 1988, and was senior advisor and chief fund-raiser for Richard M. Daley's successful initial campaign for mayor of Chicago, in 1989 . At the start of then-Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton's presidential primary campaign, Emanuel was appointed to direct the campaign's finance committee. Emanuel insisted that Clinton schedule time for fund-raising and delay campaigning in New Hampshire. Clinton embarked on an aggressive national fund-raising campaign that allowed the campaign to keep buying television time as attacks on Clinton's character threatened to swamp the campaign during the New Hampshire primary. Clinton's primary rival, Paul Tsongas (the New Hampshire Democratic primary winner), later withdrew, citing a lack of campaign funds. Richard Mintz, a Washington public relations consultant who worked with Emanuel on the campaign, spoke about the soundness of the idea: "It was that [extra] million dollars that really allowed the campaign to withstand the storm we had to ride out in New Hampshire [over Clinton's relationship with Gennifer Flowers and the controversy over his draft status during the Vietnam War]." Emanuel's knowledge of the top donors in the country, and his rapport with "heavily Jewish" donors helped Clinton amass a then-unheard-of sum of $72 million. While working on the Clinton campaign Emanuel was a paid retainer of the investment bank Goldman Sachs. Clinton administration Following the campaign, Emanuel served as a senior advisor to Clinton at the White House from 1993 to 1998. In the White House, Emanuel was initially Assistant to the President for Political Affairs and then Senior Advisor to the President for Policy and Strategy. He was a leading strategist in White House efforts to institute NAFTA, among other Clinton initiatives. Emanuel is known for his "take-no-prisoners style" that has earned him the nickname "Rahmbo". Emanuel sent a dead fish in a box to a pollster who was late delivering polling results. On the night after the 1992 election, angry at Democrats and Republicans who "betrayed" them in the 1992 election, Emanuel stood up at a celebratory dinner with colleagues from the campaign and began plunging a steak knife into the table and began rattling off names while shouting "Dead! Dead! Dead!". Before Tony Blair gave a pro-Clinton speech during the impeachment crisis, Emanuel reportedly screamed at Blair "Don't fuck this up!" while Clinton was present. Blair and Clinton both burst into laughter. However, by 2007 friends of Emanuel were saying that he has "mellowed out". Stories of his personal style have entered the popular culture, inspiring articles and websites that chronicle these and other quotes and incidents. The character Josh Lyman in The West Wing was said to be based on Emanuel, though executive producer Lawrence O'Donnell denied this. Career in finance After serving as an advisor to Bill Clinton, in 1998 Emanuel resigned from his position in the administration and joined the investment banking firm Wasserstein Perella, where he worked for years. Although he did not have an MBA degree or prior banking experience, he became a managing director at the firm's Chicago office in 1999, and according to congressional disclosures, made $16.2 million in his years as a banker. At Wasserstein Perella, he worked on eight deals, including the acquisition by Commonwealth Edison of Peco Energy and the purchase by GTCR Golder Rauner of the SecurityLink home security unit from SBC Communications. Freddie Mac In 2000, Emanuel was named to the Board of Directors of Freddie Mac by President Clinton. He earned at least $320,000 during his time there, including later stock sales. During Emanuel's time on the board, Freddie Mac was plagued with scandals involving campaign contributions and accounting irregularities. The Bush administration rejected a request under the Freedom of Information Act to review Freddie Mac board minutes and correspondence during Emanuel's time as a director. The Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight later accused the board of having "failed in its duty to follow up on matters brought to its attention". Emanuel resigned from the board in 2001 before his first bid for Congress. Congressional career Elections In 2002, Emanuel pursued the U.S. House seat in the 5th district of Illinois, previously held by Rod Blagojevich, who successfully ran for governor of Illinois. His strongest opponent in the crowded primary of eight was former Illinois state representative Nancy Kaszak. During the primary, Edward Moskal, president of the Polish American Congress, a political action committee endorsing Kaszak, called Emanuel a "millionaire carpetbagger". Emanuel won the primary and defeated Republican candidate Mark Augusti in the general election. Emanuel's inaugural election to the House was the closest he ever had, as he won more than 70% of the vote in all of his re-election bids. Tenure Emanuel was elected after the October 2002 joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War, and so did not vote on it. However, in the lead up to the resolution, Emanuel spoke out in support of the war. In January 2003, Emanuel was named to the House Financial Services Committee and sat on the subcommittee that oversaw Freddie Mac. A few months later, Freddie Mac Chief Executive Officer Leland Brendsel was forced out and the committee and subcommittee commenced more than a year of hearings into Freddie Mac. Emanuel skipped every hearing allegedly for reasons of avoiding any appearance of favoritism, impropriety, or conflict of interest. Emanuel aligned himself with the Democratic Leadership Council. Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee chairman Emanuel assumed the position of Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee chairman (DCCC) after the death of the previous chair, Bob Matsui. Emanuel led the Democratic Party's effort to capture the majority in the House of Representatives in the 2006 elections. The documentary HouseQuake, featuring Emanuel, chronicles those elections. Emanuel had disagreements over Democratic election strategy with Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean. Dean favored a "fifty-state strategy", building support for the Democratic Party over the long term, while Emanuel advocated a more tactical approach focusing attention on key districts. The Democratic Party gained 30 seats in the House in the 2006 elections, and Emanuel received considerable praise for his stewardship of the DCCC, even from Illinois Republican Rep. Ray LaHood, who said, "He legitimately can be called the golden boy of the Democratic Party today. He recruited the right candidates, found the money, and funded them, and provided issues for them. Rahm did what no one else could do in seven cycles." However, Emanuel also faced some criticism for his failure to support some progressive candidates, as Howard Dean advocated. Emanuel had "aggressively recruited right-leaning candidates, frequently military veterans, including former Republicans". Many of the Representatives that Rahm had recruited, such as Heath Shuler, ended up "[voting] against important Obama administration priorities, like economic stimulus, banking reform, and health care". Howie Klein has suggested that Emanuel's congressional campaign strategy was short-sighted, as it "contributed to the massive G.O.P. majorities we have now, the biggest since the nineteen-twenties" when the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 mid-term elections. After Emanuel's election as chairman of the Democratic Caucus (see below), Chris Van Hollen became committee chair for the 110th Congress. Democratic Caucus chairman After his role in helping the Democrats win the 2006 elections, Emanuel was believed to be a leading candidate for the position of Majority Whip. Nancy Pelosi, who became the next Speaker of the House of Representatives, persuaded him not to challenge Jim Clyburn, but instead to succeed Clyburn in the role of Democratic Caucus Chairman. In return, Pelosi agreed to assign the caucus chair more responsibilities, including "aspects of strategy and messaging, incumbent retention, policy development, and rapid-response communications". Caucus vice-chair John Larson remained in his role instead of running for the chairman position. After Vice President Dick Cheney asserted that he did not fall within the bounds of orders set for the executive branch, Emanuel called for cutting off the $4.8 million the Executive Branch provides for the Vice President's office. Positions on political issues Social issues Emanuel is generally liberal on social issues. He has maintained a 100-percent pro-choice voting record, supports LGBT rights including same-sex marriage, and is a strong supporter of gun control, rated "F" by the NRA in December 2003. He has also strongly supported the banning of numerous rifles based upon "sporting purposes" criteria. During his original 2002 campaign, Emanuel spoke in support of the goal of "to help make health care affordable and available for all Americans". In his 2006 book, co-authored with Bruce Reed, The Plan: Big Ideas for America, Emanuel advocated a three-month compulsory universal service program for Americans between the ages of 18 and 25. A similar, expanded version of the initiative was later proposed by Barack Obama during his 2008 presidential campaign. Iraq war During his original 2002 campaign, Emanuel "indicated his support of President Bush's position on Iraq, but said he believed the President needed to better articulate his position to the American people". In the 2006 congressional primaries, Emanuel, then head of the Democratic congressional campaign committee, helped organize a run by Tammy Duckworth, an Iraq war veteran with no political experience, against grassroots candidate Christine Cegelis in Illinois' 6th district. Expedited withdrawal from Iraq was a central point of Cegelis' campaign and Duckworth opposed a withdrawal timetable. Middle East In June 2007, Emanuel condemned an outbreak of Palestinian violence in the Gaza Strip and criticized Arab countries for not applying the same kind of pressure on the Palestinians as they have on Israel. At a 2003 pro-Israel rally in Chicago, Emanuel told the marchers that Israel was "ready for peace" but would not get there until Palestinians "turn away from the path of terror". White House Chief of Staff Emanuel declared in April 2006 that he would support Hillary Clinton should she pursue the presidency in 2008. Emanuel remained close to Clinton since leaving the White House, talking strategy with her at least once a month as chairman of the DCCC. However, Emanuel's loyalties came into conflict when his home-state Senator, Barack Obama, expressed interest in the race. Asked in January 2007, about his stance on the Democratic presidential nomination, he said: "I'm hiding under the desk. I'm very far under the desk, and I'm bringing my paper and my phone." Emanuel remained neutral in the race until June 4, 2008, the day after the final primary contests, when he endorsed Obama. On November 6, 2008, Emanuel accepted the position of White House Chief of Staff for US President Barack Obama. He resigned his congressional seat effective January 2, 2009. A special primary to fill his vacated congressional seat was held on March 3, 2009, and the special general election on April 7. John Fritchey, a candidate for that seat, said at a forum that Emanuel had told him he may be interested in running for the seat again in the future. Some Republican leaders criticized Emanuel's appointment because they believed it went against Obama's campaign promises of less divisive politics, given Emanuel's reputation as a partisan Democrat. Republican Senator Lindsey Graham disagreed, saying: "This is a wise choice by President-elect Obama. He's tough, but fair, honest, direct, and candid." Ira Forman, executive director of the National Jewish Democratic Council, said that the choice indicated that Obama would not listen to the "wrong people" regarding the U.S.–Israel relationship. Some commentators opined that Emanuel would be good for the Israeli–Palestinian peace process because if Israeli leaders made excuses for not dismantling settlements, Emanuel would be tough and pressure the Israelis to comply. Some Palestinians expressed dismay at Emanuel's appointment. Weeks after accepting the appointment, Emanuel participated on a panel of corporate chief executive officers sponsored by the Wall Street Journal, and said, "You never want a serious crisis to go to waste." Emanuel explained later, "... what I said was, never allow a good crisis to go to waste when it's an opportunity to do things that you had never considered, or that you didn't think were possible." In a 2009 article in The New York Times, Emanuel was characterized as being "perhaps the most influential chief of staff of a generation". He has a reputation for his no-holds-barred negotiation style that involves "his share of shouting and cursing". Ezekiel Emanuel has written, "The impatient, pushy Emanuel style is so well known that during a recent job interview I was asked, point-blank, whether I had the level-headed temperament the position required. ... . [A]s obvious as our flaws are to others, it's difficult to recognize them in ourselves." At a January 2010 closed-door meeting in the White House with liberal activists, Emanuel called them "fucking retarded" for planning to run TV ads attacking conservative Democrats who didn't support Obama's health-care overhaul. After the remarks were quoted in a front-page story of the Wall Street Journal, and after he was criticized by Sarah Palin, Emanuel apologized to organizations for the mentally handicapped for using the word "retarded". According to Jonathan Alter's book, The Promise, Emanuel opposed Barack Obama's plan for a broad health care reform, but Obama overrode him. Emanuel advocated a smaller plan because it could get bi-partisan support. Emanuel wanted to expand coverage for children, and increase the number of single mothers eligible for Medicaid. For that reason, it was dubbed "the Titanic plan", a reference to the priority given to saving women and children during the sinking of the Titanic. Reportedly, House Speaker Pelosi had to convince Obama on the health care initiative after Emanuel dramatically scaled it back. Emanuel has since apologized for his role, saying, "Thank God for the country, he didn't listen to me", after the Supreme Court upheld "ObamaCare" in 2012. As chief of staff, Emanuel would make his staff laugh. During a staff meeting, when Chief Technology Officer Aneesh Chopra gave uniformly upbeat reports, Emanuel is said to have looked at him and said: "Whatever you're taking, I want some." Emanuel had a hand in war strategy, political maneuvering, communications and economic policy. Bob Woodward wrote in Obama's Wars that Emanuel made a habit of telephoning CIA Director Leon Panetta and asking about the lethal drone strikes aimed at Al Qaeda, asking, "Who did we get today?". In 2010, Emanuel was reported to have conflicts with other senior members of the president's team and ideological clashes over policy. He was also the focal point of criticism from left-leaning Democrats for the administration's perceived move to the center. By September 2010, with the Democrats anticipating heavy losses in mid-term elections, this was said to precipitate Emanuel's departure as chief of staff. Mayor of Chicago Elections 2011 On September 30, 2010, it was announced that Emanuel would leave his post as White House Chief of Staff to run for Mayor of Chicago. He was replaced by Pete Rouse on October 2, 2010. Emanuel entered the race with high-name recognition, having not only a sizeable local profile, but a sizable national profile. Emanuel's eligibility for office was challenged on the basis of his lack of residency in Chicago for one year prior to the election. This was the period when Emanuel was in Washington serving as the White House chief of staff. The Board of Elections and the Cook County Circuit Court affirmed his eligibility. A divided Court of Appeals reversed the Circuit Court, holding on January 24, 2011, that residency for purposes of a candidate is different from residency for purposes of being a voter. A further appeal to the Illinois Supreme Court resulted in a unanimous decision reversing the Court of Appeals and affirming Emanuel's eligibility. In the race, Emanuel had a financial advantage over the other candidates. He was by far the best-financed candidate, with more than three times the campaign funds as the second-best financed candidate (Gery Chico), and more than twenty-times the third-best financed candidate (Carol Moseley Braun). Emanuel's had his financial advantage from the very start of his candidacy, as he began his campaign with approximately $1.2 million from his congressional campaign fund. By December 31, 2010 he had raised more than $10.5 million in additional funds. On January 1, 2011 the Illinois Campaign Disclosure Act took effect, limiting individual personal contributions to candidates to $5,000. Nevertheless, he continued to raise substantial funds, ultimately having procured a total $15 million over the course of his campaign (including those funds transferred from his congressional campaign committee. Emanuel was able to raise so much because he had experience fundraising, had built a Washington connections and a national profile, and his brother Ari had Hollywood connections. He had 75 contributors give more than $50,000, twenty-five of which were from out of state. Among these high-dollar contributors were Steven Spielberg, Donald Trump, and Steve Jobs. Despite having a national fundraising operation, three-quarters of his donations came locally. More than $800,000 of his contributions were from financial exchange and trading executives, with his largest single donation being a $200,000 donation from executives of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. Emanuel proposed lowering the city's sales tax and raising the service tax. Emanuel supported negotiating with the Chicago Teachers Union for longer school days and school years. Emanuel opposed instituting an elected school board. This received criticism from other candidates. Other candidates assailed his tenure at Freddie Mac. As the frontrunner, Emanuel had gotten more press coverage than other mayoral candidates. This was furthered by the fact that the challenge to his residency became a dominant headline. Emanuel entered the race with solid backing from North and Northwest Side Democratic Ward Committeemen. Emanuel's advertisements showed portrayed him as having strong roots in the city, and, in telling his biography, emphasized his upbringing on the North Shore. Contrarily, Emanuel's opponents attempted to characterize him as a carpetbagger, hailing not from the city itself but rather from the North Shore and Washington, D.C. Emanuel's advertisements also sought to emphasize his tenures in working in the White House and his tenure as a congressman. Emanuel would highlight his relations with presidents Clinton and Obama. He also sought to highlight the fact that he had forged connections in Washington during his time in congress, and also had strong business ties. Emanuel had overwhelming support from Jewish and LGBT voters. Emanuel held a lead with independent progressives, including strong support from the lakefront liberals voting bloc of wealthy white progressives from the city's northern lakefront. As the only white candidate in the race, Emanuel was seen as likely to receive unified support from a majority of the white electorate. Since the hispanic vote was largely split between two hispanic candidates (Gery Chico and Miguel del Valle), once Emanuel was able to secure the support of the majority of the black vote, he had secured himself victory. In attracting African American voters to his candidacy, Emanuel was helped by his associations with Presidents Clinton and Obama, both of whom were extremely popular among the African American community. After Moseley Braun's support began to crater following a character attack on fellow candidate Patricia Van Pelt Watkins which backfired, Emanuel was the beneficiary as the, largely African American, voters that abandoned their support of Moseley Braun's candidacy primarily migrated to support his candidacy. Once this happened, Emanuel had all but secured himself a first-place finish, and the remaining candidates were left to jockey for second-place in hopes of there being a runoff. Emanuel carried the endorsements of both the city's major daily newspapers, the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun-Times. Emanuel's mayoral campaign was the inspiration for a satirical Twitter account called MayorEmanuel, which received more than 43,000 followers, more popular than Emanuel's actual Twitter account. Emanuel announced on February 28 that if the author would reveal himself, he would donate $5,000 to the charity of the author's choice. When Chicago journalist Dan Sinker revealed himself, Emanuel donated the money to Young Chicago Authors, a community organization which helps young people with writing and publishing skills. Emanuel was elected on February 22, 2011, with 55% of the vote, and was sworn in as the 55th Mayor of Chicago on May 16, 2011, at the Pritzker Pavilion. At his inauguration were outgoing Mayor Richard M. Daley, Vice President Joe Biden, Labor Secretary Hilda Solis, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner, former Mayor Jane Byrne, and William M. Daley, brother of the outgoing mayor and who would later serve as White House Chief of Staff. Emanuel was Chicago's first Jewish mayor. 2015 An August 2014, Chicago Tribune poll reported Emanuel had a 35% approval rating as mayor of Chicago. In 2015, Emanuel won 56 percent of the vote in the run-off election against Jesús "Chuy" García held on April 7, 2015. He had been hurt by sharp neighborhood criticism of his decision to shut down 50 public schools in black and Latino neighborhoods, and his installation of red light cameras, together with anger at the high level of gun violence on the streets. On the other hand, he was supported by the business community and most elements of the Democratic party. 2019 Emanuel announced in October 2017 that he was running for reelection in 2019, despite low approval ratings and some potentially serious challengers. In September 2018, Emanuel then announced he would not run for reelection as previously announced. Close friend David Axelrod told USA Today that Emanuel had grown uncertain about his devotion to a third term. Emanuel had been leading in the polls prior to his decision to withdraw. In an interview with the Chicago Tribune, Emanuel stated that he had been conferring with his wife and children for months before announcing the decision and that he felt it was time to "write the next chapter." Tenure Emanuel assembled a transition team from varied backgrounds. On November 16, the city council voted unanimously to adopt the mayor's first budget, which decreased the budget by $34 million and increased spending by $46.2 million, supported by increasing fees and fines. Despite most Aldermen opposing cuts to library workers and the closure of mental health clinics, they ultimately supported it, calling it "honest". At a news conference in November 2012, Emanuel listed his top three priorities for the state legislature as security and pension reform, adding a casino to Chicago, and equal marriage rights for same-sex couples. At a press conference with then Illinois Governor Pat Quinn, who previously vetoed legislation to put a casino in Chicago, the two were "very close" to reaching a deal. In April 2018, Emanuel received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from NUI Galway, a university in Chicago's sister city of Galway, Ireland, with the conferrers citing achievements in education reform while Mayor. During Emanuel's time as mayor of Chicago, two of Emanuel's appointees, Barbara Byrd-Bennett and Amer Ahmad, were convicted of corruption charges. A third appointee, Forrest Claypool, resigned after the inspector general accused him of a cover up. Emanuel received backlash for defending him against the accusations. Aldermanic appointments As mayor, Emanuel appointed several individuals to fill vacancies on the Chicago City Council. This included appointing Natashia Holmes as 7th Ward alderman in 2013, Deb Mell as 33rd Ward alderman in 2013, Sophia King as 4th Ward alderman in 2016, and Silvana Tabares as 23rd Ward alderman in 2018. Following the resignation of Willie Cochran in March 2019, Emanuel had the opportunity to make a final aldermanic appointment, appointing an interim alderman to hold the seat until his successor (to be elected in an April 2 runoff) would assume office on May 20. However, Emanuel did not make such an appointment, leaving the seat vacant until March 20. Police and community relations In August 2012, a federal lawsuit was filed by eleven Chicago police officers alleging they were removed from the mayoral security detail and replaced with officers who worked on Emanuel's mayoral campaign, in violation of the 1983 Shakman Decree, which bars city officials from making political considerations in the hiring process. Rahm Emanuel faced a great deal of criticism for his handling of the October 20, 2014, police shooting of Laquan McDonald. The dash-cam video of the shooting was initially withheld, and only was released after a judge ordered it on November 24, 2015. After the video release, Emanuel was condemned for covering up the incident and allowing Chicago police to use excessive force against minorities. Chicago Tribune columnist John Kass wrote that the Emanuel administration withheld from the public the police dashboard camera video of the shooting in order to secure the reelection. Emanuel responded to criticism of the shooting and how it was handled by firing police Superintendent Garry McCarthy. In early December, the federal Justice Department announced an investigation into the Chicago Police Department, a move which Emanuel initially called "misguided". Illinois state legislator La Shawn Ford also introduced a bill to recall the mayor (an effort most pundits claim was more symbolic than practical). Protests erupted soon after the release of the video, and on Black Friday protesters shut down part of the city's Magnificent Mile. Public calls for resignation grew steadily over this period, including a well-circulated op-ed published in The New York Times. By early December, Emanuel's approval rating had sunk to 18%, with 67% of Chicagoans disapproving of his job performance, and slightly more than half of those polled calling for his resignation. During the week of December 10, protestors blocked streets and continued to call for Emanuel to resign. Additional protests against Emanuel and Chicago's Police Department were held on the city's busy Michigan Avenue shopping area on December 24, 2015. On December 26, 2015, a police officer killed two people in another shooting, including a woman whom the officer had shot by mistake. On December 28, Emanuel announced that he was cutting short his vacation in Cuba to deal with the crisis. Emanuel announced several changes to the Chicago police department on December 30, including doubling the number of Tasers issued to officers. On New Year's Eve, the Emanuel administration released e-mails revealing they had sought to coordinate with independent agencies such as the Independent Police Review Authority regarding public relations after the shooting. The same day The New Yorker added to the wave of negative media attention surrounding the mayor by publishing "The Sudden But Well-Deserved Fall of Rahm Emanuel", an article critically reevaluating Emanuel's legacy as a political operative since the early 1990s. Public education In 2012, during the contract negotiations between the city and the Chicago Teachers Union (CTU), compromise could not be reached over issues like health insurance increases, teacher evaluations, and seniority pay increases. On August 8, 2012, the CTU voted 90% to authorize a strike. On September 10, the CTU began a strike after CTU President Lewis declared that negotiations with the city were not succeeding. On September 14, the CTU reached a tentative agreement with the city which included preferences for teachers who have been laid off due to a school closing to be hired in another school and student test scores having less of a role in teacher evaluations than the city had originally planned. This tentative agreement did not hold, and the strike continued, after which Emanuel announced his intention to seek a legal injunction, forcing teachers back to work. On September 17, Emanuel's efforts to end the strike stalled as the walkout went into the second week. Delegates from the CTU voted to end the strike on September 18, 2012, and students began their return to the schools the following day. On September 17, 2013, Emanuel's appointed Chicago Board of Education announced the closing of 50 Chicago public schools, 49 elementary schools and a high school — the largest school closure in Chicago history. The trends in dropout and graduation rates have shown considerable improvement in the last five years, but researchers point out the alternative school performance does not follow the general trend. Public health On August 16, 2011, Emanuel unveiled "Healthy Chicago", the city's first public health blueprint with Chicago Department of Public Health Commissioner Bechara Choucair. Emanuel initiated the consolidation of City Council committees from 19 to 16 in a cost control effort. On October 30, 2012, Emanuel voiced his support for the demolition of the abandoned Prentice Women's Hospital Building, in order for Northwestern University, which owns the property, to build a new facility. Preservationists supported historical landmark status. Days later, the Commission on Chicago Landmarks voted that the building met landmark status criteria then reversed their decision later in the same meeting. On November 15, a judge granted a temporary stay of the decision in order for a lawsuit filed by preservation coalitions against the landmark commission to be heard. However, Rahm Emanuel didn't grant quality health to those who resided in historically segregated neighborhoods. Lack of transparency Emanuel rejected requests under the Illinois Freedom of Information Act from The Chicago Tribune for various communication and information logs for himself and his staff, labelling it "unduly burdensome". After a second request by the Tribune, they were informed that 90 percent of the e-mails had been deleted by Emanuel and his top aides. As a result, Emanuel came under fire for going against his campaign promise to create "the most open, accountable, and transparent government that the City of Chicago has ever seen". Emanuel and his office were found guilty of breaking state law by withholding government emails by transferring them onto his personal phone. In March 2017 Chicago Tribune reported Emanuel released 2,696 emails he had previously withheld. In the emails there were found to be 26 possible violations of lobbying laws. On at least 26 occasions lobbyists, corporate executives, donors, and friends of Emanuel got access to Emanuel or other city officials without registering as a lobbyist or reporting their contact to the ethics board. Tax-exempt status of Lollapalooza Lollapalooza, an annual summer music festival in Grant Park, was exempt from taxation. Emanuel's brother Ari is the co-CEO of William Morris Endeavor, which co-owns the event. In 2011 Rahm Emanuel asked the City Council to appoint an independent third party negotiator, to avoid having the negotiation seen as biased. Although the deal was reached before Emanuel took office, tax breaks must be negotiated every year. It was later revealed that the festival received its tax exemption for 2011 in the final days of the Daley administration. In 2012, Lollapalooza paid taxes for the first time in seven years and extended its contract to host in Grant Park through 2021. Hyperloop Rahm Emanuel announced preliminary plans to award Elon Musk a contract to build a Hyperloop between downtown Chicago and the city’s O’Hare airport, although it would receive no public subsidies under this plan. However, some criticized the fact that Elon Musk has in the past donated more than $55,000 to Rahm Emanuel’s various election campaigns, suggesting a potential conflict of interest between the two. Immigration Chicago became a "de jure" sanctuary city in 2012 when Rahm Emanuel and the City Council passed the Welcoming City Ordinance. Approval ratings End of tenure Emanuel planned to arrange for a smooth transition between his mayoral administration and that of his elected successor Lori Lightfoot. Reports were that he intended to model the transition between their administrations upon the U.S. presidential transition between the George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations. Emanuel had been part of that transition as Obama's Chief of Staff designate. Post-mayoral career Hours after Emanuel left office, the magazine The Atlantic, where he had written a dozen essays in prior months, made him a contributing editor; however, this honorary title was withdrawn after black staff members objected. In May 2019, he was named founding executive chair of the National BAM Advisory Council of the Becoming A Man youth program. In June 2019, Emanuel joined Centerview Partners as a senior counselor. Since July 2019, Emanuel has also served as a political analyst for ABC News. Biden administration Progressive politicians nationally, including Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez and Matt Martin, have opposed his potential inclusion in Joe Biden's Cabinet, citing his handling of the murder of Laquan McDonald. Initially, Emanuel was considered for Transportation secretary in the Biden administration. It was reported in February 2021 that Emanuel was being considered by the Biden administration as an ambassador to either China or Japan. In April 2021 it was reported that Biden had chosen him as ambassador to Japan. In May 2021, reports indicated Biden would soon nominate Emanuel to serve as ambassador to Japan. In August 2021, Emanuel was formally nominated to serve as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Japan. On December 18, 2021, his nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 48–21 vote. He presented his credentials on February 1, 2022. Electoral history Mayor of Chicago US House of Representatives |- | colspan=10 |U.S. House, 5th District of Illinois (General Election) |- !Year !Winning candidate !Party !Pct !Opponent !Party !Pct !Opponent !Party !Pct |- |2002 | |Rahm Emanuel | |Democratic | |67% | |Mark Augusti | |Republican | |29% | |Frank Gonzalez | |Libertarian | |4% |- |2004 | |Rahm Emanuel (inc.) | |Democratic | |76% | |Bruce Best | |Republican | |24% | | |- |2006 | |Rahm Emanuel (inc.) | |Democratic | |78% | |Kevin White | |Republican | |22% | | | |- |2008 | |Rahm Emanuel (inc.) | |Democratic | |74% | |Tom Hanson | |Republican | |22% | |Alan Augustson | |Green | |4% Personal life Emanuel and his wife, Amy Merritt Rule, have a son and two daughters. The family lives in the Ravenswood neighborhood on Chicago's north side. Rule converted to Judaism shortly before their wedding. Emanuel is a close friend of fellow Chicagoan David Axelrod, chief strategist for Obama's 2008 and 2012 presidential campaign, and Axelrod signed the ketuba, the Jewish marriage contract, at Emanuel's wedding. The Emanuels are members of the Chicago synagogue Anshe Sholom B'nai Israel. Rabbi Asher Lopatin of the congregation described Emanuel's family as "a very involved Jewish family", adding that "Amy was one of the teachers for a class for children during the High Holidays two years ago". Emanuel has said of his Judaism: "I am proud of my heritage and treasure the values it has taught me." Emanuel's children attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools in the Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's south side. Each year during the winter holidays, Emanuel takes a family trip on which his children can be exposed to other cultures and parts of the world. Prior family trips have been to Vietnam, India, Kenya, Zambia, and South America. His 2015 holiday trip was scheduled for the island of Cuba. Emanuel trains for and participates in triathlons. In 2011, he scored 9th out of 80 competitors in his age group. A passionate cyclist, he rides a custom-built, state-of-the-art Parlee road bike. Works See also History of the Jews in Chicago List of Jewish members of the United States Congress Notes References Further reading Biography Articles Twenty minute interview. In April 2011, the VOA Special English service of the Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute program on Rahm Emanuel. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at Rahm Emanuel Gets Ready for New Job as Mayor of Chicago. External links Rahm Emanuel archive at the Chicago Reader Rahm Emanuel news, photos and video at the Chicago Tribune |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1959 births Living people 21st-century American diplomats 21st-century American politicians Ambassadors of the United States to Japan American businesspeople American gun control activists American male ballet dancers American Orthodox Jews American people of Israeli descent American people of Moldovan-Jewish descent Articles containing video clips Clinton administration personnel Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives Senior Advisors to the President of the United States Goldman Sachs people Illinois Democrats Jewish mayors of places in the United States Jewish members of the United States House of Representatives Jewish American members of the Cabinet of the United States Jewish American people in Illinois politics Jews and Judaism in Chicago Mayors of Chicago Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois New Trier High School alumni Northwestern University School of Communication alumni Obama administration cabinet members Sarah Lawrence College alumni White House Chiefs of Staff

415920

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sign%20of%20the%20Four

The Sign of the Four

The Sign of the Four (1890), also called The Sign of Four, is the second novel featuring Sherlock Holmes written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Doyle wrote four novels and 56 short stories featuring the fictional detective. Plot Set in 1888, The Sign of the Four has a complex plot involving service in India, the Indian Mutiny of 1857, a stolen treasure, and a secret pact among four convicts ("the Four" of the title) and two corrupt prison guards. It presents Holmes's drug habit and humanizes him in a way that had not been done in the preceding novel, A Study in Scarlet (1887). It also introduces Dr. Watson's future wife, Mary Morstan. According to Mary, in December 1878, her father had telegraphed her upon his safe return from India and requested her to meet him at the Langham Hotel in London. When Mary arrived at the hotel, she was told her father had gone out the previous night and not returned. Despite all efforts, no trace was ever found of him. Mary contacted her father's only friend who was in the same regiment and had since retired to England, one Major John Sholto, but he denied knowing her father had returned. The second puzzle is that she has received six pearls in the mail from an anonymous benefactor, one per year since 1882, after answering an anonymous newspaper query inquiring for her. With the last pearl she received a letter remarking that she has been wronged and asking for a meeting. Holmes takes the case and soon discovers that Major Sholto had died in 1882 and that within a short span of time Mary began to receive the pearls, implying a connection. The only clue Mary can give Holmes is a map of a fortress found in her father's desk with the names of Jonathan Small, Mahomet Singh, Abdullah Khan and Dost Akbar. Holmes, Watson, and Mary meet Thaddeus Sholto, the son of the late Major Sholto and the anonymous sender of the pearls. Thaddeus confirms the Major had seen Mary's father the night he died; they had arranged a meeting to divide a priceless treasure Sholto had brought home from India. While quarrelling over the treasure, Captain Morstan—long in weak health—suffered a heart attack. Not wanting to bring attention to the object of the quarrel—and also worried that circumstances would suggest that he had killed Morstan in an argument, particularly since Morstan's head struck the corner of the chest as he fell—Sholto disposed of the body and hid the treasure. However, Sholto himself suffered from poor health and an enlarged spleen (possibly due to malaria, as a quinine bottle stands by his bed). His health deteriorated when he received a letter from India in early 1882. Dying, he called his two sons and confessed to Morstan's death; he was about to divulge the location of the treasure when he suddenly cried, "Keep him out!" before falling back and dying. The puzzled sons glimpsed a face in the window, but the only trace was a single footstep in the dirt. On their father's body is a note reading "The Sign of the Four". Both brothers quarreled over whether a legacy should be left to Mary, and Thaddeus left his brother Bartholomew, taking a chaplet and sending its pearls to her. The reason he sent the letter is that Bartholomew has found the treasure and possibly Thaddeus and Mary might confront him for a division of it. Bartholomew is found dead in his home from a poisoned dart and the treasure is missing. While the police wrongly take Thaddeus in as a suspect, Holmes deduces that there are two persons involved in the murder: a one-legged man, Jonathan Small, and a small accomplice. He traces them to a boat landing where Small has hired a steam launch named the Aurora. With the help of dog Toby that he sends Watson to collect from Mr. Sherman, the Baker Street Irregulars and his own disguise, Holmes traces the steam launch. In a police steam launch Holmes and Watson chase the Aurora and capture it, but in the process end up killing the small companion after he attempts to kill Holmes with a poisoned dart shot from a blow-pipe. Small tries to escape but is captured. However, the iron treasure box is empty; Small claims to have dumped the treasure over the side during the chase. Small confesses that years before he was a soldier of the Third Buffs in India and lost his right leg to a crocodile while bathing in the Ganges. After some time, when he was an overseer on a tea plantation, the 1857 rebellion occurred and he was forced to flee for his life to the Agra fortress. While standing guard one night he was overpowered by two Sikh troopers, who gave him a choice of being killed or being an accomplice to waylaying a disguised servant of a rajah who had sent said servant with a valuable fortune in pearls and jewels to the British for safekeeping. The robbery and murder took place and the crime was discovered, although the jewels were not. Small got penal servitude on the Andaman Islands. After twenty years, Small overheard that Major Sholto had lost much money gambling and couldn't even sell his commission, necessitating his resignation. Small saw his chance and made a deal with Sholto and Captain Morstan: Sholto would recover the treasure and in return send a boat to pick up Small and the Sikhs. Sholto double-crossed both Morstan and Small and stole the treasure for himself after inheriting a fortune from his uncle. Small vowed vengeance and four years later escaped the Andaman Islands with an islander named Tonga after they both killed a prison guard. It was the news of his escape that shocked Sholto into his fatal illness. Small arrived too late to hear of the treasure's location, but left the note which referred to the name of the pact between himself and his three Sikh accomplices. When Bartholomew found the treasure, Small planned to only steal it, but claims a miscommunication led Tonga to kill Bartholomew as well. Small claims the treasure brought nothing but bad luck to anyone who came in touch with it—the servant who was murdered; Sholto living with fear and guilt; and now he himself is trapped in slavery for life—half his life building a breakwater in the Andaman Islands and the rest of his life digging drains in Dartmoor Prison. Mary is left without the bulk of the Agra treasure, although she will apparently receive the rest of the chaplet. Watson falls in love with Mary and it is revealed at the end that he proposed to her and she has accepted. Publication history Sir Arthur Conan Doyle described how he was commissioned to write the story over a dinner with Joseph Marshall Stoddart, managing editor of the American publication Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, at the Langham Hotel in London on 30 August 1889. Stoddart wanted to produce an English version of Lippincott’s with a British editor and British contributors. The dinner was also attended by Oscar Wilde, who eventually contributed The Picture of Dorian Gray to the July 1890 issue. Doyle discussed what he called this "golden evening" in his 1924 autobiography Memories and Adventures. The novel first appeared in the February 1890 edition of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine as The Sign of the Four; or The Problem of the Sholtos (five-word title), appearing in both London and Philadelphia. The British edition of the magazine originally sold for a shilling, and the American for 25 cents. Surviving copies are now worth several thousand dollars. Over the following few months in the same year, the novel was then republished in several regional British journals. These re-serialisations gave the title as The Sign of Four. The novel was published in book form in October 1890 by Spencer Blackett, again using the title The Sign of Four. This edition included a frontispiece illustrated by Charles H. M. Kerr. The title of both the British and American editions of this first book edition omitted the second "the" of the original title. A German edition of the book published in 1902 was illustrated by Richard Gutschmidt. An edition published by George Newnes Ltd in 1903 was illustrated by F. H. Townsend. Different editions over the years have varied between the two forms of the title, with most editions favouring the four-word form. The actual text in the novel nearly always uses "the Sign of the Four" (the five-word form) to describe the symbol in the story, although the four-word form is used twice by Jonathan Small in his narrative at the end of the story. As with the first story, A Study in Scarlet, produced two years previously, The Sign of the Four was not particularly successful to start with. It was the short stories, published from 1891 onwards in Strand Magazine, that made household names of Sherlock Holmes and his creator. Adaptations Television and film There have been multiple film and television adaptations of the book: Radio A radio adaptation of the story was broadcast on New York radio station WGY on 9 November 1922. The cast included Edward H. Smith as Sherlock Holmes, F. H. Oliver as Dr. Watson, and Viola Karwowska as Mary Morstan. It was produced as part of a series of adaptations of plays, so it is likely that the script was based on an existing stage adaptation of the story (one was written by John Arthur Fraser in 1901 and another by Charles P. Rice in 1903). A six-part adaptation of the novel aired in the radio series The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Adapted by Edith Meiser, the episodes aired from 9 November 1932 to 14 December 1932, with Richard Gordon as Sherlock Holmes and Leigh Lovell as Dr. Watson. The book was adapted by Felix Felton for the BBC Light Programme in 1959. Richard Hurndall played Holmes and Bryan Coleman played Watson. In 1963, the story was dramatised by Michael Hardwick for the BBC Home Service as part of the 1952–1969 radio series, with Carleton Hobbs as Holmes and Norman Shelley as Watson. CBS Radio Mystery Theater aired a radio version of the story in 1977, starring Kevin McCarthy as Holmes and Court Benson as Watson. The Sign of the Four was adapted for radio by Bert Coules in 1989 as part of BBC Radio 4's complete Sherlock Holmes 1989–1998 radio series, with Clive Merrison as Holmes, Michael Williams as Watson, and featuring Brian Blessed as Jonathan Small. In 2016, the story was adapted as an episode of the American radio series The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, with John Patrick Lowrie as Holmes and Lawrence Albert as Watson. Stage Paul Giovanni's 1978 play The Crucifer of Blood is based on the novel. The Broadway premiere featured Paxton Whitehead as Holmes and Timothy Landfield as Watson. The 1979 London production featured Keith Michell as Holmes and Denis Lill as Watson. References External links 1890 British novels Sherlock Holmes novels by Arthur Conan Doyle History of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Novels about the Indian Rebellion of 1857 Fiction set in 1888 Novels set in the 1880s Victorian novels Works originally published in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine Epistolary novels Treasure troves Dogs in literature British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays Novels adapted into radio programs British novels adapted into television shows

417475

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20MacShane

Denis MacShane

Denis MacShane (born Josef Denis Matyjaszek; 21 May 1948) is a British former politician, author and commentator who served as Minister of State for Europe from 2002 to 2005. He joined the Labour Party in 1970 and has held most party offices. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Rotherham from 1994 to his resignation in 2012. Born in Glasgow to an Irish mother and Polish father who died from war related illness in 1958, MacShane was educated on a Middlesex County scholarship at St Benedict's School, Ealing and studied at Merton College, Oxford. He worked as a BBC journalist and trade unionist before completing a PhD at Birkbeck, University of London. He contested the Solihull constituency in October 1974 but was unsuccessful. After failing to be selected to contest a constituency at the 1992 general election, he was elected to parliament for Rotherham at a 1994 by-election. Following the 2001 general election, he was appointed a junior minister at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In April 2002, he became Minister of State for Europe and was appointed to the Privy Council. He returned to the backbenches after the 2005 general election. In November 2012, Labour suspended MacShane when the Standards and Privileges Committee found he had submitted 19 false invoices "plainly intended to deceive" the parliamentary expenses authority. The allegations, which were made by the British National Party, had been investigated for 20 months by the Metropolitan Police. After the Commons upheld the complaint, he announced his intention to resign as MP for Rotherham and from the Privy Council. In November 2013, he pleaded guilty to false accounting at the Old Bailey, by submitting false receipts for £12,900. On 23 December, he was sentenced to four months in prison. He served his sentence in HM Prison Belmarsh and HM Prison Brixton, and subsequently by wearing an electronic tag. Early life and career MacShane was born on 21 May 1948 in Glasgow as Josef Denis Matyjaszek to an Irish mother, Isobel MacShane, and Jozef Matyjaszek, a Pole who had fought in the Second World War and remained in exile, taking British nationality in 1950. He was educated at the independent St Benedict's School in Ealing, before going on to study at Merton College, Oxford. MacShane worked for the BBC from 1969 to 1977, including as a newsreader and reporter on Wolverhampton Wanderers for BBC Radio Birmingham. He changed his surname to his mother's maiden name at the request of his employers. He was fired by the BBC after using a fake name to call the radio phone-in programme he worked on at the time. During the call, MacShane accused leading Conservative politician Reginald Maudling, who had been forced to resign as a frontbencher after accusations of financial impropriety in 1972, of being a crook. The MP threatened to sue as a result. MacShane supported the Solidarity trade union in Poland, where he was arrested in 1982 for attending a demonstration and deported. He became an activist for the National Union of Journalists and later its president 1978 to 1979. He was policy director of the International Metal Workers' Federation from 1980 to 1992, and he completed a PhD in international economics at Birkbeck, University of London in 1990. Political career MacShane first contested a parliamentary seat at the October 1974 general election, where he failed to win Solihull. In 1984, he was on the short list for Labour Party Communications Director, but Peter Mandelson was appointed instead. For the 1992 general election, he attempted to secure a nomination for the Coventry South East constituency, then Neath, and finally Rotherham, though all the attempts were unsuccessful. MacShane was elected to the House of Commons in the 1994 Rotherham by-election. He was a member of the Deregulation Select Committee 1996–1997, and served as Parliamentary Private Secretary to a succession of ministers in the 1997–2001 Parliament. Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign Office After the 2001 general election, MacShane was appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs on 11 June 2001, with responsibility for the Balkans and Latin America. He caused some embarrassment to the government in 2002 by describing President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela as a 'ranting, populist demagogue' and compared him to Benito Mussolini during a failed military coup attempt to depose the democratically elected president. Afterwards, he had to make clear that, as minister with responsibility for Latin America, the government deplored the coup attempt. In November 2001, an article was published under Khalid Mahmood's name supportive of the war in Afghanistan headlined "The Five Myths Muslims Must Deny". A few days later however, it was revealed that The Observer article had not in fact been written by Mahmood, but by MacShane; Mahmood had agreed to put his name to the article after Lord Ahmed of Rotherham had refused. Mahmood's actions were condemned by Inayat Bunglawala from the Muslim Council of Britain, who said, "MacShane then found Mahmood – universally regarded as being not exactly the brightest spark in parliament – to be a more willing instrument for his scheme". Minister for Europe In 2002, he became Minister for Europe in the reshuffle caused by the resignation of Estelle Morris. He was appointed a member of the Privy Council in 2005. MacShane was a supporter of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and strongly supported Tony Blair's foreign policy, including in relation to the Middle East. Later in 2003, he criticised Muslim community leaders, saying they did not do enough to condemn acts of Islamic terrorism. During a meeting of Durham Labour Students in 2004, MacShane described Gordon Brown's five economic tests for joining the European single currency as, "a bit of a giant red herring." When contacted by The Scotsman newspaper about whether or not he made the comments, he responded: "Jesus Christ, no. I mean, ‘red herring’ is not one of my favourite metaphors. If you think any Labour MP saying the Prime Minister's most important policy is a red herring, then they would not survive long in the job." He had been recorded on a dictaphone, and the tape was played on both the Today programme and BBC News 24. MacShane wrote in Tribune, "I have no idea why I was removed as a minister, and it does not worry me in the slightest." In March 2005, MacShane signed on to the Henry Jackson Society principles, advocating a proactive approach to the spread of liberal democracy across the world, including by military intervention. The society also supports "European military modernisation and integration under British leadership". After the 2005 general election, MacShane was dropped from the government. After returning to the backbenches in 2005, he was appointed as a delegate to the Council of Europe and the NATO Parliamentary Assembly. Other issues and incidents MacShane has campaigned on the issue of sex trafficking but was accused of repeatedly using false statistics in order to inflate the number of female victims. In January 2007, he stated, "According to Home Office estimates, 25,000 sex slaves currently work in the massage parlours and brothels of Britain." He repeated the figure in a 2008 debate, attributing it to the Daily Mirror newspaper. It was later claimed that no such figure exists as an estimate. On 17 December 2008, he initiated a debate about Britain's libel laws in Parliament. Specifically, he described how the United Kingdom has become a destination for libel tourists as well as how various jurisdictions in the United States (including the U.S. states of New York and Illinois and the federal government) were ready to pass measures designed to halt, at the minimum, reciprocal enforcement of civil judgments related to libel with the United Kingdom, and quite possibly, to allow countersuit, and the award of treble damages in the United States against any person bringing a libel action in a non-US court against US publications or websites. On 25 August 2010, The Guardian reported that MacShane admitted he was the MP involved in an incident with a volunteer with the new Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority: "On 11 May a volunteer had an encounter with an MP who was described as 'very difficult ... disruptive [and] angry' during an induction session. The official report said: 'At the 10 minute mark the volunteer burst into tears and a staff member [from Ipsa] attempted to intervene. When the staff member offered to help, the MP dismissed him as 'condescending', at which point another staff member pulled the volunteer (still in tears) out of the session.' MacShane apologised for his conduct. MacShane was publicly criticised by the Association of Political Thought for wrongly accusing London School of Economics professor of political and gender theory Anne Phillips of supporting prostitution and filling the minds of her students with "poisonous drivel". As evidence of her supposed support for the latter, he cited a question from an LSE reading list about the ethical differences between legal waged labour and prostitution. MacShane later admitted that he had taken the question 'out of context'. Labour MP Fiona Mactaggart subsequently called Professor Phillips' views "frankly nauseating" on the basis of the same evidence. MacShane was a Patron of Supporters of Nuclear Energy, and supported the development of a nuclear industry manufacturing centre in Rotherham. MacShane was employed as an advisor by United Utilities, Britain's largest water company, during 2006 and 2007. MacShane was MP for Rotherham during the period of large-scale sexual abuse of children in the constituency. After the publication of the Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham he said in a BBC radio interview that no-one had come to him with child abuse allegations during that period, but that he should have been more involved in the issue. Saying that he had done too little, he said he had been aware of what he saw as the problems of cousin marriage and the oppression of women within parts of the Muslim community in Britain, but: "Perhaps yes, as a true Guardian reader, and liberal leftie, I suppose I didn't want to raise that too hard. I think there was a culture of not wanting to rock the multicultural community boat if I may put it like that." Another issue on which MacShane was active as a parliamentarian was combating antisemitism. He was chair of the inquiry panel of the All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism, which reported in September 2006. In March 2009, he became chairman of a think-tank on antisemitism, the European Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism. MacShane was an advisory board member of the now defunct Just Journalism, an organisation focused on how UK media reported Israel and the Middle East. Just Journalism had strong links with the Henry Jackson Society, and shared an office with it. Parliamentary expenses, resignation and conviction Newspaper reports and general parliamentary review As part of the review of all MPs expenses, MacShane was ordered to repay £1,507.73 in wrongfully claimed expenses, with his appeals against the ruling being rejected. He was also alleged to have passed twelve invoices from the "European Policy Institute" for "research and translation" expenses to the parliamentary authorities, and claimed for eight laptop computers in three years. A number of newspapers stated that the EPI was "controlled" by MacShane's brother, Edmund Matyjaszek, a claim which MacShane denied: "The EPI was set up 20 years ago by a network of people on the Left working in Europe and the US... Ed is my Brother, but simply administrates it." MacShane had previously written an article for The Guardian in which he played down the expenses scandal, writing, "There will come a moment when moats and manure, bath plugs and tampons will be seen as a wonderful moment of British fiddling, but more on a Dad's Army scale than the real corruption of politics." In 2008, MacShane supported House of Commons Speaker Michael Martin, calling for Conservative Douglas Carswell to be disciplined for saying that Martin should resign for failing to do enough to prevent the abuse of parliamentary expense claims. Resumed parliamentary investigation At the end of their enquiry, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) decided to close the file. MacShane was re-admitted to the Labour Party in July 2012, but was then suspended again by the Labour Party on 2 November 2012 after a parliamentary committee found that he had submitted 19 false invoices for expenses that were "plainly intended to deceive". Later that day, MacShane announced that he would be resigning from Parliament. He said: "I have decided for the sake of my wonderful constituency of Rotherham and my beloved Labour Party to resign as an MP by applying for the Chiltern Hundreds or as guided by the House authorities. I love the House of Commons and I hope by resigning I can serve by showing that MPs must take responsibility for their mistakes and accept the consequences of being in breach of the House rules". He said in a statement: "Clearly I deeply regret that the way I chose to be reimbursed for costs related to my work in Europe and in combating antisemitism, including being the Prime Minister’s personal envoy, has been judged so harshly." However, the Standards and Privileges Committee stated that the Commons had placed strict conditions and limits on funding MPs' travel to Europe, MacShane was clearly aware of these rules, and concluded "Mr MacShane claimed in the way he did to ensure that his use of public funds for his European travel was not challenged" by sending misleading invoices to himself in order to claim the costs of travelling and to entertain European contacts. Referral to police and conviction It was reported on 14 October 2010 that the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards (on instruction from the Standards and Privileges Committee) had referred an expenses-related complaint about MacShane from the British National Party to the Metropolitan Police. The matter referred was his claiming of expenses totalling £125,000 for his constituency office, the office being his garage. The Labour Party suspended MacShane from the parliamentary party pending the outcome. In June 2011, The Daily Telegraph highlighted further discrepancies in MacShane's expenses which had been uncovered by former independent candidate Peter Thirlwall. As a result, he held an emergency meeting with House of Commons officials and agreed to repay a further £3,051.38. The lengthy investigation concluded on 4 July 2012 with an announcement that the Metropolitan Police would take no further action, but it was reported on 21 January 2013 that the police were to re-open the expenses claims investigation involving MacShane. On 11 July 2013 the Crown Prosecution Service announced that MacShane would be charged with false accounting under the Theft Act 1968, involving the creation of £12,900 of fake receipts. He continued to write columns for The Guardian, as well as appearing on television programmes relating to European affairs both in Britain and in other European countries. On 18 November 2013 he pleaded guilty to false accounting at the Old Bailey, and on 23 December 2013 was jailed for six months. He served his sentence in HM Prison Belmarsh and HM Prison Brixton, and subsequently by wearing an electronic tag. MacShane resigned his membership in 2013, after discussions with the body's secretariat. After MacShane was forced to resign his seat, Martin Bright in The Jewish Chronicle wrote that his "fall from grace has been a blow for those who share his concerns about extremist politics, whether it is radical Islamism in the Middle East, neo-fascism at home or the rise of ultranationalist groups in Eastern Europe." In November 2013, Bright described MacShane as "one of" the Jewish community's "greatest champions". European Parliament incident Shortly after being released from prison in 2014, UKIP MEPs alleged MacShane was ejected from the premises of the European Parliament members’ bar where he had been meeting UKIP leader Nigel Farage, after a British MEP accused him of loitering in the building "like a bad smell" and told officials he had no right to be there. MacShane was reported to be seeking a communications job. Books In his 2014 book Prison Diaries MacShane detailed his life in prison, in which he claimed to hold the status of "politician prisoner". He has written more than ten books on European politics including three on Brexit about which he writes and broadcasts regularly in Britain and Europe. He is the author of several books on European politics, most notably Brexit: How Britain will Leave Europe, written in 2014, which warned that the EU referendum in the UK would result in a vote to quit Europe. His follow-up book, Brexiternity: The Uncertain Fate of Britain, argues that Brexit will dominate British politics, economics and international relations for years to come. Black and Front: journalists and race reporting (1978) Solidarity: Poland's Independent Trade Union (1981) François Mitterrand: Political Odyssey (1982) Power! Black Workers, Their Unions and the Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (1984) with Martin Plaut and David Ward International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War (1992) Global Business: Global Rights (1996) Heath (British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century) (2006) Globalising Hatred: The New Antisemitism (2009) Prison Diaries (2014) Brexit: How Britain will Leave Europe (2015) Brexiternity: The Uncertain Fate of Britain (2019) Must Labour Always Lose? (2021) Personal life From 1975 to 1981 MacShane had a relationship with broadcaster Carol Barnes. Their daughter, Clare Barnes, died in March 2004 after her parachute failed to open on her 200th skydiving jump in Australia. MacShane married Liliana Kłaptoć, originally from Poland, in 1983, but the relationship lasted only a few years. In 1987, he married Nathalie Pham, an interpreter of French-Vietnamese origin; they have a son and three daughters. They divorced in 2003. His relationship with writer Joan Smith ended in 2010 after seven years. In 2012, he began a relationship with the economist Vicky Pryce, who had been married to the former Energy Secretary Chris Huhne. In his spare time, he enjoys skiing and running. See also Other Members of Parliament found guilty of fraud during the 2008 expenses scandal: David Chaytor - Labour MP for Bury North from 1997 to 2010 Jim Devine - Labour MP for Livingston from 2005 to 2010 Eric Illsley - Labour MP for Barnsley Central from 1987 to 2011 Margaret Moran - Labour MP for Luton South from 1997 to 2010 Elliot Morley - Labour MP for Glanford and Scunthorpe from 1987 to 1997 and then Scunthorpe from 1997 to 2010 John Taylor, Baron Taylor of Warwick - (Conservative) Paul White, Baron Hanningfield (Conservative) References External links Archived parliamentary biography Denis MacShane's blog, denismacshane-international.blogspot.com; accessed 25 February 2014. Denis MacShane on Europe and Coalition policies, cle.ens-lyon.fr; accessed 25 February 2015. Column archive, Guardian.co.uk; accessed 25 February 2015. Candidate: Denis MacShane, bbc.co.uk; accessed 25 February 2015. "The New Anti-Semitism", The Washington Post; accessed 25 February 2015 |- 1948 births Living people 21st-century Scottish criminals Alumni of Merton College, Oxford Alumni of the University of London BBC newsreaders and journalists Scottish politicians convicted of crimes Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Labour Friends of Israel People educated at St Benedict's School Politicians from Glasgow British politicians convicted of fraud Inmates of HM Prison Belmarsh Scottish fraudsters Scottish people of Irish descent Scottish people of Polish descent Scottish Roman Catholics Scottish trade unionists UK MPs 1992–1997 UK MPs 1997–2001 UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 Independent members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Chairs of the Fabian Society Scottish prisoners and detainees Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales People expelled from the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Presidents of the National Union of Journalists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Eastern%20Caribbean%20people

List of Eastern Caribbean people

Listed below are prominent people from the Eastern Caribbean, the Guianas. Because of the close proximity of these countries, some people are listed under more than one heading. The following are not included: Bahamians, Belizeans, Cubans, Dominicans (from the Dominican Republic), Haitians, Jamaicans, or Puerto Ricans. Antigua and Barbuda List of British people of Antigua and Barbuda descent Actors and comedians Anna Maria Horsford - actress (of Antiguan descent) Artists Gregory Abbott - singer Jazzie B - singer (Soul II Soul) Shermain Jeremy Athletes Curtly Ambrose - cricketer Craig Speedy Claxton - basketball player (of Antiguan descent) Carl Herrera - former NBA basketball player Emile Heskey - football player (of Antiguan descent) Maurice Hope - boxer Colin Kazim-Richards - football player (of Antiguan descent) Ledley King - footballer Sir Isaac Vivian Richards - cricketer Richie Richardson - cricketer Andy Roberts - cricketer Political leaders Lester Bird Sir Vere Cornwall Bird Sir James Carlisle Tim Hector Sir Wilfred Jacobs Baldwin Spencer Sydney Walling Sir George Walter Writers and intellectuals Leonard Tim Hector Joanne C. Hillhouse Marie-Elena John Jamaica Kincaid Barbados Actors Nicole Byer (Father is Bajan) Melyssa Ford Alfred Enoch (mother is Barbadian Brazilian) Doug E. Fresh Jada Pinkett Smith Meagan Good Cuba Gooding Jr. (father is a first-generation Bajan American) Omar Gooding David Harewood (both parents Bajan) LL Cool J (mother is a first-generation Bajan American) Mari Morrow Redd Pepper Robert Christopher Riley (Trini mother, Bajan father) Lamman Rucker (mother is a first-generation Bajan American) Athletes Robert Bailey - American football player Nigel Benn Andrea Blackett Emmerson Boyce - footballer who captained the 2013 FA Cup winning Wigan Athletic side Fred Brathwaite - NHL goalie (born in Canada; both parents are from Barbados) Pierre Browne Anson Carter - NHL player (born in Canada to parents from Barbados) Ashley Cole - English footballer (parents are from Barbados) Jon Cornish - CFL player (born in Canada to father from Barbados) Joel Garner Joshua Gibson - Aussie rules footballer (parents are from Barbados) Gordon Greenidge Ramon Harewood - American football player (Baltimore Ravens) Desmond Haynes Sir Conrad Hunte Paul Ince - English footballer and football manager (parents are from Christ Church, Barbados) Winston Justice - American football player (Denver Broncos) Darian King - professional tennis player Zane Maloney - racing driver Malcolm Marshall Fran Matthews - Negro league baseball player Earl Maynard Anton Norris - high jumper Kemar Roach Sam Seale - American football player Alana Shipp - American/Israeli IFBB professional bodybuilder Sir Garfield Sobers Obadele Thompson Walter Tull - English footballer; first British-born black Army officer; father was from Barbados Sir Clyde Walcott Joel Ward - (both parents are immigrants from Barbados) Sir Everton Weekes Kevin Weekes - NHL goalie (born in Canada, parents are both from Barbados) Andrew Wiggins - NBA basketball player (born in Canada, mother was born in Barbados) Sir Frank Worrell Mariners Stede Bonnet William Shorey Musicians Afrika Bambaataa Kelly Beckett - member of the Paradiso Girls Vita Chambers CJ Fly - rapper Mark Morrison Carl Cox - producer, DJ Charles D. Lewis - artist, bassist, producer Damon Dash Cover Drive - pop band consisting of Amanda Reifer, T-Ray Armstrong, Barry "Bar-Man" Hill and Jamar Harding Faith Evans Livvi Franc Doug E. Fresh Cuba Gooding, Sr. Grandmaster Flash Grynner Killy (rapper) Alison Hinds Jaicko - R&B and pop music singer-songwriter Tory Lanez Ryan Leslie Hal Linton Magnet Man Zeeteah Massiah Mighty Gabby Jackie Opel Leigh-Anne Pinnock - member of Little Mix Rayvon Red Plastic Bag Rihanna - singer Rakim Mayers - artist (A$AP Rocky) Rupee - musician, born Rupert Clarke Shontelle - pop, reggae, and R&B singer Arturo Tappin Tweet - singer, born Charlene Keys Joseph L. Walcott - founded the first black-owned nightclub in New England, featuring many jazz greats Dave East - rapper Political leaders Sir Grantley Adams J. M. G. Adams Owen Arthur Errol Barrow Sir Courtney Blackman London Bourne - former Barbadian slave who became a merchant and abolitionist. Bussa Shirley Chisholm - Congresswoman Anne C. Cools Adrian Fenty - former Mayor of Washington, DC Charles Gittens - first black United States Secret Service agent Eric Holder - Attorney General of the United States Sir Clifford Husbands Gwen Ifill - American political journalist; television newscaster Thomas R. Jones - former Civil Court judge and Civil Rights activist in Brooklyn, New York Clyde Mascoll Chirlane McCray - poet, public speech writer; married to New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio Dame Billie Miller Richard B. Moore Mia Mottley Charles O'Neale Clement Payne Erskine Sandiford Bret Schundler - former Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey Lloyd Sealy - first African American NYPD officer to command a police precinct and patrol borough David Thompson Elizabeth Thompson (born 1961) - politician, Permanent Representative to the UN Dennis M. Walcott - Deputy Mayor for Education and Community Development in New York City Frank L. White - original chef face on Cream Of Wheat box Writers and intellectuals Adisa Andwele Hilary Beckles - historian Edward Brathwaite Austin Clarke Tony Cozier - cricket writer and broadcaster Alan Emtage - Internet pioneer Neville Lancelot Goddard - prophet and author Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge Ken R. Harewood - Molecular biologist Ted Harris - Sweden-based pastor, theologian and writer Agymah Kamau - novelist Odimumba Kwamdela - poet and novelist George Lamming Glenville Lovell Paule Marshall - novelist (born in USA) Avinash Persaud - businessman Sheena Rose - artist (born in USA) Susan L. Taylor - former editor-in-chief of ''Essence'’ magazine (born in USA) Curaçao Singers Tory Lanez (mother from Curaçao) Athletes Leroy Fer (parents both Curaçaoan descent) Andruw Jones Patrick Kluivert (mother of Curaçaoan descent) Churandy Martina Errol Zimmerman Comedians Jandino Asporaat Political leaders Daniel De Leon Moises Frumencio da Costa Gomez Ben Komproe Maria Liberia-Peters Dominica List of British people of Dominica descent Media Maurice DuBois Edward Scobie Musicians Lemuel McPherson Christian Pearle Christian Ophelia Marie Political leaders Phyllis Shand Allfrey Dame Eugenia Charles Pierre Charles Rosie Douglas Edison James Patrick R. John Edward Oliver LeBlanc Nicholas Liverpool Doreen Paul Sir Clarence Seignoret Oliver Seraphin Vernon Shaw Roosevelt Skerrit Crispin Sorhaindo Cricketers Liam Sebastien Shane Shillingford Writers and intellectuals Lennox Honychurch Jean Rhys French Guiana Political leaders Léon Bertrand Justin Catayée Félix Éboué Gaston Monnerville Victor Schœlcher Christiane Taubira Writers and intellectuals Léon Damas Grenada List of British people of Grenadian descent Artists Canute Caliste Athletes Lewis Hamilton - F1 driver and 7-time World Champion 2008, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, & 2020 seasons. Kirani James - Grenadian sprinter who specialises in 200 and 400 meters; Jason Roberts - footballer currently playing for Blackburn Rovers Business people and agriculturalists James Baillie Musicians Ajamu Casey Benjamin - member of the Robert Glasper Project Craig David (of Grenadian descent) Dollarman David Emmanuel Sir Galba Leslie Hutchinson Finley Jeffrey Jemeni Row Lewis Mighty Sparrow Ms. Dynamite Sonika Political leaders Jean Augustine Maurice Bishop Herbert A. Blaize Nicholas Brathwaite Tubal Uriah Butler Henri Christophe Bernard Coard Eric Gairy Malcolm X (of Grenadian descent) Keith Mitchell David Paterson (Grenadian grandfather) David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead Tillman Thomas Writers and intellectuals Tobias S. Buckell Merle Collins Audre Lorde (of Grenadian descent) Franklyn Harvey Jacob Ross Guadeloupe Artists Jacques Schwarz-Bart Athletes Eric Abidal Jocelyn Angloma Christine Arron Jim Bilba Pascal Chimbonda Laura Flessel-Colovic William Gallas Thierry Henry Jérôme Moïso Jean-Marc Mormeck Marie-José Pérec Mickaël Piétrus Therry Racon Teddy Riner Louis Saha Lilian Thuram Marius Trésor Filmmakers Sarah Maldoror Political leaders Louis Delgrès Victor Hugues Victorin Lurel Stéphane Pocrain Patrick Reason Religious leaders Jean Baptiste Labat Writers and intellectuals Maryse Condé Daniel Maximin Saint-John Perse Simone Schwarz-Bart Guyana List of Guyanese British people Artists Stanley Greaves George Simon Aubrey Williams Denis Williams Athletes Shivnarine Chanderpaul Lance Gibbs Carl Hooper Rohan Bholalall Kanhai Clive Lloyd Ramnaresh Ronnie Sarwan Nicolette Fernandes Musicians Red Cafe Rihanna (Guyanese mother [not Bajan]) Saint Jhn Melanie Fiona Eddy Grant P. Reign Political leaders Brindley Benn Forbes Burnham Arthur Chung Clinton Collymore Hubert Nathaniel Critchlow Cuffy Jack Gladstone Quamina Gladstone Bernie Grant Sam Hinds Desmond Hoyte Cheddi Jagan Janet Jagan Bharrat Jagdeo Eusi Kwayana Moses Nagamootoo Reepu Daman Persaud Sir Shridath Ramphal Clement Rohee Rupert Roopnaraine Writers and intellectuals Edward Ricardo Braithwaite Jan Carew Martin Carter David Dabydeen Wilson Harris Roy Heath Matthew James Higgins Edgar Mittelholzer Walter Rodney Ivan Van Sertima A. J. Seymour Eric Walrond Martinique Athletes Nicolas Anelka Ronny Turiaf Filmmakers Euzhan Palcy Political leaders Joséphine de Beauharnais Alfred Marie-Jeanne Writers and intellectuals Aimé Césaire Patrick Chamoiseau Raphaël Confiant Frantz Fanon Édouard Glissant René Maran Joseph Zobel Paulette Nardal Jeanne Nardal Saint Kitts and Nevis List of British people of Saint Kitts and Nevis descent Sports Personalities Keith Arthurton Kim Collins Derick Parry Stuart Williams Elquemedo Willett Business and agriculture James Baillie Political leaders Sir Clement Arrindell Robert Bradshaw Denzil Douglas Alexander Hamilton Rawlins Lowndes Sir Lee Moore Sir Cuthbert Sebastian Sir Kennedy Simmonds Paul Southwell Writers, intellectuals, filmmakers, and artists Joan Armatrading Imruh Bakari Christene Browne Burt Caesar Pogus Caesar Caryl Phillips Cicely Tyson Saint Lucia See also List of Saint Lucians List of British people of Saint Lucian descent Actors Marianne Jean-Baptiste Joseph Marcell Artists Winston Branch Dunstan St. Omer Llewellyn Xavier Athletes Jermain Defoe Anton Ferdinand (St Lucian father) Les Ferdinand Rio Ferdinand (St Lucian father) Dominic Johnson Cyrille Regis Dave Regis John Regis Rene Regis Darren Sammy Economists Sir Arthur Lewis Musicians Shola Ama Nicole David Ronald "Boo" Hinkson Trevor Nelson Joey Badass Political leaders Kenny Anthony Winston Cenac George Charles Sir John Compton Julian Hunte Sir Allen Lewis Vaughan Lewis Sir Allan Louisy Dame Pearlette Louisy George Odlum Writers and intellectuals Derek Walcott Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Athletes Adonal Foyle Sancho Lyttle Sophia Young Musicians Kevin Lyttle Mattafix Political leaders Sir Charles Antrobus Sir Frederick Ballantyne Milton Cato Joseph Chatoyer Arnhim Eustace Ralph Gonsalves Sir David Jack Ebenezer Joshua Sir James F. Mitchell Sir Louis Straker Suriname Artists Ramdew Chaitoe Damaru Dropati Natalie La Rose Kriesh Ramkhelawan Athletes Tommy Asinga Ryan Babel Remy Bonjasky Edgar Davids Eljero Elia Ilonka Elmont Ruud Gullit Ernesto Hoost Patrick Kluivert Anthony Nesty Frank Rijkaard Clarence Seedorf Tyrone Spong Letitia Vriesde Aron Winter Inventors Jan Earnst Matzeliger Political leaders Jules Ajodhia Henck Arron Bram Behr Dési Bouterse Ronnie Brunswijk Johan Ferrier Otto Huiswoud Harry Kisoensingh Jagernath Lachmon Pretaapnarian Radhakishun Ram Sardjoe Ronald Venetiaan Jules Wijdenbosch Writers and intellectuals Aphra Behn Anton de Kom Lou Lichtveld Trinidad and Tobago List of Trinidadian Britons Artists Isaiah James Boodhoo Michel-Jean Cazabon Boscoe Holder Geoffrey Holder Che Lovelace Zak Ové Athletes Inshan Ali Stephen Ames Marvin Andrews Ian Bishop Marlon Black Ato Boldon George Bovell III Dwayne Bravo Darrel Brown Marc Burns Learie Constantine Hasely Crawford Rajindra Dhanraj Mervyn Dillon Ansil Elcock Daren Ganga Roger Gibbon Hilary Angelo "Larry" Gomes Gerald "Gerry" Gomez Anthony Gray Shaka Hislop Clayton Ince Stern John Kenwyne Jones Brian Lara Russell Latapy Leonson Lewis Augustine "Gus" Logie Clint Marcelle Wendell Mottley Deryck Murray Jerren Nixon Sonny Ramadhin Manny Ramjohn Dinanath Ramnarine Anthony Rougier Phil Simmons Jeffrey Stollmeyer Victor Stollmeyer Richard Thompson Evans Wise Dwight Yorke Dancers Pearl Primus Filmmakers Horace Ové Frances-Anne Solomon Musicians Attila the Hun (Raymond Quevado) - calypsonian Winifred Atwell Denise "Saucy Wow" Belfon Inga "Foxy Brown" Marchand Chalkdust (Hollis Liverpool) Ken Marlon Charles (KMC) Maximus Dan Destra Garcia Bunji Garlin Haddaway Heather Headley Raymond Holman Lord Invader Lord Kitchener (Alwyn Roberts) Lord Melody Fay Ann Lyons-Alvarez Mighty Sparrow (Slinger Francisco) Mighty Spoiler Nicki Minaj (Onika Tanya Maraj-Petty) - rapper PartyNextDoor (Trinidadian father) Cardi B (Belcalis Marlenis Almánzar) (Trinidadian mother) Lennox "Bobby" Mohammed Machel Montano Billy Ocean Denise Plummer Sundar Popo Patrice Roberts David Rudder Adesh Samaroo Jit Samaroo Hazel Scott Len "Boogsie" Sharpe Lord Shorty/Ras Shorty I (Garfield Blackman) Black Stalin (Leroy Calliste) André Tanker Rakesh Yankaran Political leaders Tubal Uriah Butler Rudranath Capildeo Simbhoonath Capildeo Stokely Carmichael (a.k.a. Kwame Ture) George Chambers Carson Charles Arthur Andrew Cipriani (A. A. Cipriani) Sir Ellis Clarke Winston Dookeran Knowlson Gift Albert Gomes Geddes Granger (Makandal Daaga) Noor Hassanali Karl Hudson-Phillips A. P. T. James Roy Joseph Franklin Khan Fuad Khan Gillian Lucky Ramesh Maharaj Patrick Manning Bhadase Sagan Maraj Ralph Maraj Wendell Mottley George Padmore Basdeo Panday Kamla Persad-Bissessar David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead George Maxwell Richards Adrian Cola Rienzi (born Krishna Deonarine) A. N. R. Robinson Keith Rowley Austin "Jack" Warner Dr. Eric Williams Eric A. Williams Gerald Yetming Writers and intellectuals Lloyd Best Neil Bissoondath Ralph de Boissière Dionne Brand Vahni Capildeo Stokely Carmichael Rosa Guy Merle Hodge C. L. R. James Earl Lovelace Mustapha Matura Shiva Naipaul V. S. Naipaul Lakshmi Persaud Kenneth Ramchand Arnold Rampersad Lall Sawh Samuel Selvon Eric Williams United States Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands Actors Kelsey Grammer Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs Artists and architects Camille Pissarro Dr. William Thornton Athletes Raja Bell Horace Clarke Midre Cummings Tim Duncan Julian Jackson Calvin Pickering Elmo Plaskett Doctors and scientists Dr John C. Lettsom Morris Simmonds Political leaders Edward Blyden Frank Rudolph Crosswaith Hubert Henry Harrison Casper Holstein Roy Innis D. Hamilton Jackson J. Raymond Jones William Alexander Leidesdorff T. McCants Stewart Terence Todman Denmark Vesey Writers and intellectuals Barbara Christian Arthur Schomburg Eastern

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon%20the%20Interruption

Pardon the Interruption

Pardon the Interruption (abbreviated PTI) is an American sports talk television show that airs weekdays on various ESPN TV channels. It is hosted by Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon who discuss, and frequently argue over, the top stories of the day in "sports... and other stuff" (as Kornheiser put it in the show's original promo). Tony Reali also appeared as the statistician for thirteen years, correcting errors that Mike and Tony made. Similar in format to Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert's At the Movies, PTI is known for its humorous and often loud tone, as well as the "rundown" graphic which lists the topics yet to be discussed on the right-hand side of the screen. The show's popularity has led to the creation of similar shows on ESPN and similar segments on other series, and the rundown graphic has since been implemented on the morning editions of SportsCenter, among many imitators. History The show has emanated from Washington, D.C. since its debut, as both Kornheiser and Wilbon were writing for The Washington Post at the time. The pair's frequent arguments during their time at the Post are often cited (including by Wilbon himself) as both the antecedent and inspiration for PTI. PTI debuted on October 22, 2001. The founding production team behind PTI includes Mark Shapiro, Erik Rydholm, Todd Mason, James Cohen, and Joseph Maar. The original deal was for two years with an option for a third. Originally, the show also aired Sunday evening, but this stint was short-lived. Originally recorded at Atlantic Video's facilities in Washington, the show now occupies space at ABC News' Washington bureau. Voice actress Kat Cressida lends her voice to commercial bumpers for the series and has since its premiere. From the premiere of PTI until September 5, 2014, Tony Reali served as the show's statistician (earning him the nickname "Stat Boy") and eventually became a de facto co-host. Reali became the host of Around the Horn in 2004, but remained on PTI until 2014, when he relocated to New York City to work on Good Morning America while continuing as host of ATH. The show won a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Studio Show in 2009, 2016, and 2019. Broadcast details Pardon the Interruption airs at 5:30 p.m. Eastern Time on ESPN, occasionally moving to ESPN2 in the event of live sports or breaking news coverage airing on the main channel. Replays also appear on ESPN2 or ESPNEWS at various times. In Canada, TSN airs the show live at 5:30 p.m ET. In 2011, the SportsCentre edition following PTI now features the final segment, but previously TSN did not air it. Tony acknowledged this frequently at the end of the show, often signing off while waving a Canadian flag. Since April 17, 2006, ESPN has also offered a free audio podcast which cuts out commercials and includes all segments. The podcast is usually made available two to three hours after its original telecast on ESPN. BT Sport ESPN airs the show across the UK in a late night slot, usually at 11:30 p.m. unless pre-empted by live sports coverage. It is also repeated during the following day at 7:30am. ESPN 3 Mexico, Central America & Caribbean airs PTI in original language at 10:00 p.m. (Central Mexico Time) from Monday to Friday. The show is not broadcast in any other part of Latin America. Since May 7, 2018, PTI started to be aired on ESPN 5, the sports block of Philippine-based TV channel and ESPN affiliate The 5 Network, on a delayed telecast basis. It is aired weekdays from 9:30 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. Philippine Standard Time. Viewers Pardon the Interruption averages a little more than one million viewers daily. Famous fans include Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Tom Hanks, Bill Murray, David Letterman, Tom Cotton, Hank Azaria, Chris Christie, Eric Stonestreet, Matthew Morrison, John Heilemann, Penny Marshall, Michael Kelly, Eva Longoria, John McCain, Tim Russert, and Maury Povich. The October 24, 2011 episode featured a message from then-President Obama commemorating the tenth anniversary of the show. On July 12, 2013, Kornheiser, Wilbon, and Reali were guests at the White House. After lunch, the trio met in the Oval Office with Obama. Obama also provided taped congratulations on the show's 20th anniversary episode on October 22, 2021. The set Pardon the Interruption is unique in its studio layout, featuring a "wall" full of cut-out cardboard heads of athletes and celebrities that have previously been used in the "Role Play" segment, bobblehead dolls of the show's hosts and Reali, Etch-A-Sketch art of Kornheiser and Wilbon, multiple penguins and several other toys and trinkets they have received, such as Kornheiser's beloved "Leg Lamp" from A Christmas Story, Stewie Griffin, and Elmo. For different American holidays, the set will also be decorated with other props to match the theme of the day. For example, on Halloween, carved jack-o'-lanterns of the host's heads are also present. The color of the rundown graphic is also changed to fit with the holiday theme (e.g. red, white, and blue to represent Independence Day, green for St. Patricks Day, red and green for Christmas). On September 27, 2010, Pardon the Interruption and Around The Horn began broadcasting in high definition and moved from the Atlantic Video Washington complex to facilities in the ABC News Washington bureau, where high definition sets were built for both shows. On January 20, 2020, the current set for Pardon the Interruption debuted. This was the first major upgrade to the PTI set in nearly a decade. Segments PTI is divided into several segments. It is not unusual for the last point or topic in each section to be about a non-sports-related pop-culture event. On rare occasions, the show will stray from its basic format, such as on August 9, 2005, when baseball commissioner Bud Selig was the guest at the very top of the show for an extended interview. Other than the pop-culture topics, most topics discussed involve the Big Four of North American team sports: baseball, basketball, football, and hockey. Both hosts are avid fans of tennis, golf, and boxing and discuss events in those sports frequently. However, other sports such as soccer, mixed martial arts, auto racing, and figure skating receive much less coverage, and the hosts do little to hide their lack of interest or knowledge on those topics. In the show's original four-segment format; the segments included in the vast majority of shows are: Segment 1: Introduction/Headlines Kornheiser and Wilbon welcome viewers to the show with opening banter. Wilbon usually opens the show with the line, "Pardon the Interruption... but I'm Mike Wilbon", and then put a question to Kornheiser concerning one of the day's sports or pop culture issues (which he answers sarcastically). The two will then continue a conversation while the opening title card is shown. The theme song (as well as the commercial outro music) thematically references the song "Cut Your Hair" by Pavement. On rare occasions when more serious news will lead the discussion, such as the death of Junior Seau, the hosts will omit their typical intro banter. Kornheiser then says "Welcome to 'PTI', boys and girls." Kornheiser then gives a brief introduction before moving on to the first topic. In this Segment, the hosts usually debate five or six topics which include the day's top sports stories. During the course of this segment, Wilbon and Kornheiser will alternate topic introductions up for debate. Each topic is listed in chronological order on the right side of the screen, and a countdown timer is shown indicating how much time is allotted to discuss a particular topic. Most topics are less than 1:30, but major news stories can run two or three minutes. Also, the hosts can briefly go over the time limit in order to make a final point about any particular topic. If there is no guest for "Five Good Minutes," three or four additional headlines will run during the second segment. Segment 2: Five Good Minutes Kornheiser and Wilbon interview a sports figure, writer, or analyst typically for a period of time from three to five and a half minutes. The interview itself is actually recorded prior to the rest of the show and then trimmed down for broadcast. According to PTIs remote producer, with some exceptions, guests are booked the day of the show as they try to obtain the most relevant news of the day. Other times, there are two "Five Good Minutes" segments with two different guests; there are also shows where two related guests appear during one segment, such as Joe Buck and Tim McCarver of Major League Baseball on Fox broadcasts (Another example of this was Al Michaels and Doc Rivers, when they appeared together while covering the 2004 NBA Finals for ABC Sports). There have also been occasions where Kornheiser or Wilbon, while on vacation or in another city to cover an event and not hosting the show, have been the subject of "Five Good Minutes" themselves. Guests almost always appear from a separate location, usually the site of an upcoming game or their home city, appearing with the hosts via split screen. On a few occasions, the guest has appeared in studio with Kornheiser and Wilbon. This may be the case if the guest is an athlete or coach in Washington to play a game that night, such as when Denver Nuggets guard Chauncey Billups appeared on February 6, 2009, prior to a game against the Washington Wizards. When this happens, the guest will sit on Wilbon's side of the table, sitting diagonally from Kornheiser. On Thursdays during the football season, ESPN analyst Ron Jaworski, a former Philadelphia Eagles quarterback (a.k.a. "Jaws" and "the Polish Rifle" - the latter usually rendered in a Howard Cosell-like voice), is usually the guest. In the past, Jaworski would come on the show on Mondays to offer analysis of the previous day's games and a prediction for the Monday Night Football game that night. On rare occasions, "Five Good Minutes" runs long, such as on June 8, 2005, when NFL agent Drew Rosenhaus's interview ran 11 minutes, forcing the cancellation of the following segment (Role Play), on March 23, 2007, when USC basketball coach Tim Floyd's interview ran 9 minutes as he talked about O. J. Mayo, and on October 22, 2009, as reporter Jackie MacMullan discussed the Magic Johnson/Isiah Thomas controversy, forcing the cancellation of the segment Report Card. On very rare occasions, the second segment will be a bonus "game segment" (i.e. Oddsmakers, Toss Up, etc.), and the third segment will be a game segment as usual. Segment 3 (various) After "Five Good Minutes," or after extended "Headlines" if there is no guest, PTI uses a variety of different segments to talk about other sports news and make predictions. These featured segments often end with a pop culture topic. As of 2021, four such games remain in the rotation. During Mail Time, the hosts read and respond to viewer e-mail that they take out of a talking mailbox. Early in PTI's run, an intern named Josh read the mail to the hosts. When the show changed over to the talking mailbox, Wilbon would express disgust at the mail voice, demanding it be omitted. The mail read on air is no longer written by viewers, but rather staff of the show itself. For Toss Up, the two hosts choose between two sides of a topic announced by the producer, Erik Rydholm, over the loudspeaker, and Kornheiser always claims to be the winner.What's The Word? (introduced in 2009) consists of Reali (later Rydholm) reading a partial sentence and the hosts using an adjective to fill the blank(s) in the sentence. The game often involves made up or hyphenated words, and usually ends with Kornheiser using an adjective to aggrandize himself or berate Wilbon, such as saying he won with a "Korn-ucopia" of words, or that Wilbon "got Wil-bombed."Psychic Hotline sees the hosts answer questions read by staffers, presented as emanating from an on-set crystal ball. Kornheiser dons a stereotypical fortune-teller costume. On the last show before Thanksgiving, the third segment is usually reserved for the hosts to reveal their choices for Turkeys of the Year, usually people during the last year that have usually done notably stupid acts un-befitting of sport (funny or unfunny). As noted by Wilbon at the beginning of the segment, there are no criteria for the selection process, meaning anyone they see fit is eligible. Over the years, the list has vastly expanded from five to numerous candidates being named during the segment. Among games no longer regularly played:Odds Makers, which is featured weekly and involves the hosts giving their prediction in the form of a percentage about the likeliness of a future event occurring. Reali gives the topics and keeps track of responses on a chalkboard, to which he refers at the end of the segment in order to declare a winner. A selection at either extreme of 100% or 0% is well-respected, with the latter being coined by Reali as "squadoosh". Kornheiser often gets his odds to add up to a certain number or form a pattern. "Odds Makers" is also noted for its feud between Reali and guest host Dan LeBatard, who is often accused of ruining the game.Role Play, featured fairly often but less so than earlier in PTI's run, is referred to as "Heads on Sticks" because the hosts alternate speaking as a sports figure with the person's picture on a stick in front of their faces. After a picture is used, it is usually stuck somewhere in the background of the set until it is replaced. Recently, the sexual nature of the title of this segment has been noticed, as a suggestive musical cue leads the segment as well as Kornheiser telling Wilbon on the first Role Play "Wilbon will give, I will receive". "Over/Under" is a segment that alternated weeks with Odds Makers when they were first introduced, but is now featured only occasionally. The hosts argue over whether a certain sports figure or team will go over or under a certain number (e.g. 40 home runs, 60 wins). Reali also announces the topics for this segment, holding cards up with the statistic, as well. In order to help prevent a "push" (a Wilbon trademark), a decimal figure is sometimes used (e.g. 2.5 touchdowns). On July 30, 2009, another new segment debuted called "Report Card", in which the hosts assign letter grades to various events suggested by "Professor" Reali. Usually, Kornheiser's name is spelled "Tiny" instead of "Tony" on the Report Card board. Both "Word" and "Report Card" are now played on a fairly regular basis, with at least one of them appearing most weeks. In Good Cop, Bad Cop, both hosts dress in police hats and sometimes sunglasses. This segment is featured rarely, and unlike Toss Up, the hosts must take an opposite stand on each topic, saying it is either good or bad. This segment is occasionally renamed "Good Elf, Bad Elf" for the holiday. "Food Chain", where the hosts rank a top five list of teams, returned in December 2008 after a long absence. Kornheiser and Wilbon usually have variations in their lists, with Wilbon posting his as each team is introduced. Wilbon refers to his as "A real man's board!", but when Kornheiser switches to his, he claims, "That's it! That's the list!" Another early segment was called "Love Em or Leave Em" where a female voice cooing "Ooo La-La!" was played before the hosts discussed an individual (whose head was on a stick) they were either "leaving" or "loving" and keeping on their side. A third rare segment is "Fair or Foul". It was introduced on February 28, 2007, after the hosts began repeating the words "fair or foul" for a few episodes because of a viewer email including them earlier in the week. The hosts discuss a variety of topics and decide if each is fair or foul (acceptable or not). If a host believes a topic is "foul", he could threw a yellow football penalty flag and/or blow a whistle. Additionally, during the early run of PTI, a "Doctors" segment was featured occasionally, in which the hosts had to choose which head to cut off and throw in the trash out of two that were stuck together. The hosts dressed up as doctors for this segment, using coats and assorted accessories. Finally, a "time-machine" game was played once in 2005 and never returned. In "Too Soon?", Reali asks the hosts if it's too soon for a certain sports situation to possibly occur. In November 2010, a new game entitled "Something or Nothing?" was created. In this game, Reali asked Tony and Mike if a recent sports event was significant (Something) or insignificant (Nothing). After both hosts gave their answers, Reali, through uncertain logic, determined who was correct. "Too Soon" and "Something or Nothing" were played rarely. (In lieu of "Something or Nothing", the hosts will occasionally base a headline debate on whether a story is "a big deal, little deal, or no deal".) Segment 4: Happy Time, et al. The hosts send out a "Happy Birthday", a "Happy (or in some cases, Not-So-Happy) Anniversary" (generally something that happened on the same date in the past rather than an anniversary), and a "Happy Trails" (a departure of some sort, such as a firing, injury, retirement, or death. In the case of a death, it is a "Melancholy Happy Trails," and the background music is silenced in respect of the deceased). If time allows, Reali (nicknamed "Stat Boy") corrects any factual errors that Kornheiser and Wilbon may have made. From the start of the series until July 2005 and then again since August 2009, the show ends with the Big Finish, in which the hosts alternate quick thoughts about several additional topics, usually ending with Wilbon predicting the outcome of a game to be played that evening, while the clock counts down from roughly 90 seconds to the end of the show. The hosts give their standard signoffs: TK: We're out of time; we'll try to do better next time. I'm Tony Kornheiser. MW: And I'm Mike Wilbon. Same time tomorrow/Have a great weekend, knuckleheads. The half-hour broadcast concludes with Kornheiser waving a small Canadian flag while Wilbon mentions their podcast and pitches the show to the SportsCenter studio. According to Kornheiser, he first waved the flag and said "Goodnight, Canada" after an associate director told him that the additional PTI segment on SportsCenter did not air in Canada. Kornheiser made the routine into a trademark sign-off and continued even after TSN added the extra segment to its early-evening edition of SportsCentre. Kornheiser will often offer up a shout-out during the show's final seconds. SportsCenter segment From July 25, 2005, through sometime in 2011, the format of the show was altered to merge the final part of the show with the beginning of the 6:00 p.m. ET SportsCenter. Segment 4 would consist of Happy Time, followed by Errors, then the hosts giving shout-outs, as well as their recommendations for television viewing for the night as the last discussion segment of the show before SportsCenter. Wilbon usually chooses a sporting event, while Kornheiser will often opt for pop-culture based programming. After the opening segment of SportsCenter (normally 10–14 minutes), PTI returned to debate an additional sports-related topic, then end with The Big Finish and the typical goodbyes. For the re-air on ESPN2, the show would move straight to the post-SportsCenter topic after the third commercial break, skipping segment 4. According to Nielsen ratings, PTI paired with Around the Horn combined to average more viewers than SportsCenter. During football season, Monday editions of PTI used to air in the former (30-minute) format, with no shoutouts or SportsCenter segment. Until midway through the 2008 season the show also took place at the Monday Night Football host stadium as Kornheiser was a part of the Monday broadcast team; after that Kornheiser hosted from an undisclosed location in the host city while Wilbon hosted from the PTI studios in Washington. After Kornheiser's departure from Monday Night Football after the 2008 season PTI reverted to its normal format for the 2009 football season after the first week of Monday Night Football. The show has since reverted to its original format where The Big Finish closes the show, though Kornheiser usually still offers shoutouts at the very end of the show. Wilbon and Kornheiser still have their additional debate as a part of SC, but it is no longer treated as a formal part of PTI. Later Format Change When ESPN reworked its daytime programming to have fewer (albeit longer) commercial breaks in the late 2010s, The show extended its first segment (Headlines) and last segment (Happy Time/Errors/Big Finish), allowing the hosts longer discussions. Segment 2 now consists of either More Headlines, 5 Good Minutes, or a game segment. Commercial bumpers Beginning September 2, 2008 and for all shows except for those taped at the site of a Monday Night Football game, inserts of Kornheiser and Wilbon's discussion air for 15–20 seconds as bumpers between the commercial breaks of the show. One can see the two hosts having their makeup fixed and discussing everything from whom one has recently met to inside jokes between the hosts. Running gags The longevity and popularity of the show has led to numerous running jokes between Wilbon and Kornheiser that longtime viewers will recognize. Some of these include such gags as The Bald Brotherhood, Blowed Out, (He's) Ya Boy, Beatdown!, Strugg-a-ling, The Yanks and the Sawks!, Choking Dawgs!, The Penguin Dance, Kornheiser's I-95 Bias, The Wilbon Power Rankings, Let Me Axe You Something, Uranus, Playoffs? Playoffs?, Ya Gotta Get Low, Bulls Corner, Drew Breeees, Washington "Natinals" (purposely mispronounced as such), Good Night Canada, Ball/Puck Night!, The Lig, Tony's "Population Theory", and The Trampoline Bear. In addition, for the first 3½ years of the show, Kornheiser only hosted a few shows away from the studio, with Wilbon during the week of Super Bowl XXXVI. Meanwhile, Wilbon has hosted many shows at the location of a sporting event he was attending. This has resulted in much teasing of Kornheiser by Wilbon, including Kornheiser's fear of flying. Finally, on March 27, 2006, Kornheiser for the first time hosted the show away from the studio while Wilbon remained back at the set, as Kornheiser was in Orlando, Florida, covering the NFL owners meetings. For the first time in November 2006, Kornheiser and Wilbon "chatted split-screen" from two different locations away from Washington, D.C. Usually during Report Card''', Tony Kornheiser's name is spelled as "Tiny" instead of "Tony". Another common gag is during games such as Report Card and Odds Makers, Dan Le Batard's name will often be Don, rather than Dan. PTI in other media The short-lived CBS show Listen Up! was based on the life of Tony Kornheiser. In it, the main characters Tony Kleinman (Jason Alexander) and Bernie Widmer (Malcolm-Jamal Warner) co-hosted an off-beat sports show titled "Listen Up!" On the day Listen Up! debuted, Warner and Alexander appeared in character on PTIs intro. Kornheiser and Wilbon appeared as themselves on PTI in the 2004 film Mr. 3000, including doing a Role Play segment with Kornheiser posing as Stan Ross (Bernie Mac) at one point. On February 8, 2006, it was announced that Tony Kornheiser would join Mike Tirico and Joe Theismann in the broadcast booth during Monday Night Football beginning in the 2006 NFL season. Kornheiser continued to host PTI, and Wilbon joined him on the road as they broadcast PTI each Monday from the site of the MNF game, and there has also been an extra PTI segment inserted during halftime of ESPN's Monday night games (although in 2008, Wilbon stayed in the D.C. studios, on many Mondays).PTI was featured in EA Sports video games due to the contract between ESPN and EA. The first game to have the feature is NBA Live 07 for the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3. Wilbon is a frequent guest on Kornheiser's eponymous podcast. On October 8, 2010, South Park spoofed PTI in the Season 14 episode "Poor and Stupid". When Wilbon is on camera you can see the cut outs of their likeness in the background. On October 30, 2010, SportsNation did their entire 1 hour show in the style of PTI. At the end of the show Tony Reali ripped the show in a 1-minute rant. On February 18, 2012, Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil featured Wilbon and Kornheiser as the local policemen with a nod to their good cop/bad cop PTI segment. From 2011 to 2012, The Onion had a parody of PTI, "Get Out Of My Face" (aka "GOOMF").PTI was featured in the 2015 movie Creed. Guest hosts Over the history of the series, more than 30 guest hosts have stepped in whenever Kornheiser or Wilbon (or both) was absent. As of 2021, the most frequently-used guest hosts are Frank Isola ("Fill-in Frank"), replacing Kornheiser, and Pablo S. Torre, replacing Wilbon. Israel Gutierrez and Mina Kimes have also guest-hosted in 2021. Dan Le Batard of The Miami Herald (who was always introduced by his co-host of the day, and marked his first appearance on camera with a by now familiar "BAM!!") co-hosted frequently before launching his own ESPN series from the same production team, Highly Questionable., and occasionally afterwards as well. Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe and ESPN's Around The Horn was another frequent fill-in. ATH panelists J. A. Adande, Kevin Blackistone, Tim Cowlishaw, Jay Mariotti, Jackie MacMullan, Bill Plaschke and Michael Smith have also all had stints as guest hosts. Others appearing over the years include David Aldridge, Skip Bayless, Jay Bilas, Norman Chad, Mike Golic, Sally Jenkins, Max Kellerman, Tim Kurkjian, Patrick McEnroe, Rachel Nichols, Rick Reilly, Jon Saraceno, Bill Simmons, T.J. Simers, Dan Shaughnessy, Stephen A. Smith, Michele Tafoya, Mike Tirico, Bob Valvano, Ralph Wiley and Jason Whitlock. Kornheiser was absent more than usual during Summer 2006 for medical reasons. During a phone interview on the August 15, 2006 edition of The Dan Patrick Show, Kornheiser explained this absence in most of July by revealing that he was recovering from skin cancer surgery. Influence Multiple commentators have credited PTI with inspiring and laying the groundwork for a number of successful TV sports debate shows, including Around the Horn and First Take. Cast Tony Kornheiser (2001–Present) Michael Wilbon (2001–Present) Tony Reali (2001–2014) Other versions Starting in the 2006 NFL season, Kornheiser and Wilbon began hosting PTI from the stadium that was hosting the Monday Night Football game. The following season, they began staging a live 3-topic, 3-minute version of the show during halftime of the game. In 2004, Crackerjack Television started producing an Australian version of the show, which airs weekly on the Australian ESPN channel and features former Australian Rules footballer Sam Kekovich and radio and television broadcaster Russell Barwick. ESPN Australia also broadcasts the American version of PTI editions before SportsCenter. In August 2010, ESPN's British channel (now BT Sport ESPN) debuted a British version of PTI. The show was hosted by Mark Chapman and Steve Bunce. The ESPN Deportes show Cronómetro (Spanish for "stopwatch") is modeled after PTI and Sports Reporters, in that it features personalities talking about sports subjects for a set amount of time. Unlike PTI, there are four panelists instead of two, and segments such as Role Play are not used. Five Good Minutes is used as a discussion of one subject between the four analysts. ESPN Brasil also has a version of Cronómetro called É Rapidinho (rough translation from Portuguese: "It's Fast"). NESN, in partnership with The Boston Globe, premiered Globe 10.0 in 2007, which airs at 5:30 p.m. every Tuesday. Hosted by Globe columnist Bob Ryan and a rotating cast of other sports writers, the show has ten topics that the two writers debate for one and a half minutes, in the same format as PTI (Ryan himself frequently fills-in on PTI on nights when Globe 10.0 doesn't air). On March 25, 2008, SportsNet New York premiered two new half-hour shows, The Wheelhouse and Loud Mouths, which are similar to PTI and to each other, having two panelists debate sports topics. The Wheelhouse has a moderator and sports personalities as guests while Loud Mouths incorporates viewer calls and e-mails. These shows air every weekday at 5:30 and 6:00 p.m., respectively. Prior to PTI, the Empire Sports Network had a similar show entitled Pros and Cons. Ed Kilgore (WGRZ-TV sports director, generally portraying an optimist) and Art Wander (then a sports talk host for WGR, portraying the antagonist or pessimist view) were the primary combatants, with former The Buffalo News'' columnist Larry Felser also on the panel. The program lasted from 1992 to 1996. Bibliography References External links Official Site Podcasts from ESPN.com Australian Pardon the Interruption Pardon the Interruption on Twitter Podcast about Pardon the Interruption by James Andrew Miller ESPN original programming American sports television series 2001 American television series debuts 2000s American television series 2010s American television series 2020s American television series Sirius XM Radio programs Television shows filmed in Washington, D.C. 2000s American television talk shows 2010s American television talk shows 2020s American television talk shows

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Park%20Police

United States Park Police

The United States Park Police (USPP) is one of the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agencies in the United States. It functions as a full-service law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those National Park Service areas primarily located in the Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and New York City areas and certain other government lands. The United States Park Police is one of the few full-service police departments in the federal government that possess both state and federal authority. In addition to performing the normal crime prevention, investigation, and apprehension functions of an urban police force, the Park Police are responsible for policing many of the famous monuments in the United States. The USPP shares law enforcement jurisdiction in all lands administered by the National Park Service with a force of National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers tasked with the same law enforcement powers and responsibilities. The agency also provides protection for the President, Secretary of the Interior, and visiting dignitaries. The Park Police is an operation of the National Park Service, which is an agency of the Department of the Interior. As of 2006, the force consisted of 605 officers. History The Park Watchmen were first recruited in 1791 by George Washington to protect federal property in the District of Columbia. The police functioned as an independent agency of the federal government until 1849, when it was placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. In 1867, Congress transferred the police to the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers of the Army Corps of Engineers. The Watchmen were given the same powers and duties as the Metropolitan Police of Washington in 1882. Their name was officially changed to the present United States Park Police in 1919. In 1925, Congress placed the Park Police in the newly created Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital. Headed by an Army officer, Lt. Col. Ulysses S. Grant III, the office reported directly to the President of the United States. In 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt transferred the police to the National Park Service. Their authority first began to expand outside D.C. in 1929, and today they are primarily responsible for the Gateway National Recreation Area units in New York City-New Jersey and the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco, as well as the many designated areas in Washington D.C. and the neighboring counties in Maryland and Virginia. These sites include the National Mall, the C&O Canal towpath in the region, and the parallel roadways of the George Washington Memorial Parkway in Virginia and Clara Barton Parkway in Maryland. Authority The Force functions as a unit of the National Park Service with jurisdiction in all Federal parks. U.S. Park Police officers are located in the Washington, DC, New York City, and San Francisco metropolitan areas, and investigate and detain persons suspected of committing offenses against the United States. Officers also carry out services for many notable events conducted in the national parks. The U.S. Park Police are able to effect an arrest without a warrant in any unit of the National Park System, the District of Columbia, and the environs of the District of Columbia. Park Police have authority to follow a vehicle outside their jurisdiction if the offense was committed within the park. According to Park Police policy, lethal force can only be used when there is "imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm". In Virginia, USPP Officers are provided with Conservator of the Peace powers as set forth in 19.2-12 of the Code of Virginia with powers and duties provided under 19.2-18 of the Code of Virginia. In Washington, D.C. itself, USPP Officers have the same powers and duties as the D.C. Metropolitan Police. USPP Officers possess a limited arrest authority in the State of Maryland. The U.S. Park Police hold state arrest authority in New York [ New York State CPL 2.15 part 9 ], and state arrest authority in New Jersey [ New Jersey Code 2A:154-6 ]. In California, arrest powers are provided under California Penal Code Section 830.8. These state arrest powers are in addition to powers held as federal officers. The U.S. Park Police primarily enforce laws including but not limited to Title 36 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and other federal statutes such as 16 USC and 18 USC, as well as state and local laws. Leadership In February 2021, it was announced that Pamela Smith would lead the Park Police. Smith is a 23-year veteran of the force and its first African American woman to lead the agency. In September 2019, Gregory T. Monahan became acting chief of U.S. Park Police. He previously served as assistant chief in charge of the San Francisco field office, where he arranged for charges to be dropped against employees of the Presidio Trust, which funds the Park Police, after they assaulted officers. As a police officer, Monahan was investigated for wrongdoing in at least four instances for illegal body cavity searches. On multiple cases, Monahan's testimony was dismissed in court because the judge did not find him to be credible or truthful. Upon Monahan's appointment, Former Chief Robert Maclean was promoted to Interior Department's Office of Law Enforcement and Security. Districts The United States Park Police operates patrol district stations in the New York City, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas. U.S. Park Police officers are charged with protecting National Icons such as the Statue of Liberty, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, and other well known monuments and memorials. This is accomplished through the Homeland Security Division, which consists of the Intelligence/Counter-Terrorism Unit, the New York field office, and the Icon Protection Branch, which consists of the Central District Station and Special Forces. Specialized Units The U.S. Park Police manages a Marine Unit, an Aviation Unit, Special Weapons and Tactics Team (SWAT), a Canine Unit, a Motorcycle Unit, a Special Events Unit, a Traffic Safety Unit, a Horse Mounted Unit and a Criminal Investigations Branch. Aviation The missions of the United States Park Police Aviation Unit include aviation support for law enforcement, medevac, search and rescue, high-risk prisoner transport and presidential and dignitary security. The Aviation Unit has provided accident-free, professional aviation services for over 40 years. They were the first helicopter provider of Air medical services within Washington, D.C, and continue to provide these services 24/7 to the district and neighboring jurisdictions. They also provide an invaluable resource for patrolling and performing rescues at the numerous federal parks and recreation areas within the National Capital Region, such as Great Falls Park and Shenandoah National Park. Like many park environments, injured parties in these remote and difficult to access locations require specialized rescue equipment to access and retrieve persons in distress. The US Park Police Aviation Unit is the primary resource for these remote rescues requiring helicopter access. The Aviation Unit of the United States Park Police began in April 1973 and was placed under the command of Lt. Richard T. Chittick. It started with one Bell 206B JetRanger and a staff of three pilots and three rescue technicians based at the Anacostia Naval Air Station in a shared space with the MPD Aviation Branch. A second helicopter, a Bell 206B-3 JetRanger, was added in 1975 and the unit relocated to Andrews AFB. The Aviation Unit moved to its present facility in Anacostia Park, the "Eagle's Nest," in 1976. In 1983, the 206B-3 was upgraded to a Bell206L-3 LongRanger. Their first twin-engine helicopter, a Bell 412SP, and the third helicopter to carry the designation "Eagle One," was placed in service in January 1991. The unit grew to its current staff, and began providing 24-hour coverage in January 1994. In August 1999, the unit took delivery of its second twin-engine helicopter, a Bell 412EP. It became the fourth helicopter in the unit's history to carry the designation "Eagle One" and the same registration number as that of an earlier aircraft whose crew affected the rescue of victims after the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. In May 2016, the unit received a replacement for "Eagle Two" with a used & reconditioned Bell 412EP to replace the aging aircraft delivered in 1991. The crew of US Park Police Aviation resources are frequently called to assist at significant and historical disasters and emergency incidents throughout the National Capital Region. These incidents include the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon, the D.C. sniper attacks throughout the region, the crashing of Air Florida Flight 90, and the Washington Navy Yard shooting in 2013. During the Congressional baseball shooting, the crews of U.S. Park Police Aviation responded with two helicopters and transported Congressman Steve Scalise and a U.S. Capitol Police Officer to the trauma center at MedStar Washington Hospital Center. Organization and Rank structure Notable events In January 1982 USPP helicopter pilot Don Usher and his partner Gene Windsor saved the lives of five passengers from the Air Florida Flight 90 crash. In December 1982, Norman Mayer threatened to blow up the Washington Monument with a truck he said contained explosives. A standoff with U.S. Park police began at 9:20 In the morning. It ended ten hours later after the suspect backed up the truck, then surged forward. Police fired dozens of shots at the tires and engine block, overturning the van. One of the bullets ricocheted and fatally struck Mayer in the head. No explosives were found in the van. In 1989 Officers David Duffey and William Lovegrove rescued two people in the Glen Echo Flood after a parking lot collapsed. In 1990, Officer Katherine Heller was at Lafayette Park when she was approached by a man who had been assaulted. After Heller radioed a description of the attacker, another Park Police officer, Scott Dahl, spotted a man matching the description and approached him. The alleged assailant began fighting with the officer and wrested the officers service pistol away from him. Heller approached and shot the man in the chest. Heller was named police officer of the year by Parade Magazine and the International Association of Chiefs of Police. She was the first U.S. Park Police officer, and the first female officer, to receive the IACP award. In 1993, officers of the Park Police rescued passengers of the Golden Venture ship, which had run aground on the beach at Fort Tilden in Rockaway, Queens. Park police officers were the first to arrive on the scene. After calling for backup they ran into the water, pulling survivors from the cold water. In 1994 Park Police shot and killed a homeless man on the sidewalk in front of the White House. The man was brandishing a large hunting knife taped to his hand and refused to surrender in a confrontation with the officers. The two helicopters of the U.S. Park Police played an important role after the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon. The crews responded immediately, transporting injured personnel to hospitals. The helicopters served as a command and control platform, using their Forward Looking Infrared equipment to provide firefighters with intelligence about the scope and spread of the fire through the five rings of the structure, and taking over air traffic control for the Washington, D.C. airspace after the controllers at Washington National Airport had to evacuate due to thick smoke. In 2011, U.S. Park Police conducted an investigation after the arrest of five dancers at the Jefferson Memorial. In a video posted to YouTube, Park Police appeared to body slam and choke an individual who was silently dancing. The dance was in protest of the ban on dancing at memorials. U.S. Park Police played a role in the Washington Navy Yard shooting on September 16, 2013. Two U.S. Park Police officers, Andrew Wong and Carl Hiott, were involved in the response. The shooter was killed by D.C. Police Emergency Response Team officer Dorian DeSantis, who took fire, and a U.S Park Police Officer. U.S. Park Police Eagle 1 also conducted a rescue mission and removed an injured shooting victim from the roof of building 197 along with 3 other survivors ultimately saving their lives. In 2014, Park Police launched a crackdown on food truck operators. Park Police handcuffed food vendors who were selling to tourists on the National Mall. Vendors suggested that the enforcement was to protect the revenue from the government's food stands. By September 2014, Park Police had arrested 196 people over the year for vending without a license on the mall, some of whom were jailed. In 2015, U.S. Park Police detained an on-duty Secret Service special agent who was part of a detail for US Homeland Security Secretary Jeh Johnson. The Park Police were sued following the incident for violating the Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable seizures. In 2016, Park Police aggressively enforced traffic regulations outside Arlington National Cemetery. Officers hid behind bushes to catch cabdrivers picking up passengers, claiming that idling cars were parked. Charges brought by the Park Police were dropped on appeal. In 2017, Park Police handcuffed teens who were selling water on the National Mall. DC Councilmember Charles Allen asked whether arresting the teens was the appropriate response. In November 2017, Park Police shot and killed Bijan Ghaisar, an unarmed Virginia man after a hit and run and three separate vehicle pursuits. More than eight months after the incident, Park Police provided no explanation for the killing. According to a lawsuit filed by the family, it was twelve hours following the incident before the family learned that Park Police were involved. Two days after the shooting, Park Police Chief Robert MacLean met with the family. MacLean offered condolences but provided no information about what had happened. The Ghaisar family was not allowed to touch their son for three days following the incident, when he was guarded by the department's officers. According to the family, when a doctor arrived to examine Ghaisar for organ donation, the Park Police denied access, declaring the brain-dead man "under arrest" and his body "evidence." More than nine months after the incident, Chief MacLean refused to speak to media about the incident, while Fairfax County Police, who filmed the shooting, said that the episode showed that greater transparency was needed. After more than a year and in response to a lawsuit, US Park Police named the shooters as officers Lucas Vinyard and Alejandro Amaya. The incident was not captured on a body cam, since Park Police are forbidden from wearing body cameras while on the job. In a 2015 memo written by Chief MacLean, he told the entire force not to use any audio or video recorders "while on duty". MacLean claimed that the lack of a department-wide policy justified the ban on cameras. Following the shooting, in 2018 DC Congressional Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton introduced a bill to require uniformed federal police officers to wear body cameras and have dashboard cameras in marked vehicles. The legislation was directly in response to Ghaisar's death. Chief MacLean backed out of a scheduled meeting with Holmes Norton and Representative Don Beyer to discuss the matter, prompting Holmes Norton to make a statement to "express our astonishment" at his absence. More than two years after the killing, Park Police had not launched an internal investigation into the matter or released recordings of the 911 calls the Park Police received. In 2019, the sexual assault of a female Park Police officer by her male colleague two years earlier was disclosed. The attack occurred inside a Park Police station. Despite a protection order requiring 100 yards of distance between the two officers, Park Police continued to assign the officers to roles where they might be in contact. The assaulting officer was not suspended or terminated. On June 1, 2020, USPP officers cleared Lafayette Park, DC of protesters and rioters on the order of Attorney General William Barr. Reporting news crews, Rev. Gini Gerbasi of St. John's Episcopal, and many protesters noted the use of tear gas, flashbangs, and rubber bullets to disperse the peaceful crowds. Park Police officers on foot, and mounted on horseback, used riot gear such as batons and shields to drive assembled crowds out of the public park. The USPP released a statement that stated "no tear gas was used" by any law enforcement agency during the incident. Media subsequently reported that USPP assaulted the protesters with OC canisters, which were found at the scene. Australian journalists who were reporting live from the scene were assaulted by Park Police during the attack. The incident prompted a diplomatic complaint by the Australian government. Two park police officers were assigned to administrative duties. Locations Below is a partial list of areas policed by the United States Park Police. Washington, D.C. Washington Monument Lincoln Memorial Jefferson Memorial Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C. The Ellipse National Mall – from the Capitol Reflecting Pool to the Potomac River Rock Creek Park California Golden Gate National Recreation Area Presidio of San Francisco New York (state) Statue Of Liberty Gateway National Recreation Area Gallery See also List of United States federal law enforcement agencies List of law enforcement agencies in the District of Columbia Park Police References External links Retired U.S. Park Police Official Site USPP Officers who have received Citations for Valor provided by the Retired U.S. Park Police Association The Fraternal Order of Police's Labor Committee representing the Officers of the USPP National Park Service Park police departments of the United States Law enforcement agencies of the District of Columbia Government agencies established in 1919 Environmental organizations based in Washington, D.C. 1919 establishments in Washington, D.C. Agency-specific police departments of the United States Police aviation units of the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrell%20Owens

Terrell Owens

Terrell Eldorado Owens (; born December 7, 1973), nicknamed T.O., is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 16 seasons. A six-time Pro Bowl selection and five-time first-team All-Pro, Owens holds or shares several NFL records. He ranks third in career receiving yards and receiving touchdowns. After playing college football and basketball at Chattanooga, Owens was selected in the third round of the 1996 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers. Owens was a member of the team for seven seasons until he was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2004 following conflict with San Francisco's front office. Two years later, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys, where he spent three seasons. Owens' NFL career subsequently concluded after one season each with the Buffalo Bills and Cincinnati Bengals. He last played professionally for the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League (IFL) in 2012. While regarded as one of the best players of his era, Owens created a significant amount of controversy during his professional career and also attracted attention for his flamboyant touchdown celebrations. He was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2018. Early life Owens was born to Marilyn Heard and her neighbor L.C. Russell in Alexander City, Alabama. At 10 years old, he discovered his father's identity after liking his daughter, only to learn that she was his sister. He grew up with three other siblings and was raised by his mother and grandmother. He enjoyed watching football, especially his favorite player, Jerry Rice. However, Owens’ grandmother initially forbade him from playing sports until high school. Owens attended Benjamin Russell High School, where he participated in football, baseball, track, and basketball. Owens did not start on his high school football team until his junior year, when one of his teammates missed a game due to illness. College career While enrolled at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Owens played basketball, football, and ran track. Owens played in the 1995 NCAA Basketball Tournament. He became a starter during his sophomore year. Owens caught 38 passes for 724 yards and eight touchdowns during his sophomore year, and 34 passes for 357 yards and three touchdowns during his junior year. Having gained respect in the NCAA, Owens faced double coverage more frequently during his senior year, and was limited to 43 receptions for 667 yards and one touchdown. Owens previously held the single-season receptions record at Chattanooga until it was broken in 2007 by Alonzo Nix. In his senior year, he anchored the school's 4 × 100 relay team at the NCAA championship. He also participated in the Senior Bowl, a college all-star game played by college seniors, in preparation for the NFL Draft. Professional career San Francisco 49ers Because he played his college football at UT-Chattanooga, an FCS school that did not have a winning season during his time there, Owens' visibility to NFL scouts was lessened, and he dropped to the third round of the 1996 NFL Draft, where the San Francisco 49ers drafted him 89th overall. Owens played his first professional game against the New Orleans Saints, where he served as a member of the 49ers' special teams. His first two catches were recorded against the Carolina Panthers on September 22, 1996, for a total of six yards. His first touchdown came on October 20 against the Cincinnati Bengals; in the fourth quarter he caught a 45-yard touchdown pass from Steve Young that tied a game eventually won by the 49ers 28–21. After the 49ers' top receiver Jerry Rice suffered a torn ACL early in the 1997 NFL season, Owens took Rice's place in the lineup, beating out former 1st round pick J.J. Stokes for the job. He and quarterback Young helped the 49ers win 13 games that season; Owens finished with 936 receiving yards and eight touchdowns; he added a touchdown in San Francisco's playoff win over the Minnesota Vikings. 1998 was another 12–4 season for the 49ers and the first 1,000-yard year for Owens, as he caught 67 balls for 1,097 yards and 14 touchdowns; he even had a rushing touchdown in October against the St. Louis Rams. In the Wildcard playoff game, the 49ers faced the Green Bay Packers who had beaten them five straight times, three of them playoff games. Owens struggled, dropping a number of passes as a result of being briefly blinded by late-afternoon sun. Despite this, Young kept throwing to Owens and he redeemed himself by catching the game-winning touchdown (immortalized by the impassioned game call of 49ers radio play-by-play announcer Joe Starkey) for a 30–27 comeback victory. In 1999, Owens had 60 catches for 754 yards and four touchdowns. Young retired after the 1999 season after he was unable to pass medical tests as a result of a concussion sustained that season, and Jeff Garcia was named the 49ers' starting quarterback. In 2000, the 49ers managed to win only six games. However, Owens had a record-breaking day on December 17, 2000 with 20 catches for 283 yards in a 17-0 49ers win over the Chicago Bears. The record-breaking 20 receptions surpassed a 50-year-old mark held by Tom Fears (it has since been surpassed by Brandon Marshall, who made 21 receptions in a game in 2009). Owens finished the year with 1,451 receiving yards and thirteen touchdowns. The 2001 49ers had a 12–4 record but were defeated by the Packers in a Wild Card playoff game. Owens finished with 16 touchdown catches (half the 32 thrown by Garcia that season) and 1,412 receiving yards. The 49ers followed up in 2002 with a 10–6 record and their 17th NFC West title; in this season, Owens had 100 catches for 1,300 yards and 13 touchdowns. The 49ers hosted the New York Giants in the Wild Card playoff round, and after falling behind 38–14, the 49ers erupted to 25 unanswered points; Owens had two touchdown catches and caught two 2-point conversions in the 49ers' 39–38 win. However, they were shot down 31–6 against the soon-to-be Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who held Owens to only four catches for 35 yards. Coach Steve Mariucci was fired and former Seahawks coach Dennis Erickson took over. The ensuing season in 2003 proved subpar as the 49ers finished 7–9. It was here that Owens decided to leave. In the summer of 2004, when Garcia, who had been released in the off-season, was a member of the Cleveland Browns, and Owens was a member of the Philadelphia Eagles, Owens appeared in an interview for Playboy magazine, where he was asked about long-standing rumors that his former teammate Garcia was homosexual, to which he implied he thought there might be truth to the rumors. Although Owens was eager to leave the 49ers, the 49ers asserted that Owens' previous agent, David Joseph, had missed the deadline to void the final years of his contract with the team. The National Football League Players Association and Owens disputed this assertion, contending that the deadline referred to by the 49ers was not the applicable deadline. On March 4, 2004, San Francisco, believing it still held Owens' rights, attempted to trade Owens to the Baltimore Ravens for a second-round pick in the 2004 draft. However, Owens challenged the 49ers' right to make the deal. Owens assumed that he would become a free agent on March 3, and did not believe that the earlier deadline was applicable. Hence, he negotiated with other teams in advance of his expected free agency, and reached a contract agreement with the Philadelphia Eagles, whose fan base strongly supported Owens in his desire to play for the team. The NFLPA filed a grievance on his behalf. Before an arbitrator could make a ruling on Owens' grievance, the NFL and the three teams involved in the controversy reached a settlement on March 16, 2004. The Ravens got their second-round pick back from San Francisco, and the 49ers in turn received a conditional fifth-round pick and defensive end Brandon Whiting from the Eagles in exchange for the rights to Owens. Owens' contract with the Eagles was worth about $49 million for seven years, including a $10 million signing bonus. In September 2004, Owens released an autobiography: Catch This! Going Deep with the NFL's Sharpest Weapon, which he co-wrote with bestselling author Stephen Singular. Philadelphia Eagles On December 19, 2004, Owens sustained a severely sprained ankle and a fractured fibula when Dallas Cowboys safety Roy Williams took him down with a horse-collar tackle; Williams' horse-collars resulted in injuries to several NFL players, and the horse-collar tackle was later prohibited. Owens' injury required surgery, including insertion of a screw into his leg, and Eagles trainer Rick Burkholder stated that he would miss the rest of the season, with only an outside chance of playing in the Super Bowl if the Eagles advanced. After the Eagles defeated the Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship game, Owens defied the advice of his doctors and played in Super Bowl XXXIX. Owens' trainer, James "Buddy" Primm, helped bring Owens back much sooner with the use of Microcurrent and a hyperbaric chamber. Owens started in the game and had nine receptions for 122 yards, but the Eagles lost to the New England Patriots. After the game, Owens stated that the media would have called Brett Favre "a warrior" for playing with such an injury, but that "For me, they said I was selfish." In April 2005, Owens announced that he had hired a new agent, Drew Rosenhaus, and indicated that he would seek to have his contract with the Eagles renegotiated. Owens made $9 million in 2004 (most of which was bonus money, as his base salary was only $660,000), and was slated to make $4.5 million in 2005. This two-year amount did not place Owens in the top ten paid wide receivers playing. He also made a comment that he "wasn't the guy who got tired in the Super Bowl." The remark, directed at quarterback Donovan McNabb, caused a controversy to heat up between them. On July 1, Owens' relationship with the Eagles became even more tense after Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie and club president Joe Banner denied Owens permission to play basketball in a summer league under the auspices of the National Basketball Association's Sacramento Kings. Owens, with the negotiating help of Rosenhaus, continued to lobby for a new contract. Owens and Rosenhaus met with Eagles head coach Andy Reid and president Joe Banner, but no agreement was reached (this was in line with the Eagles' policy against contract renegotiations). Owens threatened to hold out of training camp until a deal was reached, but reported to camp on time. When the 2005 football season began, Owens was in the second year of a seven-year, $49 million contract. However, the contract was heavily back-loaded, and while the $49 million figure was routinely touted by the sports media as an example of Owens' greed, the money guaranteed to him was under the annual average for a top-tier wide receiver. In 2005, after a game against the Dallas Cowboys on October 9 in which the Eagles lost, Owens was seen by reporters wearing a throwback jersey of former Cowboys player Michael Irvin on the team plane. On November 2, Owens was involved in an argument in the training room with team ambassador Hugh Douglas, which led to a fistfight between the two. The argument was reportedly started after Douglas said there were players on the team who were faking injuries. During an ESPN interview the next day, Owens made several comments that Eagles fans perceived as verbal jabs at McNabb and the team. In this interview, when asked whether he agreed with a comment made by analyst Michael Irvin saying that the Eagles would be undefeated if Brett Favre was on the team, Owens replied, "That's a good assessment. I would agree with that." Owens went on to state that if Favre were the Eagles quarterback, "I just feel like we'd be in a better situation." Owens stated on his radio show that his remarks were taken out of context, noting that he had just stated two questions prior that the Eagles' record would also be better had McNabb not been injured. While he did not comment on Owens' slight at the time, McNabb later stated in an interview that "It was definitely a slap in the face to me." Two days after the interview aired, the Eagles suspended Owens indefinitely for "conduct detrimental to the team." According to Owens' agent Drew Rosenhaus, head coach Andy Reid demanded that Owens make a public apology to McNabb. An apology was drafted by Rosenhaus, but Owens balked at reading a specific apology to McNabb, and crossed that part of the statement out. The apology he read on TV did not address McNabb directly. The following day, Reid announced that Owens' suspension would be increased to four games and that he would be deactivated for the remainder of the season. On November 8, Owens and Rosenhaus held a news conference at Owens' residence, where he apologized to the fans, the team, and McNabb specifically, and also made an appeal for reinstatement to the team. The NFL Players Association filed a grievance against the Eagles, claiming violation of the sport's collective bargaining agreement, but Owens' suspension and deactivation were upheld by an arbitrator. On March 14, 2006, the Philadelphia Eagles released Owens. Dallas Cowboys On March 18, 2006, the Dallas Cowboys signed Owens to a 3-year, $25 million deal, including a $5 million signing bonus, with a $5 million first-year salary. Owens returned to the field during the Cowboys' 2006 season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars. While the game ended in a Jaguars victory, Owens recorded eight receptions for 80 yards and one touchdown. The following week against the Redskins, Owens broke his finger while blocking, and was forced to leave the game. He had a plate screwed into the finger, and returned to play the team's next game against the Tennessee Titans, where he accounted for 88 receiving yards. The following week, Owens made his highly anticipated return to Philadelphia, where he played against his former teammate, Donovan McNabb. Upon his return, Owens was met by a hail of angry jeers and taunts, including chants of "O.D." throughout the game. Despite pregame talk about a weak Eagles secondary, Owens struggled throughout the game. Owens had three catches for 45 yards, while the Cowboys went on to lose, 38–24. After the Cowboys defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 38–28, owner Jerry Jones revealed that Owens had injured a tendon on the same finger that he had broken earlier in the season. The doctors recommended season-ending surgery, but Owens elected to risk permanent damage to his finger and decided to wait until the end of the season to repair the damage. "There's no question about what he's willing to do for his team", Jones said. Owens led the league in regular season with 13 touchdown receptions. On March 1, 2007, he underwent surgery twice to repair his right ring finger. In the 2007 season, Owens and the Cowboys began to live up to their potential. On November 18, Owens set a new career high and tied a franchise record, with four touchdown catches against the Washington Redskins. With his touchdown catch against Green Bay on November 29, Owens became the first player in NFL history with at least one touchdown catch and six receptions in seven straight games. Also with this win, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive season, making this the third time Owens would participate in back-to-back postseasons. Owens was one of the starting wide receivers to represent the NFC in the Pro Bowl along with Arizona Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald. On January 9, Owens made the All-Pro team along with teammates Jason Witten and DeMarcus Ware. On December 22 in a Week 16 game against the Carolina Panthers, Owens caught his 15th touchdown catch of the season to set a new Cowboys record for touchdown catches in a season. During this game, however, Owens suffered a high ankle sprain after making a catch in the second quarter, which kept him out of the rest of the regular season. Owens was leading the league in receiving yards and was second in receiving touchdowns at the time. He finished the season with 81 receptions, 15 touchdowns, and 1,355 receiving yards, as the team finished 13-3 and clinched the NFC's top seed. Owens returned for the divisional playoff game against the Giants, where he caught four passes for 49 yards and a touchdown. The Cowboys lost the game, however, 21-17 and Owens broke down crying during the postgame press conference in a now-infamous incident. In the 2008 Pro Bowl, Owens caught seven passes for 101 yards and two touchdowns in an NFC win. Despite his efforts, Minnesota Vikings rookie running back Adrian Peterson was named MVP. In the Cowboys' second game of the season, the last Monday Night game at Texas Stadium, Owens passed Cris Carter to move to second in touchdowns behind former teammate Jerry Rice. The Cowboys released Owens on March 4, 2009. Owens later said that Jones had assured him that he would be remaining with the team and that he was blindsided by his release. Buffalo Bills On March 8, 2009, the Buffalo Bills signed Owens to a 1-year, $6.5 million contract. Owens had his first catch with the Bills when he had a 27-yard play on a 3rd-and-1 in the 25–24 loss to the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium. With that catch, he passed former Bills receiver Andre Reed on the all-time Top 20 career leaders list for pass receptions. Owens debuted with two catches for 45 yards in the game. Owens caught his first touchdown pass with Buffalo in a 33–20 win over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on September 20, 2009. However, the following week, Owens was held without a catch against the New Orleans Saints, ending a 185-game streak of consecutive games with a catch that was the longest streak among active players at the time. Owens had his best game with the Bills in a 15–18 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, with nine receptions for 197 yards and a touchdown. Owens and Ryan Fitzpatrick set a Bills record for longest touchdown reception when Fitzpatrick connected with Owens for a 98-yard TD, which also became Owens' longest career touchdown reception. He also became the oldest player to have a touchdown reception of more than 76 yards (35 years, 350 days). Against the Atlanta Falcons in week 16, Owens became the sixth player to reach 1,000 receptions in a career after catching an 8-yard pass from Brian Brohm. He finished his lone season with Buffalo with 55 catches for 829 yards and 5 receiving touchdowns, and also rushed 6 times for 54 yards and a touchdown. Cincinnati Bengals On July 27, 2010, Owens signed a one-year contract with the Cincinnati Bengals. It was reportedly worth $2 million, with another $2 million possible from bonuses. He joined Carson Palmer and Chad Johnson, both of whom lobbied for the Bengals to sign Owens. With the retirement of Isaac Bruce, Owens spent his last active season in the NFL as the active career leader in receiving yards. He received his customary number, #81, given to him by free-agent acquisition wide receiver Antonio Bryant in exchange for an undisclosed sum of money, some of which went to a charity of Bryant's choice. Against the Cleveland Browns in Week4, he had a spectacular game with ten receptions, 222 yards and a touchdown of 78 yards. On December 21, Owens was placed on injured reserve, for the first time in his 15-year career. He still managed to lead all Bengals' receivers (including Ochocinco) with receptions (72), yards (983), and touchdowns (9) for the season. However, the Bengals fell from a 10–6 record the year before Owens joined to a 4–12 record with Owens. The Bengals decided not to re-sign Owens for the 2011 season. He suffered a torn ACL during the 2011 offseason and underwent surgery in April 2011. According to his agent, he was cleared to play again on October 19. He held a televised workout on October 25, which no NFL teams chose to attend. Allen Wranglers On November 2, 2011, the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League announced they had extended a six-figure contract offer to Owens to play for the Wranglers in the 2012 season. On January 18, 2012, Owens announced via Twitter that he had accepted the Wranglers' offer and joined their ownership group, with an official press conference to follow the following week. In his debut for the Wranglers, Owens caught three passes for 53 yards and three touchdowns as the Wranglers defeated the Wichita Wild 50–30. His statistics were: eight games played; 35 catches; 420 yards; 52.5 yards per game; 12 yards per catch; 45 longest catch; and ten touchdowns. On May 29, 2012, Owens was released. The Wranglers' co-owners stated Owens was released for showing a lack of effort both on and off the field. Seattle Seahawks On August 6, 2012, Owens signed a one-year, $925,000 contract with the Seattle Seahawks. On August 26, 2012, Owens announced on his Twitter account that the Seahawks had released him. Possible NFL comeback On January 13, 2015, in an interview with Sports Illustrated Now, Owens stated that he had not retired and that, after a hiatus, he had trained with numerous NFL players during the 2014 NFL season and the offseason. He did not state when he planned to return to the NFL. Flag football On June 28, 2017, Owens played as team captain for Team Owens in the inaugural game for the newly formed American Flag Football League. Canadian Football League On June 19, 2018, the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) added Owens to their negotiation list. On July 14, Owens activated his 10-day signing window with the Eskimos, requiring the team to offer him a contract in ten days, else he would've become a CFL free agent and be eligible to sign with any of the eight other CFL teams. On July 20, 2018 the Eskimos dropped Owens from their negotiation list. On August 5, 2018, a day after his Hall of Fame induction, Owens worked out for the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Personal life Owens is the father of two daughters and two sons, by four different mothers. In September 2011, Owens was sued by Melanie Paige Smith III, the mother of his daughter, for failure to pay child support, but the case was settled prior to trial. Owens insisted that the reason for the missed child support payments was due to his wages decreasing in the NFL and Smith was aware of his circumstances. On a May 8, 2012 episode of Dr. Phil, three of the four mothers to his children accused Owens of either coming up short in his monthly child support payments or not paying at all. Owens said he was paying some $45,000 per month in child support at one time. Controversies Desperate Housewives skit On November 15, 2004, Owens, wearing a Philadelphia Eagles uniform, appeared with popular television actress Nicollette Sheridan (of the ABC series Desperate Housewives in character as Edie Britt) in an introductory skit which opened that evening's Monday Night Football telecast, in which Owens and the Eagles played the Cowboys at Texas Stadium. Some observers (especially then-Indianapolis Colts coach Tony Dungy) condemned the skit as being sexually suggestive because of Sheridan removing a towel, and ABC later apologized for airing it. However, on March 14, 2005, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that the skit did not violate decency standards, because it contained no outright nudity or foul language. 2006 Hydrocodone overdose Some media outlets in Dallas reported on the morning of September 27, 2006, that Owens had tried to kill himself by intentionally ingesting an overdose of hydrocodone, a pain medication. A police report filed on the night of September 26 seemed to confirm the attempt, saying that Owens's publicist, Kim Etheredge, found him unresponsive with an empty bottle of pain killers, pried two pills from his mouth, and called 9-1-1, after which an ambulance transported him four blocks from his Deep Ellum condo to Baylor University Medical Center. According to the police report, Owens and Etheredge both said he was depressed, and Owens answered "yes" when asked whether he had intended to harm himself. Owens' publicist, however, refuted the report, stating that Owens had suffered an allergic reaction to the medication combined with a dietary supplement. ESPN reported that about half the police report was blacked out, but included the phrases "attempting suicide by prescription pain medication" and "a drug overdose". Owens left the hospital later on September 27. At a news conference after his release, Owens denied having made a suicide attempt, stating that he expected to join the team for practice the next morning. He stated that he was "not depressed" and was "very happy to be here", and denied that doctors had pumped his stomach, calling speculation to that effect "definitely untrue". The press conference took place after Owens had run routes and caught passes with the Cowboys at the team's practice facility in Valley Ranch. Afterwards, Owens' publicist stated that she felt the police had taken advantage of Owens. The president of the union representing Dallas police officers subsequently demanded an apology from Owens and his publicist for her comments, which he said damaged the reputations of three patrolmen. On Thursday, September 28, the Dallas Police Department reported the incident to be an "accidental overdose" and ended their investigation. The pain medication Owens had ingested had been prescribed to him for a broken finger he had suffered in a Week2 victory against the Washington Redskins. Bill Parcells had noted in a press conference a few days before the incident that the medication Owens had been taking had made him sick, and he had been prescribed a milder pain killer. Spitting incident After the December 16, 2006, game against the Atlanta Falcons, Falcons cornerback DeAngelo Hall stated that Owens spat in his face after a play early in the game. Game officials and reporters were unaware of the incident and Owens was not asked about it until his post-game interview with the NFL Network, when he confirmed it. Owens said, "I got frustrated and I apologize for that. It was a situation where he kept hugging me and getting in my face. He had a lot of words, I didn't. I just wanted to come and prove I’m not a guy to be schemed with." Hall said that he lost all respect for Owens. When made aware that Hall was saying Owens did it deliberately, Owens said that it was an accident that occurred while they were in each other's face, talking trash. Despite no video evidence, the NFL fined Owens $35,000 for the incident. After initially refusing to take a phone call from Owens, Hall was convinced by Deion Sanders to speak with Owens two days after the incident and later stated that they "cleared it all out." Hall of Fame Owens was not voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first two years of eligibility, despite being statistically ranked near the top of every receiving category in the history of the NFL. Commentators attributed Owens' exclusion to his issues off the field. In 2018, Owens was voted into the Hall of Fame. He subsequently caused controversy in his induction by skipping the official celebration in Canton, Ohio, and instead choosing to host his own celebration in McKenzie Arena on the campus of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, his alma mater. Owens is the only inductee of the hall to skip his induction and instead host a separate induction ceremony. Touchdown celebrations During his playing career, Owens attracted attention for his flamboyant celebrations after scoring touchdowns, some of which resulted in fines from the NFL front office. Celebrations for San Francisco On September 24, 2000, in Dallas, Owens twice sprinted to midfield after scoring touchdowns and stood on the Dallas Cowboys' star logo. The second time, Cowboys safety George Teague leveled him at midfield, which started a confrontation between the two teams. Teague was ejected from the game, while Owens was suspended for a week by head coach Steve Mariucci. During a Monday Night Football game against the Seattle Seahawks on October 14, 2002, Owens pulled a Sharpie marker out of his sock to sign the football he caught to score a touchdown, and then gave the ball to his financial adviser, who happened to also be the financial adviser of Shawn Springs, who was covering Owens on the play. He was criticized by Seahawks head coach Mike Holmgren for the stunt, but was not punished by the 49ers or the NFL. However, in the wake of the highly publicized incident, the league immediately adopted a new rule banning players from carrying "foreign objects" with them on the field. Celebrations for Philadelphia The "Bird Dance", "The Bird", or "Wing Flap" became T.O.'s trademark dance with the Eagles. T.O. did the "Bird Dance" frequently during the 2004 season after a big play or touchdown. His touchdown celebration was mocked by Hines Ward in the Eagles' first loss of the season at Pittsburgh. After scoring on a reverse, Ward flexed and began flapping his arms like a bird. Owens imitated and mocked the trademark pre-game ritual dance of Baltimore Ravens linebacker Ray Lewis after scoring a touchdown while playing against the Ravens in the 2004 season. Celebrations for Dallas On the Thanksgiving Day game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 23, 2006, Owens, after catching a pass for a touchdown, dropped the ball in an oversized Salvation Army Red Kettle, donating the ball to the Salvation Army. About the touchdown celebration, Owens was quoted as saying, "That was my donation. I hope it's worth as much as the fine." On September 16, 2007, Owens mocked Bill Belichick after catching a touchdown against the Miami Dolphins, by hiding behind a field goal post and holding the football to his face in a video camera fashion, as if secretly spying and filming the game. The Cowboys were penalized 15 yards for "excessive celebration". On September 19, 2007, the league fined Owens $7,500 for the celebration. On November 4, 2007, against his former team, the Philadelphia Eagles, Owens flapped his wings, mimicking the dance he did while with the Eagles. This, coupled with Owens' tumultuous stay with the Eagles and his subsequent tenure with the Cowboys (an Eagles division rival), earned the boos of the crowd. After the game, Owens was quoted as saying, "There's a lot of love in those boos." NFL career statistics Regular season NFL records and career notables NFL records Only player in NFL history to score a TD against all 32 NFL teams Only player in NFL history to score two or more touchdowns against all 32 NFL teams Only player in NFL history to have an 800-yard receiving season with five different teams (Cincinnati Bengals, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, San Francisco 49ers) Only player in NFL history to have a 150-yard receiving game with five different teams (Bengals, Bills, Cowboys, Eagles, 49ers) Only player in NFL history to have a 200-yard receiving game with three different teams (Bengals, Cowboys, 49ers) Oldest player to accumulate 200 combined yards/receiving yards/yards from scrimmage in a single game (36 years, 300 days) Consecutive seasons with at least six touchdowns, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Jerry Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least five touchdown receptions, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Cris Carter 1991–2001, Tim Brown 1991–2001, Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least five touchdowns, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Frank Gore 2006–2016, Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Cris Carter 1991–2001, Tim Brown 1991–2001, Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least four touchdown receptions, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least four touchdowns, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least three touchdown receptions, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least three touchdowns, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least 700 receiving yards/yards from scrimmage/combined yards 1996–2010 (15) - tied with Tony Gonzalez, 1999-2013 One of seven players to have at least two receptions of more than 90 yards (John Taylor, Mike Quick, Gaynell Tinsley, Steve Watson, Willard Dewveall, and Mike Wallace) One of twelve players to have at least two offensive TDs of more than 90 yards 49ers franchise records Most receptions in a single game: 20 (12/17/00 vs Chicago Bears) (Week 15) Most receiving yards on a Sunday game: 283 (12/17/00 vs Bears) (Week 15) Eagles franchise records Most receiving touchdowns in a single season: 14 (2004) Most receiving yards per game, season: 109.0 (2005) 763 in seven games. Cowboys franchise records Most consecutive games with a receiving touchdown: seven (2007). Record shared with Franklin Clarke (1961–1962), Bob Hayes (1965–1966) and Dez Bryant (2012) Most touchdown receptions in a single game: four (11/18/07 vs Washington Redskins). Record shared with Bob Hayes (12/20/70) Most receiving yards per game, career: 76.3 (2006–2008) Bills franchise records Longest reception: 98 yard TD (11/22/09 vs Jacksonville Jaguars) (Week 11) Longest play from scrimmage: 98 yard TD reception (11/22/09 vs Jaguars) (Week 11) Bengals franchise records Most combined yards/receiving yards/yards from scrimmage in a single game by a player over age 30: 222 (10/3/10 vs Cleveland Browns) (Week4) Career milestones 5th player to reach 150 touchdowns 6th player to reach 1,000 career receptions, 6th player to reach 100 touchdown receptions, 6th player to reach 14,000 receiving yards 3rd player to reach 150 touchdown receptions, 3rd player to reach 15,000 receiving yards Through 15 seasons, has 156 total touchdowns (153 receiving), 15,934 receiving yards, 1,078 receptions, 39 rushing attempts, 251 rushing yards, three rushing touchdowns, five kickoff returns, 23 kickoff return yards, five fumble recoveries, 13 fumble return yards, and three two-point conversions Averaged one touchdown per game in 2001, 2004, and 2007 Has had nine 1,000 yard seasons, including five consecutive (2000–2004) Reached 100 catches in only 14 games in 2002 Led League in receiving touchdowns in 2001, 2002, and 2006 Third all-time in regular season receiving touchdowns behind Jerry Rice and Randy Moss Third all-time in regular season receiving yards behind Rice and Larry Fitzgerald. Eighth all-time in regular season receptions behind Rice, Tony Gonzalez, Marvin Harrison, Cris Carter, Tim Brown, Larry Fitzgerald, and Jason Witten Other work Owens is depicted in a photographic work by contemporary African-American artist Hank Willis Thomas entitled Liberation of T.O.: Ain't no way I'm go'n in back ta'work fa'massa in dat darn field (2004). The work was featured in "Frequency", the Studio Museum in Harlem's 2006 exhibition of emerging artists. Owens rapped in a single titled "I'm Back", available for download on his website. Outside of his football career, Owens also appeared in various commercials, television shows, and films. Owens played himself, as a wide receiver wearing #82 for the fictional Miami Sharks, in the 1999 film Any Given Sunday. In 2003, he appeared in a commercial for the ESPY Awards where he caught a home run ball from Barry Bonds in McCovey Cove. Owens appeared in an episode of Punk'd, starring Ashton Kutcher, which is based on his November 19, 2005 suspension. In August 2008, Owens was featured in the pilot episode of the web series FACETIME, on My Damn Channel. He and Three 6 Mafia interview each other in the episode. He starred in a summer 2009 reality show on VH1, dubbed The T.O. Show; the show followed Owens and his "best friends and publicists" as they re-evaluated Owens' personal life. Owens appeared in the NBA All-Star celebrity game again in 2009 scoring 17 points including two alley-oops, to secure his second consecutive MVP award. In June 2009, Owens starred in ABC's reincarnation of Superstars, a sports competition show from the 70s where celebrities are paired with professional athletes. The first episode is rumored to have ended in controversy, as evidenced by a leaked clip of partner supermodel Joanna Krupa calling Owens a "prima donna". As a one-time rating sweeps week stunt, Owens replaced WKBW-TV sports anchor Jeff Russo for their 6:00p.m. newscast on May 18, 2009. On May 8, 2012, Owens appeared on Dr. Phil with the mothers of three of his children to discuss relationships. In 2013, NBC Sports reported that Owens has become a model. In 2014, Owens made a cameo appearance in R&B singer Faith Evans' music video "I Deserve It", featuring Missy Elliott and Sharaya J. In 2015 Owens participated in The Celebrity Apprentice 7, finishing in 12th place. On September 5, 2017, Owens was announced as one of the celebrities set to compete on season 25 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke and was the eighth contestant eliminated. In 2017, Owens competed on the special for the MTV reality series The Challenge titled Champs vs. Stars. In May 2018, it was announced that Owens would be featured on the cover of the "Hall of Fame" edition of Madden NFL 19. An avid bowler, Owens has twice won Chris Paul's CP3 PBA Celebrity Invitational, an annual televised event in which celebrities and PBA Tour professionals team up to benefit the Chris Paul Family Foundation. Owens won in 2016 with Pete Weber, and again in 2021 with AJ Johnson. Owens has also won the Celebrity Clash at this event twice, in 2018 and 2021. The T.O. Show In the summer of 2009, VH1 premiered The T.O. Show, which followed Owens in his personal life off the football field. The show was renewed for two additional seasons. Time Out with T.O. In September 2013, Owens launched a podcast on the Sideshow Network with co-hosts comedian Alonzo Bodden and former-Survivor contestant and podcast host, Rob Cesternino. Shows are released each Wednesday and the discussion centers on the week's NFL games and news. Comedian Roy Wood, Jr. has been a regular guest. Guests have been from both the sports and the entertainment worlds. Some of them were: Ron Artest, Ray J, comic Sam Tripoli, and writer Caleb Bacon. See also T.O.'s Honey Toasted Oats, Honey Nut Toasted Oats breakfast cereal named after Owens. References External links Cincinnati Bengals bio Seattle Seahawks bio Time Out with T.O. (Podcast) 1973 births Living people African-American basketball players African-American male models African-American models American male models African-American players of American football Allen Wranglers players American football wide receivers Basketball players from Alabama American men's basketball players Buffalo Bills players Chattanooga Mocs men's basketball players Chattanooga Mocs football players Cincinnati Bengals players Dallas Cowboys players National Conference Pro Bowl players People from Moorestown, New Jersey People from Alexander City, Alabama Philadelphia Eagles players Players of American football from Alabama Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees San Francisco 49ers players Seattle Seahawks players The Challenge (TV series) contestants The Apprentice (franchise) contestants 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American sportspeople 10,000 receiving yards club

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20City%20Marathon

New York City Marathon

The New York City Marathon (currently branded TCS New York City Marathon after its headline sponsor) is an annual marathon () that courses through the five boroughs of New York City. It is the largest marathon in the world, with 53,627 finishers in 2019 and 98,247 applicants for the 2017 race. Along with the Boston Marathon and Chicago Marathon, it is among the pre-eminent long-distance annual running events in the United States and is one of the World Marathon Majors. The race is organized by New York Road Runners and has been run every year since 1970, with the exception of 2012, when it was cancelled due to the landfall of Hurricane Sandy, and 2020, when it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The race is held on the first Sunday of November and attracts professional competitors and amateurs from all over the world. Because of the popularity of the race, participation is chosen largely by a lottery system. Guaranteed entry to the marathon can be gained by satisfying the requirements of the 9+1 program or the 9+$1K program (where NYRR members run in nine sponsored races and either volunteer at another event or donate $1,000 to support NYRR programs for young athletes), having completed 15 or more previous NYC Marathons, or meeting time qualification standards. In addition, runners can gain an entry by joining a team to raise funds for one of a number of charities. History The first New York City Marathon was held on September 13, 1970, organized by New York Road Runners presidents Fred Lebow and Vincent Chiappetta, with 127 competitors running several loops around the Park Drive of Central Park. Only about 100 spectators watched Gary Muhrcke win the race in 2:31:38. In fact, a total of only 55 runners crossed the finish line. Over the years, the marathon grew larger and larger. To celebrate the U.S. bicentennial in 1976, city auditor George Spitz proposed that the race traverse all five boroughs. With the support of Manhattan Borough President Percy Sutton, the men convinced Mayor Abraham Beame and, eventually, race director Fred Lebow. The race was a huge success, and what was intended as a one-time celebration, became the annual course. Dick Traum became the first person to complete a marathon with a prosthetic leg when he finished the 1976 New York City Marathon. The marathon grew in popularity two years later when Norwegian Grete Waitz broke the women's world record, finishing in 2:32:30. She went on to win the race an unprecedented nine times. An official wheelchair and handcycle division was introduced in 2000, and starting in 2002, the elite women are given a 35-minute head start before the elite men and rest of the field. Beginning in 1976, the race was run in late October and continued to be held in late October until 1986, when the race day was moved to November. The earliest race day was the marathon's first; the latest date in the season of the marathon was November 14, 1993. The hottest year for the race was 1979, when the race day of October 21 reached 80 °F (27 °C). The coldest race was in 1995, when the race day of November 12 only reached 43 °F (6 °C), with a strong wind chill. The New York City Marathon has now become the largest marathon anywhere in the world. Each year nearly two million spectators line the course. Prior to 2013, the marathon was broadcast live in the New York area on WNBC, and on Universal Sports for the entire country, However, in 2013, WABC-TV and ESPN announced they would begin broadcasting the New York City Marathon. The Marathon can also be watched online. Course Initial course The race was founded by Fred Lebow. Ted Corbitt helped plan the course of the New York City Marathon. The initial course of 1970 consisted of repeated racing around Central Park. As per Ted Corbitt, who measured the original course: The final measurements of the original New York City Marathon course, Manhattan’s Central Park, were done the evening of September 8, 1970, after work and training day, using the Calibrated Bicycle Method of Measuring. The course consisted of a start-up, out and back loop of 0.79 mile, from W. 67th St. and Central Park West, near the Tavern-on-the-Green Restaurant, up to the 72nd St. and the West Drive intersection and return to the Tavern-on-the Green followed by a loop of 1.695 miles; then four 5.935 mile loops, totaling 26.225 miles (11 yards over distance), ending at the Tavern-on-the Green Restaurant. Five borough course From 1976, the course covers all five boroughs of New York City. It begins on Staten Island, in Fort Wadsworth, near the approach to the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge. The bridge, which normally carries only vehicular traffic, is closed for the event. Runners use both sides of the upper level of the bridge and the westbound side of the lower level. In the opening minutes of the race, the bridge is filled with runners, creating a dramatic spectacle that is closely associated with the event. After descending the bridge, the course winds through Brooklyn, mostly along Fourth Avenue and Bedford Avenue, for approximately the next . Runners pass through a variety of neighborhoods, including: Bay Ridge, Sunset Park, Park Slope, Bedford–Stuyvesant, Williamsburg, and Greenpoint. At , runners cross the Pulaski Bridge, marking the halfway point of the race and the entrance into Long Island City in Queens. After about in Queens, runners cross the East River via the lower level of the Queensboro (59th Street) Bridge into Manhattan. It is at this point in the race when many runners begin to tire, as the climb up the bridge is considered one of the most difficult points in the marathon. Reaching Manhattan after about , the race proceeds north on First Avenue, then crosses into The Bronx via the Willis Avenue Bridge. The race is only in The Bronx for one mile before returning to Manhattan as the course follows East 138th St. before crossing the Madison Avenue Bridge. It then proceeds south through Harlem down Fifth Avenue and into Central Park at East 90th St. At the southern end of the park, the race proceeds west along 59th St./Central Park South, where thousands of spectators cheer runners on during the last mile. At Columbus Circle, the race reenters the park and finishes beside Tavern on the Green. The time limit for this course is 8½ hours from the 10:10 a.m. start. Corrals and timing In 2008, the race initiated a corral system. Professional women runners were given a separate, earlier start and the balance of the runners began in three staggered starts. The official times are those recorded by a computer chip attached to the back of the runner's bib number, which calculates when a runner crosses the start and when she crosses the finish, known as "net time" (as opposed to "gun time"). Runners also pass timing mats at 5 km intervals along the course, and e-mail notifications can be received by people following runners during the race to track their progress. Although the marathon publicity material uses miles, the timing mats are at 5 km intervals to accommodate the publishing of splits and also enabling potential world records for 20 km, 30 km and other sub-marathon distances to be recorded. Different initial routes Although there are three different routes taken through Bay Ridge and up Fourth Avenue in Brooklyn, all the routes eventually merge at Lafayette Avenue in Brooklyn at Mile 8, and the distance covered by the runners are the same. A runner's bib will have a color (green, orange, or blue) showing the initial route that they are assigned to, with each color having its own start village and corrals in the staging area. Past marathons 1970s 1970 On September 13, 1970, Gary Muhrcke won the first New York City Marathon held in Central Park in 2:31:38. 127 runners started the race and 55 finished. Nina Kuscsik, the sole woman entrant in the race, dropped out at 15 miles due to illness. 1972 Nina Kuscsik, Pat Barrett, Lynn Blackstone, Liz Franceschini, Cathy Miller, and Jane Muhrke protested the rule of the Amateur Athletic Union that women marathoners had to start their race ten minutes before or after the men, which as implemented by the New York City Marathon in 1972 meant that women had to start running ten minutes before the men. The women protested by sitting down and waiting ten minutes while holding signs protesting the rule, before starting to run when the men started; they became known as the NYC Six due to their protest. Ten minutes were added to their times. Kuscsik won the marathon. The ten minutes’ difference requirement was dropped later in 1972. 1974 On September 29, 1974, Norbert Sander and Kathrine Switzer became the only New York City residents to win the New York City Marathon, Sander winning in 2:26:30 and Switzer the women's division in 3:07:29. Future four-time NYC Marathon champion Bill Rodgers placed fifth in 2:36:00 out of 259 finishers (250 men, 9 women). 1976 After being run in Central Park from 1970 to 1975, this edition of the marathon traversed all five boroughs for the first time. There were 2,090 entrants and 1,549 finishers. Bill Rodgers, who finished 40th in the 1976 Olympic Games marathon in 2:25:14, came back to win the NYC Marathon in a course record 2:10:10. He beat 1976 Olympic marathon silver medalist Frank Shorter who finished second by more than three minutes, Shorter clocking 2:13:12. 41-year-old Miki Gorman was the first woman in 2:39:11, also a course record. 1977 Bill Rodgers and Miki Gorman were the top male and female finishers, as they had been the previous year, Rodgers winning in 2:11:28 and Gorman in 2:43:10. 1978 Bill Rodgers won his third consecutive New York City Marathon in 2:12:12 on a warm day. Grete Waitz, the Norwegian long-distance runner, set a new course record for women at 2:32:30 to win the first of a record nine New York Marathons. The New York Road Runners club annually sponsors "Grete's Great Gallop," a 10 kilometer race around the Central Park loop, in her honor. 1979 For the first time in NYC Marathon history, over 10,000 runners (10,477) completed the race. Bill Rodgers won his fourth and last New York City Marathon on another warm day in 2:11:42, overtaking Kirk Pfeffer who led for the first 23 1/2 miles of the race. Grete Waitz again won the women's race with a finish time of 2:27:33, becoming the first woman ever to break 2:30. In a normally trivial mistake, Rosie Ruiz was accidentally given a finish time of 2:56:29. This qualified her for the 1980 Boston Marathon, where she crossed the finish line with a record time of 2:31:56. It was quickly determined that she had not run the entire course in either race, igniting a major scandal. New York Marathon chief Fred Lebow rescinded Ruiz's time after determining she had not finished the 1979 race, and officials in Boston quickly followed suit. 1980s 1980 Alberto Salazar, an NCAA cross-country champion, won the 1980 New York City Marathon in 2:09:41. At the time this was the fastest marathon debut by an American. His performance was also a course record. He would defend his title in 1981 and 1982. Grete Waitz won her third straight NYC Marathon in 2:25:42, also setting the course record in the women's division. 1981 Alberto Salazar's 2:08:13 was initially considered to be a world's best in the marathon, but the mark was later rescinded by The Athletics Congress (now known as USA Track & Field) when the course was measured to be short by approximately . Salazar remarked in 1985 that he would continue to believe that he ran a full marathon, since the lack of crowd control forced him to run wide during his turns. He has also suggested that a change in how courses were measured after the 1981 race contributed to the discrepancy in the course length. 1983 England's Geoff Smith held a lead through the last half of the race, but was caught at the 26 mile mark in Central Park by 1972 Olympic 1500 metres bronze medalist Rod Dixon from New Zealand, who won by 9 seconds. Dixon had been two and a half minutes behind with 10 km to go. Dixon stood at the finish line celebrating with a collapsed and defeated Smith on the ground behind him. 1984 Orlando Pizzolato won on a hot day, stopping six times due to heat cramps, but still winning by over a minute in 2:14:53. This was the slowest winning time since 1976 when the New York City Marathon became a world class event. Grete Waitz won her sixth marathon in 2:29:30. 1985 Orlando Pizzolato and Grete Waitz both repeated their previous year's victories. Pizzolato won in easier fashion than in 1984, in 2:11:34. Waitz took her seventh win in 2:28:06. 1986 This year's marathon was held in November (November 2) for the first time and has been ever since. Gianni Poli of Italy won in 2:11:06, the third year in a row that the men's winner was from Italy. Grete Waitz won for the eighth time in 2:28:06. 1987 Ibrahim Hussein of Kenya won the NYC Marathon in 2:11:01, the first man from Africa to do so. Priscilla Welch of Great Britain won in 2:30:17, while eight-time champion Grete Waitz did not compete. 1988 Steve Jones of the United Kingdom won in 2:08:20, the first British man to do so. Grete Waitz won her ninth and last NYC Marathon in 2:28:07. 1990s 1990 Douglas Wakiihuri of Kenya won this year's event in 2:12:39, the second-slowest time since 1976 when the marathon became a world class event. Wanda Panfil of Poland was the top woman in 2:30:45. She is the only woman to date from Poland to win this event. Grete Waitz, attempting to win her 10th NYC Marathon, finished fourth in 2:34:34 and then retired from competitive distance running. 1992 Grete Waitz completed her last New York Marathon with her friend and race co-founder, Fred Lebow, in celebration of Lebow's 60th birthday. Lebow had been diagnosed with brain cancer and died two years later in 1994. They both completed the race with a time of 5:32:35. Waitz also died of cancer in 2011. The men's winner of this year's marathon was Willie Mtolo of South Africa in 2:09:29. Lisa Ondieki of Australia was the women's winner in 2:24:40, a course record that would last for nine years. 1994 During the 1994 event, Germán Silva recovered from a wrong turn seven-tenths of a mile before the finish that put him temporarily in second place 40 yards behind Benjamín Paredes. He ran a 5:15 final mile, including the detour, to beat Paredes and win the event by two seconds with a time of 2:11:21. The incident earned him the nickname "Wrong Way Silva" 1995 To date, this event was the coldest NYC Marathon ever (1979 was the warmest, topping out at 80 degrees). The temperature at race time was 40 degrees and only went up a few degrees as the race progressed. Wind gusts between 30-45 mph produced a wind chill factor in the upper 20s. Both male and female winners repeated their 1994 victories. Germán Silva of Mexico was victorious in 2:11:00. Tegla Loroupe of Kenya won the women's race in 2:28:06. Loroupe had become the first woman from Africa to win the NYC Marathon the previous year. 1997 The total number of finishers exceeded 30,000 (30,427) for the first time. John Kagwe of Kenya won the men's race in 2:08:12, while Franziska Rochat-Moser from Switzerland was the first woman in 2:28:43. 2000s 2000 The 2000 NYC Marathon included the wheelchair division for men and women for the first time. Prize money was added in 2001. Abdelkader El Mouaziz of Morocco won the men's race in 2:10:09, becoming the first Moroccan man to take the title. Lyudmila Petrova of Russia was the first woman in 2:25:45, the first woman from Russia to win the event. 2001 The 2001 NYC Marathon took place on November 4, less than two months after the September 11 attacks. Tesfaye Jifar of Ethiopia set a new course record of 2:07:43, a mark that stood until Geoffrey Mutai broke it in 2011. On the women's side, Margaret Okayo of Kenya won, setting a new course record of 2:24:21. She would set another new record two years later that still stands. 2003 A record 34,729 people participated in the race. The top male finisher was Martin Lel of Kenya in a time of 2:10:30. The top female finisher was Margaret Okayo of Kenya in time of 2:22:31, breaking her previous course record of 2:24:21 set in 2001. In recent years, runners from Kenya have dominated the event. The top Americans were Matt Downin (2:18:48) and Sylvia Mosqueda (2:33:10), both from California. Rapper P.Diddy also ran for charity and raised $2,000,000 for the New York City Education system. 2004 The top female finisher was Britain's Paula Radcliffe in a time of 2:23:10, beating Kenya's Susan Chepkemei by 4 seconds, the closest finish up to that time. The men's winner was Hendrik Ramaala of South Africa with a time of 2:09:28. The top Americans were Meb Keflezighi (2nd, 2:09:53) from California and Jenny Crain (15th, 2:41:06), from Wisconsin. 2005 In the closest finish in New York City Marathon history, Paul Tergat of Kenya barely outsprinted Hendrick Ramaala of South Africa in the final meters of the race for a time of 2:09:30, beating Ramaala by one second. In the women's race, Jeļena Prokopčuka of Latvia won in a time of 2:24:41. Top amongst the Americans were Meb Keflezighi of California (2:09:56) and Jen Rhines of California (2:37:07). South African Ernst Van Dyk took the wheelchair race in 1:31:11. The 2005 event was administered by new NYRR CEO Mary Wittenberg, the first woman director of an international Major marathon. 2006 The top male finisher was Marílson Gomes dos Santos of Brazil in a time of 2:09:58, while Jeļena Prokopčuka of Latvia won the female marathon for the second consecutive time in 2:25:05. Gomes dos Santos became the first South American ever to win the race. Stephen Kiogora of Kenya placed second, and Paul Tergat, the 2005 defending champion and former marathon world record holder, placed third. Former American professional road racing cyclist and triathlete Lance Armstrong ran in the 2006 race, finishing 868th with a time of 2:59:36. He also ran the same year in the British 10K. Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee also completed the race in 2006, finishing in 5:33:43, and wearing bib #110, signifying the 110 pounds lost during his weight loss campaign. Amanda McGrory won the female wheelchair race in a time of 1:54:17, while the male wheelchair division was won by Kurt Fearnley in a time of 1:29:22. 2007 The 2007 race was held on Sunday, November 4. It was the final race of the 2006–2007 World Marathon Majors, a two-year series of elite marathon racing that also included the Boston, Chicago, London and Berlin marathons. However, there were very few elite American marathoners participating in 2007 because many had competed the day before at the 2008 USA Men's Olympic Marathon Trials, which was held in conjunction with the New York City Marathon on some of the same course. Martin Lel from Kenya won the men's race in a time of 2:09:04, completing a double of the 2007 London and New York Marathons. The women's winner was the world marathon record holder Paula Radcliffe from Great Britain in a time of 2:23:09, one second faster than her 2004 win. 2008 The 2008 New York City Marathon was held on Sunday, November 2. A field of 37,899 runners participated. The men's winner was Marílson Gomes dos Santos in 2:08:43. Paula Radcliffe won her third NYC marathon in 2:23:56. The 2008 marathon events saw the deaths of three marathon participants. Carlos Jose Gomes, 58, of Brazil fell unconscious shortly after completing the race in 4:12:15. An autopsy revealed that he had a preexisting heart condition and died of a heart attack. Joseph Marotta, 66, of Staten Island, N.Y. succumbed to a heart attack hours after he completed his fourth New York City Marathon. He walked the course in 9:16:46. Fred Costa, 41, from Cincinnati, OH collapsed at the marathon and died on November 15 of a heart attack. 2009 The 2009 New York City Marathon was held Sunday November 1, 2009. Meb Keflezighi of the United States won the men's race (the first American winner since Alberto Salazar in 1982) with a time of 2:09:15 while Ethiopian Derartu Tulu took the women's crown in 2:28:52, the first Ethiopian woman to do so. This was the first marathon in history with more than 40,000 official finishers, as 43,660 crossed the finish, 5,053 more than the previous best at the 2008 edition of this race. 2010s 2010 The 2010 New York City Marathon was held on November 7. Gebregziabher Gebremariam of Ethiopia, in his first ever marathon, won the race after breaking away from his last rival, Emmanuel Mutai of Kenya, in the 25th mile to finish in a time of 2:08:14. The race featured 37-year-old world record holder Haile Gebrselassie, who ran with a bad knee and dropped out of the race at the 16th mile. Afterwards, he announced his retirement, but later reversed this decision. Edna Kiplagat won the women's title with a time of 2 hours, 28 minutes, 20 seconds, ahead of American Shalane Flanagan. The total number of official finishers, 44,829 (28,757 men and 16,072 women) was a new world record for a marathon race. 2011 The 2011 Marathon was held on November 6. The men's event was won by Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya in a time of 2:05:05, breaking the 10-year-old course record. Second-place runner Emmanuel Mutai, also of Kenya, and third-place runner Tsegaye Kebede of Ethiopia also beat the previous record for the event, with times of 2:06:28 and 2:07:14, respectively. Geoffrey Mutai, who won the Boston Marathon earlier in the year, became the first man to win both races in course-record time in the same year. Firehiwot Dado of Ethiopia won the women's race in a time of 2:23:15, her first major marathon victory. Coming second, 4 seconds behind the leader originally from Ethiopia, but now living in the Bronx, was Bizunesh Deba with a time of 2:23:19. There were a world record 46,795 official finishers: 29,867 men and 16,928 women. Edison Peña, one of the miners who had been trapped in the 2010 Copiapó mining accident, ran the race. Former NHL player, Mark Messier, finished with a time of 4:14:21 at age 50. Retired Dutch soccer player Edwin van der Sar ran in 4:19 and said it was the toughest thing he had ever done. Former CART champion Alex Zanardi won the handcycle class. 2012 The 2012 marathon was scheduled for November 4, 2012. Organizers planned to hold the event despite the passage of Hurricane Sandy the week before. However, on November 2, 2012, the marathon was cancelled; Mayor Michael Bloomberg said that: "While holding the race would not require diverting resources from the recovery effort, it is clear that it has become the source of controversy and division... We would not want a cloud to hang over the race or its participants, and so we have decided to cancel it." Three days earlier, Bloomberg had said that the marathon would take place. That declaration started a debate on whether to hold the race with thousands of residents still without electricity, public transportation, and other basic needs. Proponents for going ahead said that the event would give an economic and morale boost to the city, while opponents said the resources (such as food, water, and police) were better used elsewhere. Some of the entrants ended up helping with cleanup efforts. Others chose to congregate and run an informal "Shadow Marathon" in Central Park. Controversy over the cancellation of the Marathon, the timing of the announcement and the repercussions of the decision, including criticism of New York Road Runners CEO Mary Wittenberg, continued well after the 2012 race was meant to have taken place. As a resolution, all who were registered to run the 2012 race were offered three options: a refund; guaranteed, non-complimentary entry to the New York City Marathon in 2013, 2014, or 2015; or guaranteed, non-complimentary entry to the NYC Half 2013. 2013 The 2013 New York City Marathon was run November 3, 2013. The race proved to be the clincher for the 2013 World Marathon Majors titles for both men and women. Duplicating their London Marathon wins from April 2013, Tsegaye Kebede and Priscah Jeptoo each won $500,000 for their season-wide efforts. After the 2012 cancellation, Geoffrey Mutai returned to become the first repeat winner in 15 years (after John Kagwe in 1997-1998). Under windy conditions, his 2:08:24 was more than 3 minutes slower than in 2011. Mutai broke away around mile 22 to win by almost a minute over Ethiopian Tsegaye Kebede, who had finished third two years earlier. Jeptoo spotted Buzunesh Deba, an Ethiopian runner who has lived in the Bronx since 2009, three and a half minutes at the half-marathon mark, but came back to pass her in the 24th mile. 2014 The 2014 New York City Marathon was run on Sunday, November 2, 2014. It was announced on October 2, 2013, that the marathon's main sponsor would be Tata Consultancy Services starting in 2014. It is an eight-year deal, and the race was renamed the TCS New York City Marathon. Wind was unusually high, blowing from the north on a mostly northbound course. Winners were Wilson Kipsang in 2:10:59 and Mary Keitany in 2:25:07. 2015 The 2015 New York City Marathon was run on Sunday, November 1, 2015. Winners were Stanley Biwott in 2:10:34 and Mary Keitany in 2:24:25. 2016 The 2016 New York City Marathon was run on Sunday, November 6. Ghirmay Ghebreslassie won the men's competition with a time of 2:07:51. The female race winner was Mary Keitany from Kenya in 2:24:26. The men's wheelchair race winner was Marcel Hug with a time of 1:35:49, and the women's wheelchair race winner was Tatyana McFadden with a time of 1:47:43. Lauren Lubin ran as the first openly non-binary athlete in the New York City Marathon. 2017 The 2017 TCS New York City Marathon was run on Sunday, November 5. Geoffrey Kamworor of Kenya won the men's competition with a time of 2:10:53, 3 seconds ahead of 2nd-place finisher Wilson Kipsang. In 3rd place was Lelisa Desisa with a time of 2:11:32. On the women's side, the winner was Shalane Flanagan, a native of Marblehead, Massachusetts. She was the first American to win since 1977. Her time was 2:26:53. Mary Keitany placed 2nd with 2:27:54, and Mamitu Daska finished 3rd with a time of 2:28:08. 2018 The 2018 TCS New York City Marathon was run on Sunday, November 4. Lelisa Desisa of Ethiopia won his first New York City Marathon after finishing third in 2017, third in 2015 and second in 2014, followed by Shura Kitata and defending champion Geoffrey Kamworor. Their times of 2:05:59, 2:06:01 and 2:06:26 were the second, third and fourth fastest times in race history. Mary Keitany was in a pack of women that passed halfway in 1:15:50 but then she ran the second 13.1 miles in 1:06:58, the fastest time ever for any second half of a marathon, to capture her fourth NYC crown in 2:22:48, the second fastest time ever there. London winner, Vivian Cheruiyot was second in 2:26:02 and American Shalane Flanagan placed third in 2:26:22, 31 seconds faster than her winning time the previous year. Once again there were a world record number of finishers, with 52,812 (30,669 men/22,143 women) runners completing the race. 2019 The 49th TCS New York City Marathon took place November 3. Joyciline Jepkosgei, of Kenya, won the women's marathon and Geoffrey Kamworor, also of Kenya, won the men's marathon. Jepkosgei was a first-time winner while Kamworor had won in 2017. Manuela Schär, of Switzerland, won the women's wheelchair competition and Daniel Romanchuk, of the United States, won the men's. The 2019 NYC Marathon set another world record for the number of finishers ever for a marathon with 53,627 runners crossing the finish line. 2020s 2020 The 2020 TCS New York City Marathon was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The following year's race will be the 50th running. It was the first cancellation in 8 years. Entrants were offered a refund, or guaranteed, complimentary entry to the New York City marathons in 2021, 2022 or 2023, or the 2022 NYC Half-Marathon. As the original event was cancelled, runners were able to compete in the virtual race between 17th October 2020 and 1st November 2020. Over 15,000 athletes took part. The male race was won by British athlete and Team Real Runners coach Kevin Quinn in a time of 2:23:48. The women's race was won by American professional athlete Stephanie Bruce in a time of 2:35:28. 2021 The 50th running of the New York City Marathon was held on November 7, 2021. The number of competitors was limited to 33,000 due to coronavirus pandemic precautions. References External links NYC Marathon Course Route NYC Marathon Course Elevation Profile New York City Marathon Weather History NYC Marathon Course Pace Wristband based on elevation 1970 establishments in New York City Annual events in New York City Annual sporting events in the United States Marathons in the United States November sporting events Recurring sporting events established in 1970 Sports in New York City World Marathon Majors Handcycling competitions Wheelchair marathons

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dari%C3%A9n%20Gap

Darién Gap

The Darién Gap (, , , ) is a geographic region between the North and South American continents within Central America, consisting of a large watershed, forest, and mountains in Panama's Darién Province and the northern portion of Colombia's Chocó Department. The "gap" in question is that of the Pan-American Highway, of which between Yaviza, Panama, and Turbo, Colombia, has not been built. Roadbuilding through this area is expensive and detrimental to the environment. Political consensus in favor of road construction collapsed after an initial attempt failed in the early 1970s, resuming in 1992 only to be halted by serious environmental concerns. As of 2022 there is no active plan to build the missing road. In the 2010s, thousands of migrants, primarily Haitian, crossed the Darién Gap en route to the United States. The hike is demanding and dangerous, with rape and robbery common, and there are numerous fatalities. The geography of the Darién Gap on the Colombian side is dominated primarily by the river delta of the Atrato River, which creates a flat marshland at least wide. The Serranía del Baudó range extends along Colombia's Pacific coast and into Panama. The Panamanian side, in stark contrast, is a mountainous rainforest, with terrain reaching from in the valley floors to at the tallest peak (Cerro Tacarcuna, in the Serranía del Darién). The Darién Gap is home to the Embera-Wounaan and Guna (as well as the Cueva before the 16th century). Travel is often conducted with specialized canoes (piraguas). On the Panamanian side, La Palma, the area's cultural center, is the capital of the province. Other population centers include Yaviza and El Real. The Darién Gap had a reported population of 8,000 in 1995 among five tribes. Maize, cassava, plantains, and bananas are staple crops on local farms. Pan-American Highway The Pan-American Highway is a system of roads measuring about long that crosses through the entirety of North, Central, and South America, with the sole exception of the Darién Gap. On the South American side, the Highway terminates at Turbo, Colombia, near . On the Panamanian side, the road terminus is the town of Yaviza at . The Pan-American Highway is interrupted between Panama and Colombia by a stretch of marshland and mountains known as the Darién Gap. Efforts were made for decades to remedy this missing link in the Pan-American Highway. Planning began in 1971 with the help of American funding, but this was halted in 1974 after concerns were raised by environmentalists. US support was further blocked by the US Department of Agriculture in 1978, from its desire to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease. Another effort to build the road began in 1992, but by 1994 a United Nations agency reported that the road, and the subsequent development, would cause extensive environmental damage. Cited reasons include evidence that the Darién Gap has prevented the spread of diseased cattle into Central and North America, which have not seen foot-and-mouth disease since 1954, and since at least the 1970s this has been a substantial factor in preventing a road link through the Darién Gap. The Embera-Wounaan and Guna are among five tribes, comprising 8,000 people, who have expressed concern that the road would bring about the potential erosion of their cultures by destroying their food sources. Many people, including local indigenous populations, groups, and governments are opposed to completing the Darién portion of the highway. Reasons for opposition include protecting the rainforest, containing the spread of tropical diseases, protecting the livelihood of indigenous peoples in the area, preventing drug trafficking and its associated violence, and preventing foot-and-mouth disease from entering North America. The extension of the highway as far as Yaviza resulted in severe deforestation alongside the highway route within a decade. An alternative to the Darien Gap highway would be a river ferry service between Turbo or Necoclí, Colombia, and one of several sites along Panama's Caribbean coast. "At the moment it's a good option," said Juan Pablo Ruiz in 1995; he was director of Ecofondo, another Colombian environmental organization. "We see how England has been connected with Europe for years with a ferry." As of 2021 nothing has come of this idea. Another idea is to use a combination of bridges and tunnels to avoid the environmentally sensitive regions. This is a futuristic concept, not a plan. History Pre-Columbian history Archaeological knowledge of this area has received relatively little attention compared to its adjoining neighbors to the north and south, despite the fact that in the early 20th century scholars such as Max Uhle, William Henry Holmes, C. V. Hartman, and George Grant MacCurdy undertook studies of archaeological sites and collections that were augmented by further research by Samuel Kirkland Lothrop, John Alden Mason, Doris Zemurray Stone, William Duncan Strong, Gordon Willey, and others. One of the reasons for the relative lack of attention is the lack of research by locals themselves in this regard. There are a large number of sites with impressive platform mounds, plazas, paved roads, stone sculpture, and artifacts made from jade, gold, and ceramic materials. The Guna people lived in what is now Northern Colombia and the Darién Province of Panama at the time of the Spanish conquest and subsequently began to move westward due to a conflict with the Spanish and other indigenous groups. Centuries before the conquest, the Gunas arrived in South America as part of a Chibchan migration moving east from Central America. At the time of the Spanish invasion, they were living in the region of Uraba near the borders of what are now Antioquia and Caldas. The Guna themselves attribute their several migrations to conflicts with other chiefdoms and their migration to nearby islands to escape mosquito populations on the mainland. European settlement Vasco Núñez de Balboa and Alonso de Ojeda explored the coast of Colombia in 1500 and 1501. They spent the most time in the Gulf of Urabá, where they made contact with the Gunas. The regional border was initially created in 1508 after royal decree to separate the colonial governorships of Castilla de Oro and Nueva Andalucía, using the River Atrato as the boundary between the two governorships. Balboa heard of the "South Sea" from locals while sailing along the Caribbean coast. On 25 September 1513, he saw the Pacific. In 1519, the town of Panamá was founded near a small indigenous settlement on the Pacific coast. After the discovery of Peru, it subsequently developed into an important transshipment port as well as an administrative center. In 1671, the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan crossed the Isthmus of Panamá from the Caribbean side and destroyed the city; the town was subsequently relocated a few kilometers to the west on a small peninsula. The ruins of the old town, Panamá Viejo, are preserved and were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. Silver and gold from the viceroyalty of Peru were transported overland across the isthmus by Spanish Silver Train to Porto Bello, where Spanish treasure fleets shipped them to Seville and Cádiz from 1707. Lionel Wafer spent four years between 1680 and 1684 among the Gunas. In 1698, Scotland tried to establish a settlement through the Darien scheme as part of its sole major attempt at colonialism. The first expedition of five ships (Saint Andrew, Caledonia, Unicorn, Dolphin, and Endeavor) set sail from Leith on 14 July 1698, with around 1,200 people on board. Their orders were "to proceed to the Bay of Darien, and make the Isle called the Golden Island ... some few leagues to the leeward of the mouth of the great River of Darien ... and there make a settlement on the mainland". After calling at Madeira and the West Indies, the fleet made landfall off the coast of Darien on November 2. The settlers christened their new home "New Caledonia". The aim was for the colony to have an overland route that connected the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Since its inception, claims have been made that the undertaking was beset by poor planning and provisioning, divided leadership, a poor choice of trade goods, devastating epidemics of disease, reported attempts by the East India Company to frustrate it, as well as a failure to anticipate the Spanish Empire's military response. It was finally abandoned in March 1700 after a siege by Spanish forces, which also blockaded the harbor. As the Company of Scotland was backed by approximately 20% of all the money circulating in Scotland, its failure left the Scottish Lowlands in substantial financial ruin; in fact, English financial incentives were a factor in persuading those in power to support the 1707 Acts of Union. According to this argument, the Scottish establishment (landed aristocracy and mercantile elites) considered that their best chance of being part of a major power would be to share the benefits of England's international trade and the growth of the English overseas possessions, so its future would have to lie in unity with England. Furthermore, Scotland's nobles were almost bankrupted by the Darien fiasco. Panamanian independence Most of Panama was part of Colombia until it declared its independence in 1903, with encouragement and support from the United States. The geography of Darién, through which no troops could march, made its Departamento of Panamá harder to defend and control. The current border is regulated by the Victoria-Velez Treaty, signed in Bogotá on 20 August 1924 by the Foreign Ministers of Panama, Nicolas Victoria; and Colombia, Jorge Velez. This treaty is officially registered in the Register No. 814 of the Treaty League of Nations, on 17 August 1925; said border was based on the same Colombian law of 9 June 1855. Natural resources Two major national parks exist in the Darién Gap: Darién National Park in Panama and Los Katíos National Park in Colombia. The Darién Gap forests had extensive cedrela and mahogany cover until many of these trees were removed by loggers. Darién National Park in Panama, the largest national park in Central America, covers roughly of land, and was established in 1980. The property includes a stretch of the Pacific Coast and almost the entire border with neighbouring Colombia. Copa Airlines Flight 201 On 6 June 1992, Copa Airlines Flight 201, a Boeing 737 jet airplane covering a flight between Panama City and Cali, Colombia, crashed in the Darién Gap, killing all 47 people on board. Adventure travellers To travel between the continents through the Darién Gap has long been a challenge for adventure travellers. The Gap can be transited by off-road vehicles attempting intercontinental journeys. The first post-colonial expedition to the Darién was the Marsh Darien Expedition in 1924–25, supported by several major sponsors, including the Smithsonian Institution, the American Museum of Natural History and the government of Panama. The first vehicular crossing of the Gap was made by three Brazilians in two Ford Model T cars. They left Rio de Janeiro in 1928 and arrived in the United States in 1938. The expedition intended to claim attention for the Panamerican highway, after an International Conference in Chile, in 1923. The participants were Leonidas Borges de Oliveira, a lieutenant from Brazilian army, Francisco Lopez da Cruz from Brazilian air force, and Mário Fava, a young mechanic. They took what appears to be the last photo of Augusto Sandino, who received them in Nicaragua, and were received by Henry Ford and Franklin Roosevelt in the United States. Their story is available with photos from the book O Brasil através das três Américas (Brazil Across the Three Americas) written by Beto Braga. Another crossing was completed by the Land Rover La Cucaracha Cariñosa (The Affectionate Cockroach) and a Jeep of the Trans-Darién Expedition of 1959–60, crewed by Amado Araúz (Panama), his wife Reina Torres de Araúz, former Special Air Service man Richard E. Bevir (UK), and engineer Terence John Whitfield (Australia). They left Chepo, Panama, on 2 February 1960 and reached Quibdó, Colombia, on 17 June 1960, averaging 201 m (220 yd) per hour over 136 days. They traveled a great deal of the distance up the vast Atrato River. In December 1960, on a motorcycle trip from Alaska to Argentina, adventurer Danny Liska attempted to transit the Darién Gap from Panama to Colombia. Liska was forced to abandon his motorcycle and proceed across the Gap by boat and foot. In 1961, a team of three 1961 Chevrolet Corvairs and several support vehicles departed from Panama. The group was sponsored by Dick Doane Chevrolet (a Chicago Chevrolet dealer) and the Chevrolet division of General Motors. After 109 days, they reached the Colombia Border with two Corvairs, the third having been abandoned in the jungle. It has been documented by a Jam Handy Productions film along with an article in Automobile Quarterly magazine (Volume 1 number 3, from the fall of 1962). A pair of Range Rovers was used on the British Trans-Americas Expedition in 1972 led by John Blashford-Snell, which is claimed to be the first vehicle-based expedition to traverse both American continents north to south through the Darién Gap. The Expedition crossed the Atrato Swamp in Colombia with the cars on special inflatable rafts that were carried in the backs of the vehicles. However, they received substantial support from the British Army. Blashford-Snell's book, Something Lost Behind the Ranges (Harper Collins), has several chapters on the Darién expedition. The Hundred Days of Darien, a book written by Russell Braddon in 1974, also chronicles this expedition. In addition to the book, a video exists that was filmed by two Vancouver, BC–based cameramen, Alan Bibby and Eric Rankin. These cameramen were mentioned in the book several times and can be seen in some of the still photos in the book. The first fully overland wheeled crossing (others used boats for some sections) of the Gap was that of British cyclist Ian Hibell, who rode from Cape Horn to Alaska between 1971 and 1973. Hibell took the "direct" overland south-to-north route, including an overland crossing of the Atrato Swamp in Colombia. Hibell completed his crossing of the Gap accompanied by two New Zealand cycling companions who had ridden with him from Cape Horn, but neither of these continued with Hibell to Alaska. The first motorcycle crossing was by Robert L. Webb in March 1975. Another four-wheel drive crossing was in 1978–1979 by Mark A. Smith and his team. They drove the stretch of the gap in 30 days using five stock Jeep CJ-7s, traveling many kilometres up the Atrato River on barges. The first all-land auto crossing was in 1985–87 by Loren Upton and Patty Mercier in a CJ-5 Jeep, taking days to travel . This crossing is documented in the 1992 Guinness Book of Records. Ed Culberson was the first one to follow the entire Pan-American highway including the Darién Gap proposed route on a motorcycle, a BMW R80G/S. From Yaviza, he first followed the Loren Upton team but went solo just before Pucuru, hiring his own guides. In the 1990s, the gap was briefly joined by ferry service, provided by Crucero Express, until it ceased operations in 1997. A number of notable crossings have been made on foot. Sebastian Snow crossed the Gap with Wade Davis in 1975 as part of his unbroken walk from Tierra del Fuego to Costa Rica. The trip is documented in his 1976 book The Rucksack Man and in Wade Davis's 1985 book The Serpent and the Rainbow. In 1981, George Meegan crossed the gap on a similar journey. He too started in Tierra del Fuego and eventually ended in Alaska. His 1988 biography, The Longest Walk, describes the trip and includes a 25-page chapter on his foray through the Gap. In 2001, as a part of his Goliath Expedition—a trek to forge an unbroken footpath from the tip of South America to the Bering Strait and back to his home in England—Karl Bushby (UK) crossed the gap on foot, using no transport or boats, from Colombia to Panama. In July 1996, as part of their hitchhiking trip to Ushuaia through 17 Latin American countries, Walter Bläs, Ana Cravioto, Albrecht von der Recke and Gustavo Ross crossed from Panama to Colombia, becoming the first Mexicans to cross the Gap on foot, according to the visitors log kept since 1946 in Púcuro. The night of 28 July, they survived the Hurricane Cesar–Douglas in the jungle somewhere between Paya and Palo de las Letras. Accompanied by 11- and 13-year-old Lico and Juan from Paya, the survivors reported several big trees falling around them and river levels rising up to 3 meters (10 feet) that night. In 1979, evangelist Arthur Blessitt traversed the gap while carrying a wooden cross, a trek confirmed by Guinness World Records as part of "the longest round the world pilgrimage" for Christ. Traveling alone with a machete plus one backpack crammed with water bottles, a hammock, Bible, notepad, lemon drops, and Blessitt's signature Jesus stickers saying "Smile! God Loves you", Blessitt describes his experience in a book, The Cross, and in a full-length movie with the same title. Most crossings of the Darién Gap region have been from Panama to Colombia. In July 1961, three college students, Carl Adler, James Wirth, and Joseph Bellina, crossed from the Bay of San Miguel to Puerto Obaldia on the Gulf of Parita (near Colombia) and ultimately to Mulatupu in what was then known as San Blas and now identified as Kuna Yala. The trip across the Darién was by banana boat, piragua, and foot via the Tuira river (La Palma and El Real de Santa Maria), Río Chucunaque (Yaviza), Rio Tuquesa (Chaua's (General Choco Chief) Trading Post—Choco Indian village) and Serranía del Darién. In 1985, Project Raleigh, which evolved from Project Drake in 1984 and in 1989 became Raleigh International, sponsored an expedition which also crossed the Darién coast to coast. Their path was similar to the 1961 route above, but in reverse. The expedition started in the Bay of Caledonia at the Serranía del Darién, following the Río Membrillo ultimately to the Río Chucunaque and Yaviza, roughly following the route taken by Balboa in 1513. Between the early 1980s and mid-1990s, Encounter Overland, a British adventure travel company, organized 2–3 week trekking trips through the Darién Gap from Panama to Colombia or vice versa. These trips used a combination of whatever transport was available: jeeps, bus, boats, and plenty of walking, with travelers carrying their own supplies. These groups were made up of male and female participants from any number of nationalities and age groups and were led by experienced trek leaders. One leader went on to do nine Darién Gap trips and later acted as a logistics guide and coordinator for the BBC Natural History Unit during the production of a documentary called A Tramp in the Darien, which screened on BBC in 1990–91. A complete overland crossing of the Darién rainforest on foot and riverboat (i.e., from the last road in Panama to the first road in Colombia) became more dangerous in the 1990s because of the Colombian conflict. The Colombian portion of the Darién rainforest in the Katios Park region eventually fell under control of armed groups. Furthermore, combatants from Colombia even entered Panama, occupied some Panamanian jungle villages and kidnapped or killed inhabitants and travelers. Just as hostilities were starting to worsen, 18-year-old Andrew Egan traversed the Darién Rainforest, detailing the excursion in the book Crossing the Darien Gap. Migrants travelling northwards As of 2013, the coastal route on the east side of the Darién Isthmus has become relatively safe. This is accomplished by taking a motorboat across the Gulf of Uraba from Turbo to Capurganá and then hopping the coast to Sapzurro and hiking from there to La Miel, Panama. Any inland routes through the Darién remain highly dangerous. In June 2017, CBS journalist Adam Yamaguchi filmed smugglers leading refugees on a nine-day journey from Colombia to Panama through the Darién. Migrants from Africa, South Asia, the Middle East, and the Caribbean have been known to cross the Darién Gap as a method of migrating to the United States. This route may entail flying to Ecuador (taking advantage of that nation's liberal visa policy) and attempting to cross the gap on foot. A group of about 25-30 people from Asia and Africa traveled through the Darién Gap on foot over mountains and through rivers from Colombia to Panama. They were led by guides through Colombia and then on their own through Panama until reaching La Peñita, a small village with immigrant processing facilities. This trek was described in an article that won the Pulitzer Prize in June 2021. The journalist Jason Motlagh was interviewed by Sacha Pfeiffer on NPR's nationally syndicated radio show On Point in 2016 concerning his work following migrants through the Darién Gap. Journalists Nadja Drost and Bruno Federico were interviewed by Nick Schifrin about their work following migrants through the Darién Gap in mid-2019 and the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic a year later, as part of a series on migration to the United States for PBS NewsHour. The route in the 21st century Several video teams have traveled with migrants and thus the conditions of the route have become better known. It is possible to hike from Colombia to Panama. By boat At various times scheduled boats, including sailboats, have sailed between Cartagena, Turbo, Necoclî, and Capurganá, Colombia, and El Porvenir or Colón, Panama. Chartering a small boat is also an option. Sea conditions make it a sometimes hazardous trip and schedules can change frequently. Any of these options are more expensive than flying. By land It is possible to hike from Colombia to Panama, or vice versa, but the conditions are very difficult and often underestimated by those setting out on this trip. It is one of the rainiest and most dangerous places on the planet, a lawless, unpoliced region, full of drug smugglers and sometimes political rebels. Exact figures are not kept, but many migrants die on this trip. The hiking trail is not easy, ascending abruptly over a mountain, and the four days of hiking are a challenge even for a person in good physical shape with good shoes. Most migrants are in mediocre physical shape or worse, and without equipment for hiking and camping. Women carrying babies, or pregnant women, are not unusual. Three babies have been born in the Darién to migrants between 2013 and 2021, with no medical help or supplies available. The Darién Gap is one of the rainiest places on the planet. The rainfall produces flash floods that can carry sleepers to their deaths. One must cross several rivers where there are neither bridges nor boats. No services of any kind are available; one must carry food, a tent, and water purification materials sufficient for a hike of several days. Remains of deceased migrants are often encountered. They die because they are too exhausted to continue, or have a problem (such as blisters) that require treatment. There is no medical help available at all and no way to evacuate someone ill, injured, or simply exhausted. A broken leg is usually fatal. Insects are heavy and there is no shortage of snakes and carnivorous mammals. Numerous migrants report that they were robbed; women may be raped. There is no police presence and no cell phone signal. In Capurganá, Colombia, and Yaviza, Panama, there is no shortage of young men who offer, for a fee, to serve as guides and to provide "protection". There is no easy way to determine if those who offer these services are knowledgeable and trustworthy, or criminals looking for victims. Armed conflict The Darién Gap was subject to the Marxist Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), which has led an insurgency against the Colombian government. FARC rebels were present on both the Colombian and Panamanian sides of the border. In 2000, two British travelers, Tom Hart Dyke and Paul Winder, were kidnapped by FARC in the Darién Gap while hunting for exotic orchids, plants for which Dyke has a particular passion. The two were held captive for nine months and threatened with death before eventually being released unharmed and without a ransom being paid. Dyke and Winder later documented their experience in the book The Cloud Garden and in an episode of Locked Up Abroad. Other political victims include three New Tribes missionaries, who disappeared from the Panamanian side in 1993. In 2003, Robert Young Pelton, on assignment for National Geographic Adventure magazine, and two traveling companions, Mark Wedeven and Megan Smaker, were detained for one week by the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, a far-right paramilitary organization, in a highly publicized incident. In May 2013, Swedish backpacker Jan Philip Braunisch disappeared in the area after leaving the Colombian town of Riosucio with the intention of attempting a crossing on foot to Panama, via the Cuenca Cacarica. The FARC admitted to killing him, having mistaken him for a foreign spy. Videos See also Darien scheme Derienni Gulf of Darién Lionel Wafer References Further reading External links "Pan-American Highway and the Environment" "A State of Nature: Life, Death, and Tourism in the Darién Gap", 2013 Wetlands of Panama Wetlands of Colombia Darién Province Chocó Department Road-inaccessible communities of North America Proposed transcontinental crossings Colombia–Panama border Colombia–Panama border crossings

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk%20devil

Folk devil

Folk devil is a person or group of people who are portrayed in folklore or the media as outsiders and deviant, and who are blamed for crimes or other sorts of social problems; see also: scapegoat. The pursuit of folk devils frequently intensifies into a mass movement that is called a moral panic. When a moral panic is in full swing, the folk devils are the subject of loosely organized but pervasive campaigns of hostility through gossip and the spreading of urban legends. The mass media sometimes get in on the act or attempt to create new folk devils in an effort to promote controversy. Sometimes the campaign against the folk devil influences a nation's politics and legislation. Concept The concept of the folk devil was introduced by sociologist Stanley Cohen in 1972, in his study Folk Devils and Moral Panics, which analysed media controversies concerning Mods and Rockers in the United Kingdom of the 1960s. Cohen's research was based on the media storm over a violent clash between two youth subcultures, the mods and the rockers, on a bank holiday on a beach in England, 1964. Though the incident only resulted in some property damage without any serious physical injury to any of the individuals involved, several newspapers published sensationalist articles surrounding the event. Cohen examined articles written about the topic and noted a pattern of distorted facts and misrepresentation, as well as a distinct, simplistic depiction of the respective images of both groups involved in the disturbance. He articulated three stages in the media's reporting on folk devils: Symbolisation: the folk devil is portrayed in one singular narrative, their appearance and overall identify oversimplified to be easily recognizable. Exaggeration: the facts of the controversy surrounding the folk devil are distorted, or fabricated all together, fueling the moral crusade. Prediction: further immoral actions on the part of the folk devil are anticipated. In the case of the mods and rockers, increased police presence the following year on the bank holiday led to another occurrence of violence. Cohen noted that the depiction of mods and rockers as violent, unruly troublemakers actually led in itself to a rise in deviant behaviour by the subcultures. Cases The basic pattern of agitations against folk devils can be seen in the history of witchhunts and similar manias of persecution; the histories of predominately Catholic and Protestant European countries present examples of adherents of the rival Western Christian faith as folk devils; minorities and immigrants have often been seen as folk devils; in the long history of anti-Semitism, which frequently targets Jews with allegations of dark, murderous practices, such as blood libel; or the Roman persecution of Christians that blamed the military reverses suffered by the Roman Empire on the Christians' abandonment of paganism. In modern times, political and religious leaders in many nations have sought to present atheists and secularists as deviant outsiders who threaten the social and moral order. The identification of folk devils may reflect the efforts of powerful institutions to displace social anxieties. Another example of religious and ethnic discrimination associated with Cohen's folk devil theory would be Islamophobia, the discrimination of Muslims and those perceived as being Middle Eastern in origin. Post-9/11 reactions by Western countries stereotyped Muslims as violent, hateful, and of possessing fanatical extremist ideology. The group was depicted as posing a threat to social peace and safety in the Western world, and was subject to much hostility politically, from the media and from society. Columbine In a 2014 study, Cohen's theory of the moral panic was applied to the media reaction to the Columbine massacre. On April 20, 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, two students from Columbine High School in Columbine, Colorado, went on a shooting spree which resulted in the deaths of 15 people. News reports in the weeks following the tragedy labelled the shooters as being “obsessed” with goth subculture, and suggested a link between Harris and Klebold's alleged identification with gothic subculture and their acts of violence. In their attempt to make sense of the Columbine shootings, journalists and other media commentators linked goths to terrorism, Charles and Marilyn Manson, self-mutilation, hostage-taking, gang culture, the Waco cult, the Oklahoma City bombing, Satanism, mass murder, ethnic cleansing in Kosovo, suicide, the Internet, video games, skinhead music, white extremism, and Adolf Hitler. The ABC news program 20/20 aired a special entitled “The Goth Phenomenon” in which it reinforced claims that the shooters were heavily submerged in goth culture, and suggested that individuals of gothic subculture were to blame for homicidal activity in the past. The hostility and hysteria over the perceived ‘evil’ goth culture amplified in the years following the shooting. Goths were stereotyped in the media as being perpetuators or supporters of violence donned in black trench coats. Several high schools across the United States banned black trench coats and other apparel perceived as being linked to goth culture. Some police departments in the United States labelled gothic subculture as being “gang-based”, and as something that should be subjected to “increased police surveillance”. From the time of the Columbine shooting until 2003, there were reports of individuals sporting what was seen as gothic dress being interrogated, ticketed and arrested. In 2002, U.S. Representative Sam Graves caused Blue Springs, Missouri to be granted US$273,000 to combat the “new gothic threat”. The backlash against goth subculture after the Columbine shooting draws many parallels to Stanley Cohen's research on the mods and rockers, two other youth subcultures cast as folk devils by society. In both instances the groups were portrayed in one distinct, dumbed-down image, ostracized, stripped of any redeeming qualities, and blamed for wrongdoings in society. See also Moral panic Scapegoating References Archetypes Deviance (sociology) concepts Folklore characters Persecution Stereotypes Urban legends Villains

451680

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20H.%20Carrington

John H. Carrington

John Hunter Carrington (October 25, 1934 – February 28, 2017) was an American politician. Republican former member of the North Carolina General Assembly who long represented the state's fifteenth Senate district, including constituents in Wake county. He headed a major company in the evidence-collection and security business. Carrington was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; he enlisted in the United States Army in 1953 and served as a paratrooper during the Korean War until 1955. Following his military service, he completed his high school education in 1957 and earned a degree in mechanical engineering from Widener College in 1962. Professionally, Carrington rose to become CEO of the Sirchie Group, a company specializing in evidence-collection gear for police and top-dollar security products for businesses. He was first elected to the North Carolina Senate in 1995. In 2005, Carrington was charged with illegally exporting evidence-collection gear to China and took a plea bargain in December 2005 to felony charges in which he has been fined $850,000. One of his companies also took a plea agreement in the matter. References External links |- 1934 births 2017 deaths North Carolina state senators Politicians from Philadelphia United States Army soldiers United States Army personnel of the Korean War Widener University alumni 21st-century American politicians

459970

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon%20Battalion

Mormon Battalion

The Mormon Battalion was the only religious unit in United States military history in federal service and was recruited solely from one religious body and having a religious title as the unit designation. The volunteers served from July 1846 to July 1847 during the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. The battalion was a volunteer unit of between 534 and 559 Latter-day Saint men, led by Mormon company officers commanded by regular U.S. Army officers. During its service, the battalion made a grueling march of nearly 2,100 miles from Council Bluffs, Iowa, to San Diego, California. The Battalion’s march and service supported the eventual cession of much of the American Southwest from Mexico to the United States, especially the Gadsden Purchase of 1853 of southern Arizona and New Mexico. The march also opened a southern wagon route to California. Veterans of the Battalion played significant roles in America's westward expansion in California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona and other parts of the West. Enlistment At the time they enlisted, members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were seeking U.S. government aid for their migration west to the Rocky Mountains and Salt Lake Valley, despite having their previous petitions for redress of grievances denied. Under continued religious persecution, they had fled Nauvoo, Illinois, starting on February 4, 1846 across the Mississippi River. They camped among the Potawatomi Indians near present-day Council Bluffs, Iowa. Brigham Young, the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, sent Elder Jesse C. Little to Washington, D.C., to seek assistance from the federal government for the Mormon Pioneers fleeing from the Illinois mobs. Little arrived in Washington D.C. on May 21, 1846, only eight days after Congress had declared war on Mexico. Pennsylvania Army officer and attorney Thomas L. Kane offered the Mormons his advice and assistance. Politically well connected through his jurist father, Kane provided letters of recommendation and joined Little in Washington, D.C. The two called on the Secretary of State, Secretary of War, and President James K. Polk. After several interviews in early June 1846, President Polk agreed to Little's offer if "a few hundred" men enlisted. On June 2, 1846, President Polk wrote in his diary: "Col. [Stephen W.] Kearny was ... authorized to receive into service as volunteers a few hundred of the Mormons who are now on their way to California, with a view to conciliate them, attach them to our country, and prevent them from taking part against us." On July 1, 1846 Captain James Allen, dispatched by Colonel (later Brigadier General) Stephen W. Kearny, arrived at the Mormons' Mosquito Creek camp. He carried President Polk's request for a battalion of 500 volunteers to fight in the Mexican War. Most members of the Church were suspicious of the request, as the Federal government had ignored the persecutions they suffered. They were concerned about facing discrimination by the government, as they had from both the state and federal government in the past. Kane obtained U.S. government permission for the refugee Mormons to occupy Pottawattamie and Omaha Indian lands along the Missouri River. After carrying dispatches relating to the land agreements and battalion criteria to Fort Leavenworth, Kane sought out Little in the Mormon encampments on the Missouri. On July 17, 1846, he held a meeting with church leaders and Captain Allen. Brigham Young had planned on moving the Mormons west that summer, but circumstances were against his plan. He saw several possible advantages to the Saints in the proposed federal service. Their enlistment would be a public relations victory for the church, demonstrating additional evidence of its loyalty to the United States. As the men were given a uniform allowance at Fort Leavenworth, Kan., of US$42 each, paid in advance, for their one-year enlistment and as they were allowed to wear their civilian clothing for the march, the bulk of those funds were immediately donated to a general Church fund. These funds were used to purchase wagons, teams, and other necessities for the American exodus (Actual wages paid over the next year to the Mormon Battalion totaled nearly $30,000). Having been forced to leave farms and homes in Nauvoo, the Latter-day Saints were going to spend the winter on the banks of the Missouri River. Raising a group of able-bodied men would be difficult. Many men had already scattered to outlying areas where they sought jobs with wages to help support the group. Young wrote a letter to the Saints living in Garden Grove, in which he justified the call-up and asked for their help: The public approval of Brigham Young and other members of the Twelve were critical to gain men's enlistment. While some men quickly volunteered, Young had to persuade reluctant enlistees. It took three weeks to raise the five companies of men. Allen's instructions were to recruit "four or five companies" of men who were to receive the "pay, rations, and other allowances given to other infantry volunteers." Each company was authorized four women as laundresses, "receiving rations and other allowances given to the laundresses of our army." Approximately thirty-three women, twenty of whom served as laundresses, and fifty-one children accompanied the men. Four women would eventually complete the cross-continental trek. The Mormon Battalion was mustered into volunteer service on July 16, 1846 as part of the Army of the West under General Kearny, a seasoned veteran. His units included two regiments of Missouri volunteers, a regiment of New York volunteers who traveled by ships to California to meet him there, artillery and infantry battalions, Kearny's own 1st US Dragoons, and the battalion of Mormons. For years afterward, some Mormons viewed the Mormon Battalion as an unjust imposition and as an act of persecution by the United States. Journey begins The battalion arrived at Fort Leavenworth on August 1. For the next two weeks, they drew their clothing allowance of $42 per man, received their equipment (Model 1816 smoothbore flintlock muskets and a few Harper's Ferry Model 1803 Rifles), and were more formally organized into a combat battalion. The volunteers took the approved clothing allowance in cash per regulations. To assure the main body of the group benefited from the men's wages, Young sent Orson Pratt to see that the men handed over the pay they had committed to contribute. Young used this and the wages they earned later to buy supplies for the main group at wholesale prices in St. Louis, Missouri. He wrote to the enlistees that the money was a "peculiar manifestation of the kind providence of our Heavenly Father at this time." There was little time for training and instilling discipline. Newly promoted Lieutenant Colonel James Allen became ill but ordered the battalion forward along the Santa Fe Trail to overtake Kearny's Army of the West. On August 23, Allen died and was the first officer buried there in the old officer's burial grounds. Later his remains were moved to what became Fort Leavenworth National Military Cemetery. Captain Jefferson Hunt, commanding A Company, was the acting commander until word reached Council Grove, Kansas, that Allen had died. While there, Lieutenant Andrew Jackson Smith, West Point Class of 1838, arrived and was given temporary command of the Battalion with the Mormons' consent. For the next several weeks, the Mormon soldiers came to hate "AJ" Smith and the assistant surgeon, Dr. George B. Sanderson, for their treatment of the men, and the long marches suffered across the dry plains of Kansas and New Mexico. The Mormon men were not accustomed to the austere military standards of the day nor to the medical treatments imposed by Dr. Sanderson, including the use of feeding mercury compounds to the sick, which were standard for the time. Because the church leaders had counseled the battalion members to avoid military medical treatment, they challenged the doctor's authority and unrest arose among the men. Smith and Sanderson continued to hold the Mormon Battalion to ordinary standards of discipline, and tensions continued. Cooke assumes command Arriving in Santa Fe in October, General Kearny had dispatched Captain (brevet promotion to Lieutenant Colonel) Philip St. George Cooke, West Point class of 1827, to assume command of the Battalion. His assignment was to march them to California and to build a wagon road along the way (today known as Cooke's Wagon Road). In Santa Fe 91 sick men and all but a few of the women and children were sent to Pueblo, in present-day Colorado. Three separate detachments left the battalion and went to Pueblo to winter. For the next four months and 1,100 miles, Cooke led the battalion across some of the most arduous terrain in North America. Most of the Mormon soldiers soon learned to respect and follow him. The group acquired another guide in New Mexico – adventurer and mountain man Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, who as an infant had traveled with his mother Sacagawea across the continent with the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Lieutenant Smith and Dr. Sanderson continued with the battalion, along with Lt. George Stoneman, newly graduated from West Point that Spring. During the Civil War, all three officers were promoted to high-level commands for the Union Army, and Stoneman would later be elected Governor of California. Battle of the Bulls The only "battle" they fought was near the San Pedro River in present-day Arizona against a sizable number of wild cattle. The Battalion reached this area in December 1846, and their presence aroused curiosity among these animals. After the bulls of these herds caused destruction to some of the mules and wagons and resulted in two men being wounded, the men loaded their guns and attacked the charging bulls, killing 10–15 of the wild cattle, causing the event to be termed the "Battle of the Bulls". Capture of Tucson Approaching Tucson, in present-day Arizona, the Battalion nearly had a battle with a small detachment of provisional Mexican soldiers on December 16, 1846. The Mexicans retreated as the US battalion approached. Interestingly, Cooke never seems to have considered the encounter as capturing the town. He never made that claim. The local O'odham and other Piman tribes along the march route were helpful and charitable to the American soldiers. Mormon soldiers learned irrigation methods from these native inhabitants and employed the techniques later as pioneers in Utah and other areas. Temecula Massacre Nearing the end of their journey, the battalion passed through Temecula, California, during the aftermath of the Temecula Massacre, a conflict between Mexican government forces and the Luiseño tribe. The Mormons stood guard to prevent further bloodshed while the Luiseño people gathered their numerous dead into a common grave. Journey complete The Mormon Battalion arrived in San Diego on January 29, 1847, after a march of some 2,080 miles from Iowa. For the next five months until their discharge on July 16, 1847, in Los Angeles, the Battalion trained and performed occupation duties in several locations in southern California. The most significant service the Battalion provided in California was as a reliable unit under Cooke to reinforce General Kearny's one company of army dragoons. The construction of Fort Moore in Los Angeles was one measure Cooke employed to protect military control under Kearny. Some 22 Mormon men died from disease or other natural causes during their service. About 80 of the men re-enlisted for another six months of service. Fifteen men were selected to accompany General Kearny and escort John C. Fremont back east to his court-martial. During their journey over the Sierra Nevada, these men encountered one of the campsites of the Donner Party, and were ordered to bury the human remains and clean up the area. After being mustered out, Jesse D. Hunter, captain of Company B, was appointed Indian Agent for southern California by the military governor, Colonel Richard Mason. Hunter was California's third indian agent, the first two being Johann Sutter and Mariano Vallejo, both appointed by Mason's predecessor, Stephen Kearny. Hunter's mission was to protect ranchos and missions from depredations, and to generally control the Indian labor force, to the point of requiring Indians to carry passports. Nearly 100 discharged veterans worked in the Sacramento, area for James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill. Henry Bigler recorded in his diary the actual date when gold was discovered, January 24, 1848. This gold find started the California Gold Rush the next year. $17,000 in gold was contributed to the economy of the Latter-day Saints' new home by members of the Mormon Battalion returning from California. One group of discharged battalion members established the Carson Trail wagon road (also called the Mormon Emigrant Trail) on their return east. This road started near Placerville, California, and went across the crest of the Sierra Nevada at Carson Pass before dropping down and eventually meeting the already-established California Trail. The newly established route was afterwards used by many emigrants traveling to California's gold fields. Three members of this group were killed at a location which became known as Tragedy Spring. Historic sites and monuments Historic sites associated with the battalion include: Iowa The Mormon Battalion Mustering Grounds on the campus of the Iowa School for the Deaf in Council Bluffs includes a short trail with interpretative signage. This site is located within half a mile of the actual site of the mustering. Kansas A stone monument with a bronze plaque that describes the details of the Mormon Battalion is located on the grounds of the Kaw Mission State Historic Site in Council Grove, Kansas. This is the site at which the Battalion camped while traveling along the Santa Fe Trail. Council Grove had a Government Blacksmith shop stationed along the Santa Fe Trail. Camp followers John and Jane Boscow (Burschough) died while at Council Grove and were buried not far from the later Kaw Mission Site. New Mexico The Mormon Battalion Monument in Sandoval County, New Mexico, outside of Santa Fe. It is a tower of stone with a wagon wheel on top. A bronze plaque marks the contributions of the battalion and lays out the map of their travels across the Southwest. Arizona A large bronze sculpture of a meeting between the Mormon Battalion and Mexican El Presidio leadership sits in the Northwest portion of El Presidio Park, adjacent to the Pima County Courthouse in downtown Tucson, Arizona. Although their nations were at war, the military contingents from both nations were able to avert armed confrontation in part via this peaceful meeting of representatives of both armies. A large bronze statue and monument is located in West Wetlands Park in Yuma, Arizona. It commemorates the crossing of the Colorado River. California Mormon Battalion Historic Site, a visitor center in the Old Town neighborhood of San Diego. Box Canyon historical site, in Anza Borrego Desert State Park, San Diego County, on Highway S-2, approximately 8.7 miles south of Highway 78 (Scissors Crossing). (GPS location: N33.0152, W116.4429) Here the Battalion cut a road into the rocky side of a canyon which was otherwise impassable to wagons. Remnants of the road cut into the rock wall are still visible. Fort Moore Pioneer Memorial, the largest bas-relief military monument in the United States, on Hill Street in downtown Los Angeles, dedicated in 1958 at the site of historic Fort Moore built by the Mormon Battalion in 1847, decommissioned in 1853. The Mormon Battalion Memorial in Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery, Point Loma, San Diego, erected in 1998. A sculpture of an infantryman of the battalion by Edward J. Fraughton erected in 1969 at Presidio Park, San Diego. Monument on the grounds of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in Oceanside. Mormon Battalion Mountain, a low-lying mountain within San Bernardino County's Glen Helen Regional Park at the mouth of Cajon Canyon, where in April 1847 a detachment of the Mormon Battalion arrived from Los Angeles with the assignment to set up camp, build a fort or redoubt and guard the pass from Indian raids. A historic marker within the park commemorates this event. Mormon Rocks, northwest of San Bernardino, California, in the Cajon Pass, just west of Interstate 15 on State Route 138. Near Mormon Rocks, the first wagon road was blazed through the Cajon Pass in 1848 by 25 veteran Battalion soldiers, with the wagon of Captain Daniel C. Davis, wife Susan and son Danny in their journey to the Salt Lake Valley. Utah The Mormon Battalion Monument at the Utah State Capitol, Salt Lake City. The Mormon Battalion Monument Plaza at This Is the Place Heritage Park in Salt Lake City, dedicated in 2010. The Mormon Battalion Museum in the lower level of the Visitor Center at This Is the Place Heritage Park. Colorado Mormon Battalion Monument at Runyon Field Sports Complex in Pueblo, Colorado. The battalion's sick detachments wintered in this area. Mormon Battalion Trail Trail markers have been placed on segments of the battalion route between Mount Pisgah (Iowa) and San Diego. Notable members of the battalion Daniel C. Davis, namesake of Davis County, Utah Stephen Clark Foster, first American mayor of Los Angeles, California Jefferson Hunt, father of San Bernardino County, Brigadier-General of California Militia Elam Luddington, his wife (Mary) and mother (Lena) and two children, Elam served as an officer in the battalion and Mary as a laundress. He later served as the first missionary in Thailand (Siam) and chief of police in Salt Lake City. William Prows, first man to wash gold on the Comstock Lode James C. Sly, name sake of Sly Park in the Sierra Nevada Mountains Lot Smith, a teenage private in the battalion, became the first sheriff of Davis County, Utah, Mormon hero of the Utah War, General in the Nauvoo Legion and the first LDS stake president in Arizona. George Stoneman, Civil War general and Governor of California William S. S. Willes, a founder of Lehi, Utah James Allen, Recruited the battalion and served as the first commander; died at Ft. Leavenworth shortly after leading the battalion there. West Point Class of 1829. Allen was a brevet Lt. Col. and is buried in the Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery. Jean-Baptiste Charbonneau, scout and son of Sacagawea and the French trader Toussaint Charbonneau, who were members of Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery Andrew Jackson Smith, second commander of the battalion, West Point Class of 1838, and major general during the American Civil War Philip St. George Cooke, third commander of the battalion, West Point graduate, veteran of the Black Hawk War, cavalry commander during the Army's expedition to Utah in 1857, and major general during the American Civil War Christopher Layton, patriarch, coloniser and businessman, namesake of Layton, Utah. Ebenezer Brown, one of the founders of Draper, Utah Current research A resurgence of interest in the Battalion is linked to the 175th anniversary of the Battalion's service. Original documents held at the National Archives have been located, including original muster and pay rolls. These are being prepared for public access online along with transcriptions. A more accurate count and list of participants is being prepared. A series of events are being planned along the routes during 2021-2022. See also California Battalion California Gold Rush Southern Emigrant Trail Trapper's Trail Notes Citations References Black, Susan Easton. “The Mormon Battalion: Conflict between Religious and Military Authority.” Southern California Quarterly (1992) 74#4: 313–28. Coffman, Natalie Brooke, "The Mormon Battalion's Manifest Destiny: Expansion and Identity during the Mexican-American War" (2015). (U of Vermont Graduate College Dissertations and Theses. Paper 509) online Fleek, Sherman L. "The Kearny/Stockton/Frémont Feud: The Mormon Battalion's Most Significant Contribution in California." Journal of Mormon History 37.3 (2011): 229-257. online Fleek, Sherman L. “Dr. George B. Sanderson: Nemesis of the Mormon Battalion.” Journal of Mormon History (2007) 33#2: 199–223. Larsen, Carl V., Carl V. Larsen Research on the Mormon Battalion(MSS 5885), L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University Perkins, Eugene H., and Waldo C. Perkins. “The Mormon Battalion Experience: Four Soldiers, Four Stories.” Utah Historical Quarterly (2005) 73#3: 225–48. Yurtinus, John F. “The Mormon Volunteers: The Recruitment and Service of a Unique Military Company.” Journal of San Diego History (1979) 25#3:242–61. External links San Diego Mormon Battalion Historic Site, history.churchofjesuschrist.org Mormon Battalion Association, MormonBattalion.com Women of The Mormon Battalion, Carl V. Larson, Shirley N. Maynes, Watkins Printing (1995) Mormon Battalion Trek 2008 Reenactment, BattalionTrek.com The Mormon Battalion in the Desert Southwest by Kent Duryee, DesertUSA.com House Resolution No. 5--Relative to commending the Mormon Battalion, January 15, 1997 - California Legislature commendation Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 40--Relative to the Mormon Battalion, June 13, 1995 - California Legislature Historical Plaque Mormon Battalion

460443

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar%20Wallace

Edgar Wallace

Richard Horatio Edgar Wallace (1 April 1875 – 10 February 1932) was a British writer. Born into poverty as an illegitimate London child, Wallace left school at the age of 12. He joined the army at age 21 and was a war correspondent during the Second Boer War, for Reuters and the Daily Mail. Struggling with debt, he left South Africa, returned to London and began writing thrillers to raise income, publishing books including The Four Just Men (1905). Drawing on his time as a reporter in the Congo, covering the Belgian atrocities, Wallace serialised short stories in magazines such as The Windsor Magazine and later published collections such as Sanders of the River (1911). He signed with Hodder and Stoughton in 1921 and became an internationally recognised author. After an unsuccessful bid to stand as Liberal MP for Blackpool (as one of David Lloyd George's Independent Liberals) in the 1931 general election, Wallace moved to Hollywood, where he worked as a script writer for RKO. He died suddenly from undiagnosed diabetes, during the initial drafting of King Kong (1933). Wallace was such a prolific writer that one of his publishers claimed that a quarter of all books in England were written by him. As well as journalism, Wallace wrote screen plays, poetry, historical non-fiction, 18 stage plays, 957 short stories and over 170 novels, 12 in 1929 alone. More than 160 films have been made of Wallace's work. In addition to his work on King Kong, he is remembered as a writer of "the colonial imagination", for the J. G. Reeder detective stories, and for The Green Archer serial. He sold over 50 million copies of his combined works in various editions and The Economist describes him as "one of the most prolific thriller writers of [the 20th] century", although the great majority of his books are out of print in the UK, but are still read in Germany. A 50-minute German TV documentary was made in 1963 called The Edgar Wallace Story, which featured his son Bryan Edgar Wallace. Life and work Ancestry and birth Wallace's great-grandfather was entertainer James Henry Marriott, and his grandmother was actress Alice Marriott. Wallace was born at 7 Ashburnham Grove, Greenwich, to actors Richard Horatio Marriott Edgar (1847–1894) and Mary Jane "Polly" Richards, née Blair (born 1843). Wallace's mother was born in Liverpool to an Irish Catholic family. Her family had been in show business, and she worked in the theatre as a stagehand, usherette, and bit-part actress until she married in 1867. Her husband, Captain Joseph Richards, was also born in Liverpool, in 1838; he was also from an Irish Catholic family. He and his father John Richards were both Merchant Navy captains, and his mother Catherine Richards came from a mariner family. Joseph died at sea in 1868, leaving his pregnant wife destitute. After the birth of Wallace's older sibling, his mother returned to the stage, assuming the stage name "Polly" Richards. In 1872, she met and joined the Marriott family theatre troupe, managed by Alice Marriott, her husband Richard Edgar, and her three adult children (from earlier liaisons), Grace, Adeline and Richard Horatio Marriott Edgar. Wallace's parents had a "broom cupboard" style sexual encounter during an after-show party. Discovering she was pregnant, his mother invented a fictitious obligation in Greenwich that would last at least half a year and obtained a room in a boarding house where she lived until her son's birth, on 1 April 1875. During her confinement she had asked her midwife to find a couple to foster the child. The midwife introduced Wallace's mother to her close friend, Mrs Freeman, a mother of ten children, whose husband George Freeman was a Billingsgate fishmonger. On 9 April 1875, his mother took Wallace to the semi-literate Freeman family, and made arrangements to visit often. Childhood and early career Wallace, then known as Richard Horatio Edgar Freeman, had a happy childhood and a close bond with 20-year-old Clara Freeman, who became a second mother to him. By 1878, his mother could no longer afford the small sum she had been paying the Freemans to care for her son and, instead of placing the boy in the workhouse, the Freemans adopted him. His mother never visited Wallace again as a child. His foster-father George Freeman was determined to ensure Richard received a good education, and for some time Wallace attended St. Alfege with St. Peter's, a boarding school in Peckham, but he played truant and then left full-time education at the age of 12. By his early teens, Wallace had held down numerous jobs such as newspaper-seller at Ludgate Circus near Fleet Street, milk-delivery boy, rubber factory worker, shoe shop assistant, and ship's cook. A plaque at Ludgate Circus commemorates Wallace's first encounter with the newspaper business. He was dismissed from his job on the milk run for stealing money. In 1894, he became engaged to a local Deptford girl, Edith Anstree, but broke the engagement and enlisted in the infantry. Wallace registered in the British Army under the name Edgar Wallace, after the author of Ben-Hur, Lew Wallace. At the time the medical records register him as having a 33-inch chest and being stunted from his childhood spent in the slums. He was posted to South Africa with the West Kent Regiment, in 1896. He disliked army life but managed to arrange a transfer to the Royal Army Medical Corps, which was less arduous but more unpleasant, and so transferred again to the Press Corps, which he found suited him better. 1898–1918 Wallace began publishing songs and poetry, much inspired by Rudyard Kipling, whom he met in Cape Town in 1898. Wallace's first book of ballads, The Mission that Failed!, was published that same year. In 1899, he bought his way out of the forces and turned to writing full time. Remaining in Africa, he became a war correspondent, first for Reuters and then the Daily Mail (1900) and other periodicals during the Boer War. In 1901, while in South Africa, Wallace married Ivy Maude Caldecott (1880?–1926), although her father Reverend William Shaw Caldecott, a Wesleyan missionary, was strongly opposed to the marriage. The couple's first child, Eleanor Clare Hellier Wallace, died suddenly from meningitis in 1903, and the couple returned to London soon afterwards, deeply in debt. In London, Wallace worked for the Mail and began writing detective stories in a bid to earn quick money. A son, Bryan Edgar Wallace, was born in 1904 followed by a daughter, Patricia, in 1908. In 1903, Wallace met his birth mother Polly, whom he had never known. Terminally ill, 60 years old, and living in poverty, she came to him to ask for money and was turned away. Polly died in the Bradford Infirmary later that year. Unable to find any backer for his first book, Wallace set up his own publishing company, Tallis Press, which issued the thriller The Four Just Men (1905). Despite promotion in the Mail and good sales, the project was financially mismanaged, and Wallace had to be bailed out by the Mail proprietor Alfred Harmsworth, who was anxious that the farrago might reflect badly on his newspaper. Problems were compounded when inaccuracies in Wallace's reporting led to libel suits being brought against the Mail. Wallace was fired in 1907, the first reporter ever to be fired from the paper, and he found no other paper would employ him, given his reputation. The family lived continuously in a state of near-bankruptcy, Ivy having to sell her jewellery for food. During 1907, Edgar travelled to the Congo Free State, to report on atrocities committed against the Congolese under King Leopold II of Belgium and the Belgian rubber companies, in which up to 15 million Congolese were killed. Isabel Thorne, of the Weekly Tale-Teller penny magazine, invited Wallace to serialise stories inspired by his experiences. These were published as his first collection Sanders of the River (1911), a best seller, and in 1935 it was adapted into an eponymous film, starring Paul Robeson. Wallace went on to publish 11 more similar collections (102 stories). They were tales of exotic adventure and local tribal rites, set on an African river, mostly without love interest as this held no appeal for Wallace. His first 28 books and their film rights he sold outright, with no royalties, for quick money. Critic David Pringle noted in 1987: "The Sanders Books are not frequently reprinted nowadays, perhaps because of their overt racism". The period from 1908 to 1932 was the most prolific of Wallace's life. Initially, he wrote mainly in order to satisfy creditors in the UK and South Africa. However, his books' success began to rehabilitate his reputation as a journalist, and he began reporting from horse racing circles. He wrote for the Week-End and the Evening News, became an editor for Week-End Racing Supplement, started his own racing papers Bibury's and R. E. Walton's Weekly, and bought many racehorses of his own. He lost many thousands gambling, and despite his success, spent large sums on an extravagant lifestyle he could not afford. During 1916, Ivy had her third and last child by Edgar, Michael Blair Wallace, and filed for divorce in 1918. 1918–1929 Ivy moved to Tunbridge Wells with the children, and Wallace drew closer to his secretary Ethel Violet King (1896–1933), daughter of banker Frederick King. They married in 1921; their daughter Margaret Penelope June (known as Penny Wallace) was born in 1923. Wallace began to take his fiction writing career more seriously and signed with publishers Hodder and Stoughton in 1921, organising his contracts, instead of selling rights to his work piecemeal in order to raise funds. This allowed him advances, royalties, and full scale promotional campaigns for his books, which he had never before had. The publisher aggressively advertised him as a celebrity writer, "King of Thrillers", known for this trademark trilby, cigarette holder, and yellow Rolls Royce. He was said to be able to write a 70,000 word novel in three days and plough through three novels at once, and the publishers agreed to publish everything he wrote as fast as he could write it. In 1928, it was estimated that one in four books being read in the UK had come from Wallace's pen. He wrote across many genres including science fiction, screen plays, and a non-fiction ten-volume history of the First World War. All told, he wrote over 170 novels, 18 stage plays, and 957 short stories, and his works were translated into 28 languages. The critic Wheeler Winston Dixon suggests that Wallace became somewhat of a public joke for this prodigious output. Wallace served as chairman of the Press Club, which continues to present an annual Edgar Wallace Award for excellence in writing. Following the great success of his novel The Ringer, Wallace was appointed chairman of the British Lion Film Corporation in return for giving British Lion first option on all his output. Wallace's contract gave him an annual salary, a substantial block of stock in the company, a large stipend from everything British Lion produced based on his work, plus 10% of British Lion's overall annual profits. Additionally, British Lion employed his elder son, Bryan E. Wallace, as a film editor. By 1929, Wallace's earnings were almost £50,000 per annum (equivalent to about £2 million in current terms). He also invented at this time the Luncheon Club, bringing together his two greatest loves: journalism and horse-racing. Firsts Wallace was the first British crime novelist to use policemen as his protagonists, rather than amateur sleuths as most other writers of the time did. Most of his novels are independent stand-alone stories; he seldom used series heroes, and when he did he avoided a strict story order, so that continuity was not required from book to book. On 6 June 1923, Edgar Wallace became the first British radio sports reporter, when he made a report on The Derby for the British Broadcasting Company, the newly founded predecessor of the BBC. Ivy's death Wallace's ex-wife Ivy was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1923, and though the tumour was successfully removed, it returned terminally by 1925, and she died in 1926. "The Canker In Our Midst" Wallace wrote a controversial article in the Daily Mail in 1926 entitled "The Canker In Our Midst" about paedophilia and the show business world. Describing how some show business people unwittingly leave their children vulnerable to predators, it linked paedophilia with homosexuality and outraged many of his colleagues, publishing associates, and business friends including theatre mogul Gerald du Maurier. Biographer Margaret Lane describes it as an "intolerant, blustering, kick-the-blighters-down-the-stairs" type of essay, even by the standards of the day. Politics, emigration to the U.S., and screenwriting Wallace became active in the Liberal Party and contested Blackpool in the 1931 general election as one of a handful of Independent Liberals, who rejected the National Government, and the official Liberal support for it, and strongly supported free trade. He also bought the Sunday News, edited it for six months, and wrote a theatre column, before it closed. In the event, he lost the election by over 33,000 votes. He went to America, burdened by debt, in November 1931. Around the same time, he wrote the screenplay for the first sound film adaptation of The Hound of the Baskervilles (1932), produced in England by Gainsborough Pictures. He moved to Hollywood and began working as a "script doctor" for RKO. His later play, The Green Pack, opened to excellent reviews, boosting his status even further. Wallace wanted to get his own work on Hollywood celluloid, and so he adapted books such as The Four Just Men and Mr J G Reeder. In Hollywood, Wallace met Stanley Holloway's scriptwriter, Wallace's own half-brother Marriott Edgar. Wallace's play On the Spot, written about gangster Al Capone, would prove to be the writer's greatest theatrical success. It was described by Jack Adrian as "arguably, in construction, dialogue, action, plot and resolution, still one of the finest and purest of 20th-century melodramas". It launched the career of Charles Laughton, who played the lead Capone character Tony Perelli. Death and aftermath Death In December 1931, Wallace was assigned work on the RKO "gorilla picture" (King Kong, 1933) for producer Merian C. Cooper. By late January, however, he was beginning to suffer sudden, severe headaches and was diagnosed with diabetes. His condition deteriorated within days. Violet booked passage to California on a liner out of Southampton, but received word that Edgar had slipped into a coma and died of the condition, combined with double pneumonia, on 10 February 1932 in North Maple Drive, Beverly Hills. The flags on Fleet Street's newspaper offices flew at half-mast, and the bell of St. Bride's tolled in mourning. His body was returned to England and he was buried at Little Marlow Cemetery, Fern Lane, Buckinghamshire, not far from his UK country home, Chalklands, in Bourne End. Aftermath Despite his later success, Wallace had amassed massive debts, some still remaining from his years in South Africa, many to racing bookies. The large royalties from his greatly popular works allowed the estate to be settled within two years. Violet Wallace outlived her husband by only 14 months. She died suddenly in April 1933, aged 33, while the estate was still deep in debt. Legacy Violet Wallace's own will left her share of the Wallace estate to her daughter Penelope (1923–1997), herself an author of mystery and crime novels, who became the chief benefactor and shareholder. Penelope married George Halcrow in 1955. The couple ran the Wallace estate, managing her father's literary legacy and starting the Edgar Wallace Society in 1969. The work is continued by Penelope's daughter, also named Penelope. The Society has members in 20 countries. The literary body is currently managed by the London agency A.P. Watt. Wallace's eldest son Bryan Edgar Wallace (1904–1971) was also an author of mystery and crime novels. In 1934, Bryan married Margaret Lane (1907–94), also a writer. Lane's biography of Edgar Wallace was published in 1938 The Edgar Wallace Mystery Magazine was a monthly digest-size fiction magazine specializing in crime and detective fiction. It published 35 issues from 1964 to 1967. Each issue contained original works of short crime or mystery fiction as well as reprints by authors like Wallace, Chekhov, Steinbeck, and Agatha Christie. More than 160 films and several radio adaptations have been made based on Wallace's work. Wallace also has a pub named after him in Essex Street, off Strand in London. Writing Method Wallace narrated his words onto wax cylinders (the dictaphones of the day) and his secretaries typed up the text. This may be why he was able to work at such high speed and why his stories have narrative drive. Many of Wallace's successful books were dictated like this over two or three days, locked away with cartons of cigarettes and endless pots of sweet tea, often working pretty much uninterrupted in 72 hours. Most of his novels were serialised in segments but written in this way. The serialised stories that were instead written piecemeal have a distinctly different narrative energy, not sweeping up the reader on the story wave. Wallace rarely edited his own work after it was dictated and typed up, but sent it straight to the publishers, intensely disliking the revision of his work with other editors. The company would do only cursory checks for factual errors before printing. Wallace faced widespread accusations that he used ghost writers to churn out books, though there is no evidence of this, and his prolificness became something of a joke, the subject of cartoons and sketches. His "three day books", reeled off to keep the loan sharks from the door, were unlikely to garner great critical praise and Wallace claimed not to find literary value in his own works. Themes and critique Wallace characters such as District Commissioner Sanders can be taken to represent the values of colonial white supremacy in Africa, and now viewed by liberals as deeply racist and paternalistic. His writing has been attacked by some for its conception of Africans as stupid children who need a firm hand. Sanders, for example, pledges to bring "civilisation" to "half a million cannibal folk". George Orwell called Wallace a "bully worshipper" and "proto-fascist", though many critics conceived Wallace more as a populist writer who wrote for the market of the time. Selling over 50 million copies of his works, including 170 novels, Wallace was very much a populist writer, and was dismissed by the literati as such. Q. D. Leavis, Arnold Bennett and Dorothy L Sayers led the attack on Wallace, suggesting he offered no social critique or subversive agenda at all and distracting the reading public from better things. Trotsky, reading a Wallace novel whilst recuperating on his sickbed in 1935, found it to be "mediocre, contemptible and crude ... [with no] shade of perception, talent or imagination." Critics Steinbrunner and Penzler stated that Wallace's writing is "slapdash and cliché-ridden, [with] characterization that is two dimensional and situations [that] are frequently trite, relying on intuition, coincidence, and much pointless, confusing movement to convey a sense of action. The heroes and villains are clearly labelled, and stock characters, humorous servants, baffled policemen, breathless heroines, could be interchanged from one book to another." The Oxford Companion to the Theatre asserts, however, that "In all his works [Wallace] showed unusual precision of detail, narrative skill, and inside knowledge of police methods and criminal psychology, the fruits of his apprenticeship as a crime reporter". Wallace did not use plot formulae, unlike many other thriller writers. The critic Wheeler Winston Dixon maintains that Wallace covered a wide variety of perspectives and characterisations, exploring themes such as feminist self-determination (Barbara on her Own 1926, Four-Square Jane 1929, The Girl from Scotland Yard 1926), upsetting peerage hierarchies (Chick, 1923), science fiction (The Day of Uniting, 1926), schizophrenia (The Man Who Knew, 1919) and autobiography (People, 1926). Science fiction Edgar Wallace enjoyed writing science fiction but found little financial success in the genre despite several efforts. His constant need for income always brought him back to the more mundane styles of fiction that sold more easily. Planetoid 127, first published in 1924 but reprinted as late as 2011, is a short story about an Earth scientist who communicates via wireless with his counterpart on a duplicate Earth orbiting unseen because it is on the opposite side of the Sun. The idea of a "mirror Earth" or "mirror Universe" later became a standard subgenre within science fiction. The story also bears similarities to Rudyard Kipling's hard science fiction story "Wireless". Wallace's other science fiction works include The Green Rust, a story of bio-terrorists who threaten to release an agent that will destroy the world's corn crops, 1925, which accurately predicted that a short peace would be followed by a German attack on England, and The Black Grippe, about a disease that renders everyone in the world blind. His last work of science fiction and the only one widely remembered today is the screenplay for King Kong. King Kong Out of the many scripts he penned for RKO, Merian C. Cooper's "gorilla picture" had the most lasting influence, becoming the classic King Kong (1933). Wallace had written the initial 110-page first draft for King Kong entitled "The Beast" over five weeks, from late December 1931 to January 1932. The movie was initially to be called The Beast, and this was the name of Wallace's treatment. In all, there were three draft versions, another titled "Kong". Kong was rejected as the title for the film because it was too similar to another Cooper film, Chang, released in 1927, and because it sounded Chinese. Wallace suggested the title King Ape. Wallace's own diary described the writing process for this draft: Cooper fed aspects of the story (inspired partly by an aspiration to use as much footage of an abandoned RKO picture with a similar premise, Creation, as possible) in story conferences and phone conversations; Wallace then executed Cooper's ideas, the latter approving the developing script on a sequence-by-sequence basis. While working on the project, Cooper also screened various recent films for Wallace to put him in the right mindset, including Tod Browning's Dracula and James Whale's Frankenstein, as well as the fragments of sequences shot by Willis O'Brien for Creation that were to be reused in the current script. Although the draft was incomplete, Wallace only made minor revisions to it, each at Cooper's own request, before his fateful doctor's appointment in late January; when Cooper called Wallace in early February to discuss the script, someone else answered; Wallace was in the hospital. By 10 February, Wallace was dead, and Merian C. Cooper was left without a screenwriter. The fragmentary nature of Wallace's script meant that the main dialogue-free action of the film (the jungle sequences) would have to be shot first, both as insurance and as a showreel for the board of RKO. In My Hollywood Diary, Edgar Wallace wrote about the reception of his screenplay: "Cooper called me up last night and told me that everybody who had read 'Kong' was enthusiastic. They say it is the best adventure story that has ever been written for the screen." Wallace himself had high expectations for the film: "I am certain that 'Kong' is going to be a wow." Wallace began his screenplay with Denham and the party at the island, called "Vapour Island" by Wallace because of the volcanic emissions. Ann Darrow is called Shirley Redman in Wallace's original script. Jack Driscoll is referred to as John Lanson or Johnny in the Wallace script. Captain Englehorn appears in Wallace's treatment, where he is much more domineering. Danby G. Denham is a promoter and a P. T. Barnum type showman who is looking for a giant ape to bring back to Madison Square Garden or the Polo Grounds to exhibit as a sideshow. The movie retains the Barnum theme when Denham, who evolved into Carl Denham in the Rose and Creelman treatment, refers to Kong as "the eighth wonder of the world", echoing Barnum's style of hyping acts. Wallace had created the major characters, their relationships, and their role in the overall plot. In Wallace's original screenplay, Kong encounters the landing party when he rescues Shirley from an attempted rape by the leader of a group of escaped convicts. The crew of the boat consists of escaped convicts who have kidnapped Shirley. A dinosaur attacks their boat and wrecks it. They find refuge on the island. Shirley is in a tent when the convict named Louis tries to rape her. Kong appears, rescues Shirley and takes her away to his cave. Wallace noted in a notation on the script that Kong is 30 feet tall, thus establishing Kong as a giant ape. John and the remaining convicts then go after Shirley. They use a log to cross a ravine. Kong attacks them which leads to their deaths as the log crashes down the ravine. Kong fights and kills a triceratops. Dinosaurs and pterodactyls attack Kong and the party. Kong takes Shirley to his hideout in the mountains. Jack rescues Shirley. The expedition uses gas bombs to knock out Kong. Kong is brought back to New York where he is put in a cage. Shirley is attacked by lions and tigers let loose on purpose by Senorita. Kong kills the cats and whisks Shirley away. Kong climbs the Empire State Building where airplanes shoot at him. Merian C. Cooper sent Wallace an internal memo from RKO suggesting that John dissuade the police from shooting Kong because of the danger to Shirley: "Please see if you consider it practical to work out theme that John attempts single handed rescue on top of Empire State Building if police will let off shooting for a minute." Kong is finally killed when lightning strikes the flag pole which he is hanging on to. Early publicity stills for the movie have the title as "Kong" and "by Edgar Wallace" and show a lightning storm and flashes of lightning as envisioned by Wallace. In Wallace's version, a small ape peeling a rose prefigured Kong's peeling away Shirley's clothes. Wallace's version included an underwater scene from the attacking dinosaur's point of view as it approached a capsized boat. Wallace created the beauty and the beast theme, the overall plot structure and outline, many of the key characters, and many of the key events or episodes in the story. Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack were thrilled with the screenplay and were ready to begin according to Wallace's diary notes in My Hollywood Diary (1932), but his 110-page script was merely the first rough draft, not a final and completed shooting script. After Wallace's death, Ruth Rose was brought in to work on the evolving script that Wallace had started but was unable to finish or finalize. Rose happened to be Schoedsack's wife and was able to translate the expectations of the producers into the final script. Rose added the ritual scene on Skull Island to replace Wallace's original idea of the attempted rape of Ann Darrow. Rose also added the opening scenes of the movie in which the main characters and plot are introduced. James Ashmore Creelman, who worked on the screenplay for The Most Dangerous Game, a film that Wallace was in discussions to write the screenplay for at the time of his death, was also brought in to tidy up the script. The job of Rose and Creelman was to rework Wallace's original screenplay and replace scenes that failed to translate as expected. The original Wallace screenplay was published in the 2013 book Ray Harryhausen – The Master of the Majicks, Volume 1: Beginnings and Endings by Mike Hankin. The original Wallace screenplay is analysed and discussed in The Girl in the Hairy Paw (1976), edited by Ronald Gottesman and Harry Geduld, and by Mark Cotta Vaz, in the preface to the Modern Library reissue of King Kong (2005). In December, 1932, his story and screenplay for King Kong were "novelised" or transcribed by Delos W. Lovelace, a journalist and author himself who knew Cooper from when they worked on the same newspaper, and appeared in book form under the title King Kong. Lovelace based the transcription largely on the Ruth Rose and James A. Creelman screenplay. This "novelization" of King Kong, attributed to Wallace, Cooper, and Lovelace, was originally published by Grosset and Dunlap. The book was reissued in 2005 by the Modern Library, a division of Random House, with an introduction by Greg Bear and a preface by Mark Cotta Vaz, and by Penguin in the US. In the UK, Victor Gollancz published a hardcover version in 2005. The first paperback edition had been published by Bantam in 1965 in the US and by Corgi in 1966 in the UK. In 1976, Grosset and Dunlap republished the novel in paperback and hardcover editions. There were paperback editions by Tempo and by Futura that year as well. In 2005, Blackstone Audio released a spoken-word version of the book as an audiobook on CD with commentary by Ray Bradbury, Harlan Ellison, and Ray Harryhausen, among others. Harryhausen stated that he had read the original screenplay by Wallace. There were also German and Czech versions of the novel in 2005. On 28 October 1933, Cinema Weekly published the short story "King Kong", credited to Edgar Wallace and Draycott Montagu Dell (1888–1940). Dell had known and worked with Wallace when both worked for British newspapers. This can be called a "story-ization" of the Wallace and Cooper story which relied on the Rose and Creelman screenplay, but which like the Wallace treatment, begins at the island. Both Wallace and Cooper had signed a contract which allowed them to develop the story in a book or short story or serial form. Walter F. Ripperger also wrote a two-part serialization of the Wallace and Cooper story in Mystery magazine titled "King Kong" in the February and March issues in 1933. West Germany In 1959 Danish production company Rialto Film on behalf of West German distributor Constantin Film made "The Fellowship of the Frog" into a movie. The initial success prompted Rialto Film to establish a German subsidiary, securing the rights to most of Wallace's novels, and producing an additional 38 movies until 1972. During the time Wallace's eldest son Bryan as well had 10 of his novels adapted into movies by West Berlin-based production company CCC-Filmkunst. Both series were set in contemporary UK but filmed entirely in Western Germany and West Berlin. Although panned by critics the movies garnered a following with occasional reruns on German TV. In 2004, Oliver Kalkofe produced the movie Der Wixxer, an homage to the popular black and white Wallace movies. It featured many well known comedians. In 2007, Kalkofe produced a sequel Neues vom Wixxer. There are more of Wallace's books still in print in Germany than elsewhere and his work has consistently remained popular there. Literary works African novels (Sanders of the River series) Sanders of the River (1911) - short stories serialised in The Weekly Tale-Teller, filmed in 1935 The People of the River (1911) - short stories serialised in The Weekly Tale-Teller The River of Stars (1913) - full-length novel featuring a cameo appearance by Sanders. Bosambo of the River (1914) - short stories serialised in The Weekly Tale-Teller Bones (1915) - short stories serialised in The Weekly Tale-Teller The Keepers of the King's Peace (1917) - short stories serialised in The Windsor Magazine Lieutenant Bones (1918) - short stories serialised in The Windsor Magazine Bones in London (1921) - short stories serialised in The Windsor Magazine Sandi the Kingmaker (1922) - full-length novel serialised in The Windsor Magazine Bones of the River (1923) - short stories serialised in The 20-Story Magazine Sanders (1926) - short stories Again Sanders (1928) - short stories The series was posthumously continued by Francis Gérard - The Return of Sanders of the River - short stories (1938) The Law of the River - short stories (1940) The Justice of Sanders - short stories (1951) Four Just Men series The Four Just Men (1905) The Council of Justice (1908) The Just Men of Cordova (1917) The Law of the Four Just Men (1921) The Three Just Men (1925) Again the Three (1928) Mr. J. G. Reeder series Room 13 (1924) The Mind of Mr. J. G. Reeder (US title: The Murder Book of Mr. J. G. Reeder) (1925) Terror Keep (1927) Red Aces (1929) The Crook in Crimson (1929) The Guv'nor and Other Short Stories (US title: Mr. Reeder Returns) (1932) Detective Sgt. (Insp.) Elk series The Nine Bears (1910) revised as Silinski – Master Criminal (1930) The Fellowship of the Frog (1925) adapted as The Frog, spawned a sequel Return of the Frog The Joker or The Colossus (1926) The Twister (1928) The India-Rubber Men (1929) adapted as The Return of the Frog White Face (1930) Educated Evans series Educated Evans (1924) More Educated Evans (1926) Good Evans (1927) Smithy series Smithy (1905) Smithy Abroad (1909) Smithy and The Hun (1915) Nobby or Smithy's Friend Nobby (1916) Crime novels Angel Esquire (1908) The Fourth Plague (1913) Grey Timothy (1913) The Man Who Bought London (1915) The Melody of Death (1915) A Debt Discharged (1916) The Tomb of Ts'in (1916) The Secret House (1917) The Clue of the Twisted Candle (1918) Down Under Donovan (1918) The Man Who Knew (1918) The Strange Lapses of Larry Loman (1918) (short novelette) The Green Rust (1919) Kate Plus Ten (1919) The Daffodil Mystery (1920) Jack O'Judgment (1920) The Angel of Terror (1922) The Crimson Circle (1922) Mr. Justice Maxell (1922) The Valley of Ghosts (1922) Captains of Souls (1923) The Clue of the New Pin (1923) The Green Archer (1923) The Missing Million (1923) The Dark Eyes of London (expanded from The Croakers (1924)) Double Dan (1924) a.k.a. Diana of Kara Kara The Face in the Night (1924) The Sinister Man (1924) The Three Oak Mystery (1924) The Avenger or The Hairy Arm (1925) The Blue Hand (1925) The Daughters of the Night (1925) The Gaunt Stranger or Police Work (1925) revised as The Ringer (1926) A King by Night (1925) The Strange Countess (1925) The Black Abbot (1926) The Day of Uniting (1926) The Door with Seven Locks (1926) The Girl from Scotland Yard (1926) The Man from Morocco or Souls In Shadows or The Black (US Title) (1926) The Million Dollar Story (1926) The Northing Tramp (1926) Penelope of the Polyantha (1926) The Square Emerald or The Woman (1926) The Terrible People or The Gallows' Hand (1926) We Shall See! (US title: The Gaol-Breakers) (1926) The Yellow Snake, a.k.a. The Black Tenth (1926) Big Foot (1927) The Feathered Serpent or Inspector Wade or Inspector Wade and the Feathered Serpent (1927) Flat 2 (1927) The Forger or The Counterfeiter (1927) The Hand of Power or The Proud Sons of Ragusa (1927) The Man Who Was Nobody (1927) Number Six (1927) The Squeaker or The Sign of the Leopard (US title: The Squealer) (1927) The Traitor's Gate (1927) The Double (1928) The Flying Squad (1928) The Gunner (US title: Gunman's Bluff) (1928) Four Square Jane (1929) The Golden Hades or Stamped In Gold or The Sinister Yellow Sign (1929) The Green Ribbon (1929) The Calendar (1930) The Clue of the Silver Key or The Silver Key (1930) The Lady of Ascot (1930) The Devil Man or Sinister Street or Silver Steel or The Life and Death of Charles Peace (1931) The Man at the Carlton or The Mystery of Mary Grier (1931) The Coat of Arms or The Arranways Mystery (1931) On the Spot: Violence and Murder in Chicago (1931) When the Gangs Came to London or Scotland Yard's Yankee Dick or The Gangsters Come To London (1932) The Frightened Lady or The Case of the Frightened Lady or Criminal At Large (1933) The Green Pack (1933) The Man Who Changed His Name (1935) The Mouthpiece (1935) Smoky Cell (1935) The Table (1936) Sanctuary Island (1936) The Road to London (1986) Other novels Captain Tatham of Tatham Island (1909) The Duke in the Suburbs (1909) Private Selby (1912) "1925" – The Story of a Fatal Peace (1915) Those Folk of Bulboro (1918) Tam o' the Scoots (1918) The Book of All Power (1921) The Flying Fifty-Five (1922) The Books of Bart (1923) Barbara on Her Own (1926) Poetry collections The Mission That Failed (1898) War and Other Poems (1900) Writ In Barracks (1900) Non-fiction Unofficial Despatches of the Anglo-Boer War (1901) Famous Scottish Regiments (1914) Field Marshal Sir John French (1914) Heroes All: Gallant Deeds of the War (1914) The Standard History of the War (1914) Kitchener's Army and the Territorial Forces: The Full Story of a Great Achievement (1915) Vol. 2–4. War of the Nations (1915) Vol. 5–7. War of the Nations (1916) Vol. 8–9. War of the Nations (1917) Famous Men and Battles of the British Empire (1917) The Real Shell-Man: The Story of Chetwynd of Chilwell (1919) People or Edgar Wallace by Himself (1926) The Trial of Patrick Herbert Mahon (1928) My Hollywood Diary (1932) Plays An African Millionaire (1904) The Forest of Happy Dreams (1910) Dolly Cutting Herself (1911) The Manager's Dream (1914) M'Lady (1921) The Mystery of room 45 (1926) Double Dan (1927) A Perfect Gentleman (1927) The Terror (1927) based on the novel The Black Abbot Traitors Gate (1927) The Lad (1928) The Man Who Changed His Name (1928) The Squeaker (1928) The Calendar (1929) Persons Unknown (1929) The Ringer (1929) The Mouthpiece (1930) On the Spot (1930) Smoky Cell (1930) The Squeaker (1930) To Oblige A Lady (1930) The Case of the Frightened Lady (1931) The Old Man (1931) The Green Pack (1932) The Table (1932) Screenplays The Valley of Ghosts (1928, British film) Mark of the Frog (1928, American film) Prince Gabby (1929, British film) The Squeaker (1930, British film) The Hound of the Baskervilles (1932, British film) King Kong (1932, January 5, 1932, first draft of original screenplay entitled "The Beast", 110 pages) While the script was not used in its entirety, much of it was retained for the final screenplay. Portions of the original Wallace screenplay were published in 1976. The complete original screenplay was published in 2013 in Ray Harryhausen – The Master of the Majicks, Vol. 1 by Archive Editions in Los Angeles. The Delos Lovelace transcription remains the official book-length treatment of the story. Short story collections P.C. Lee (1909) Police Constable Lee; 24 short stories The Admirable Carfew (1914) The Adventures of Heine (1917) Tam O' the Scouts (1918) The Man Called McGinnice (1918) The Fighting Scouts (1919) The Black Grippe (1920) Chick (1923) Elegant Edward (1924) The Exploits of Airman Hay (1924) The Black Avons (1925) The Brigand (1927) The Mixer (1927) This England (1927) The Orator (1928) The Thief in the Night (1928) The Lone House Mystery and Other Stories (Collins and son, 1929) The Governor of Chi-Foo (1929) Again the Ringer The Ringer Returns (US Title) (1929) The Big Four or Crooks of Society (1929) The Black or Blackmailers I Have Foiled (1929) The Cat-Burglar (1929) Circumstantial Evidence (1929) Fighting Snub Reilly (1929) For Information Received (1929) Forty-Eight Short Stories (1929) Planetoid 127 and The Sweizer Pump (1929) The Ghost of Down Hill & The Queen of Sheba's Belt (1929) The Iron Grip (1929) The Lady of Little Hell (1929) The Little Green Man (1929) The Prison-Breakers (1929) The Reporter (1929) Killer Kay (1930) Mrs William Jones and Bill (1930) Forty Eight Short-Stories (George Newnes Limited ca. 1930) The Stretelli Case and Other Mystery Stories (1930) The Terror (1930) The Lady Called Nita (1930) Sergeant Sir Peter or Sergeant Dunn, C.I.D. (1932) The Scotland Yard Book of Edgar Wallace (1932) The Steward (1932) Nig-Nog And Other Humorous Stories (1934) The Last Adventure (1934) The Woman From the East (1934) – co-written with Robert George Curtis The Edgar Wallace Reader of Mystery and Adventure (1943) The Undisclosed Client (1963) The Man Who Married His Cook (White Lion, 1976) The Death Room: Strange and Startling Stories (1986) The Sooper and Others (1984) Stories collected in the Death Room (William Kimber, 1986) Winning Colours: The Selected Racing Writings of Edgar Wallace (1991) Other King Kong, with Draycott M. Dell, (1933 posthumously), 28 October 1933 Cinema Monthly Films based on works by Edgar Wallace See also Edgar Wallace Mysteries See also Bryan Edgar Wallace Filmography References Further reading Clark, Neil Stranger than Fiction: The Life of Edgar Wallace, the Man Who Created King Kong, (The History Press, October 2014 (UK), February 2015 (US)) Cox, J.R. "Edgar Wallace", in British Mystery Writers, 1860–1919, ed. B. Benstock, B. and Staley, T.F. (1988) Curtis, Robert Edgar Wallace Each Way by (John Long, 1932) Hankin, Mike Ray Harryhausen – Master of the Majicks, Volume 1: Beginnings and Endings (Archive Editions, LLC, 2013). Contains the complete first draft of the Kong screenplay by Edgar Wallace. Kabatchnik, Ammon "Edgar Wallace" in Blood on the Stage, 1925–1950: Milestone Plays of Crime, Mystery, and Detection (Scarecrow Press, 2010) pp. 7–16 Lane, Margaret Edgar Wallace, The Biography of a Phenomenon (William Heinemann, October 1938). Revised and reprinted in 1965. An abridged version was issued in Reader's Digest, Vol. 34, No. 205, May 1939. Lofts, W.O.G. and Adley, D. The British Bibliography of Edgar Wallace (1969) Nolan, J.E "Edgar Wallace" in Films in Review, 18 (1967), 71–85 Wallace, E. People: A Short Autobiography (1926) Wallace, E My Hollywood Diary (1932) Wallace, Ethel V. Edgar Wallace by His Wife (Hutchinson, 1932) External links The Edgar Wallace Society, founded in 1969 by his daughter, Penelope Wallace House where Edgar Wallace was born Former London home of Edgar Wallace Online editions Works by Edgar Wallace at Project Gutenberg Australia 1875 births 1932 deaths 19th-century British Army personnel 19th-century English poets 20th-century British dramatists and playwrights 20th-century English novelists 20th-century British short story writers 19th-century British journalists 20th-century British journalists 20th-century publishers (people) English male journalists English mystery writers English crime fiction writers English science fiction writers English short story writers English male short story writers English dramatists and playwrights English male screenwriters English people of Irish descent Legion of Frontiersmen members People from Greenwich People of the Second Boer War Victorian poets British male poets English male dramatists and playwrights English male novelists English adoptees Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers War correspondents of the Second Boer War Reuters people Daily Mail journalists English war correspondents English company founders Deaths from diabetes Deaths from pneumonia in California 20th-century English screenwriters

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20United%20States%20%281991%E2%80%932008%29

History of the United States (1991–2008)

The history of the United States from 1991 to 2008 began after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The dissolution signaled the end of the Cold War and left the U.S. unchallenged as the world's sole superpower. The U.S. took a leading role in military involvement in the Middle East. The U.S. expelled an Iraqi invasion force from Kuwait, a Middle Eastern ally of the U.S., in the Persian Gulf War. On the domestic front, the Democrats won a return to the White House with the election of Bill Clinton in 1992. In the 1994 midterm election, the Republicans won control of Congress for the first time in 40 years. Strife between Clinton and the Republicans in Congress initially resulted in a federal government shutdown following a budget crisis, but later they worked together to pass welfare reform, the Children's Health Insurance Program, and a balanced budget. Charges from the Lewinsky scandal led to the 1998 impeachment of Clinton by the House of Representatives but he was later acquitted by the Senate. The U.S. economy boomed in the enthusiasm for high-technology industries in the 1990s until the NASDAQ crashed as the dot-com bubble burst and the early 2000s recession marked the end of the sustained economic growth. In 2000, Republican George W. Bush was elected president in one of the closest elections in U.S. history. Early in his term, his administration approved education reform and a large across-the-board tax cut aimed at stimulating the economy. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the U.S. embarked on the Global War on Terrorism, starting with the 2001 war in Afghanistan. In 2003, the U.S. invaded Iraq, which deposed the controversial regime of Saddam Hussein but also resulted in a prolonged conflict that would continue over the course of the decade. The Homeland Security Department was formed and the controversial Patriot Act was passed to bolster domestic efforts against terrorism. In 2006, criticism over the handling of the disastrous Hurricane Katrina (which struck the Gulf Coast region in 2005), political scandals, and the growing unpopularity of the Iraq War helped the Democrats gain control of Congress. Saddam Hussein was later tried, charged for war crimes and crimes against humanity, and executed by hanging. In 2007, President Bush ordered a troop surge in Iraq, which ultimately led to reduced casualties. Globalization and the new economy During Bill Clinton's presidency American political discourse focused mostly on domestic issues. While the early 1990s saw the US economy mired in recession, a recovery began starting in 1994 and began accelerating thanks to a boom created by technology. The Internet and related technologies made their first broad penetrations into the economy, prompting a Wall Street technology-driven bubble, which Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan described in 1996 as "irrational exuberance". By 1998, the economy was booming and unemployment below 5%. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States was the world's dominant military power and Japan, sometimes seen as the largest economic rival to the U.S., was caught in a period of stagnation. China was emerging as the U.S.'s foremost trading competitor in more and more areas. Localized conflicts such as those in Haiti and the Balkans prompted President Bill Clinton to send in U.S. troops as peacekeepers, reviving the Cold-War-era controversy about whether policing the rest of the world was a proper U.S. role. Islamic radicals overseas loudly threatened assaults against the U.S. for its ongoing military presence in the Middle East, and even staged the first World Trade Center attack, a truck bombing in New York's twin towers, in 1993, as well as a number of deadly attacks on U.S. interests abroad. Immigration, mainly from Latin America and Asia, swelled during the 1990s, laying the groundwork for great changes in the demographic makeup of the U.S. population in coming decades, such as Hispanics replacing African-Americans as the largest minority. Despite tougher border scrutiny after the September 11 attacks, nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2005—more than in any other five-year period in the nation's history. Almost half entered illegally. Dot-com bubble Early 2000 to 2001 saw the dramatic bursting of the dot-com bubble. Excitement over the prospects of Internet stocks had led to huge increases in the major indexes. However, dozens of start-up Internet companies failed as many of the lofty promises heralded by the new world of the Web failed to materialize. On March 10, 2000, the NASDAQ peaked at 5,048.62, more than double its value just a year before. The downturn began on March 13, 2000, triggering a chain reaction of selling that fed on itself as investors, funds, and institutions liquidated positions. In just six days, the NASDAQ had lost nearly nine percent, falling to 4,580 on March 15. By 2001, the bubble was deflating at full speed. A majority of the dot-coms ceased trading after burning through their venture capital, many having never made a profit. In 2002, the GDP growth rate rose to 2.8%. A major short-term problem in the first half of 2002 was a sharp decline in the stock market, fueled in part by the exposure of dubious accounting practices in some major corporations. Another was unemployment, which experienced the longest period of monthly increase since the Great Depression. The United States began to recover from the post-9/11 recession in 2003, but the robustness of the market (7% GDP growth), combined with the unemployment rate (above 6%), led some economists and politicians to refer to the situation as a "jobless recovery". Despite this, economic growth continued apace through early 2008 and unemployment dropped below 5%. Conflicts Persian Gulf War The considerable dependence of the industrialized world on oil starting in the 1930s, with much of the proved oil reserves situated in Middle Eastern countries, became evident to the U.S., first in the aftermath of the 1973 world oil shock and later in the second energy crisis of 1979. Although in real terms oil prices fell back to pre-1973 levels through the 1980s, resulting in a windfall for the oil-consuming nations (especially North America, Western Europe, and Japan), the vast reserves of the leading Middle East producers guaranteed the region its strategic importance. By the early 1990s the politics of oil still proved as hazardous as it did in the early 1970s. Conflict in the Middle East triggered yet another international crisis on August 2, 1990, when Iraq invaded and attempted to annex neighboring Kuwait. U.S. officials feared that Hussein was then on the verge of armed conflict with oil-rich Saudi Arabia, a close ally of Washington's since the 1940s. The United Nations condemned the invasion as an act of aggression; President Bush compared Hussein to Adolf Hitler and declared that if the United States and international community did not act, aggression would be encouraged elsewhere in the world. The Security Council gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait, but Saddam Hussein ignored it, and the Security Council authorized a military response. The war began in January 1991, with U.S. troops forming the majority of the coalition which participated in Operation Desert Storm. By the time Iraqi troops withdrew from Kuwait in late February, Iraq had lost approximately 20,000 troops, with some sources citing as many as 100,000 casualties on the Iraqi side. Conflicts in Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Middle East In December 1992, President Bush sent troops to join the UN Operation Restore Hope, a multi-national effort to restore order and provide humanitarian aid in Somalia, which was torn by civil war, famine, and warlords. By the summer of 1993, the situation had deteriorated. After 24 Pakistani soldiers were killed in June 1993, the UN passed a resolution calling for the arrest and trial of those responsible for the attack. Under the leadership of newly elected President Bill Clinton, U.S. forces launched a concentrated attack on Aidid's stronghold in Mogadishu in Operation Gothic Serpent. In October 1993, 18 soldiers were killed and 84 were wounded in the Battle of Mogadishu. After the attack, Clinton ordered U.S. forces withdrawn from the region, with the last being withdrawn by 1995, and fired his Secretary of Defense Les Aspin who had not sent adequate forces. In the mid-1990s, the United States was involved in the Bosnian War through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), most notably the 1995 bombing campaign, which finally led to the Dayton Peace Agreement which ended the war by the end of 1995. In early 1998, the region became volatile again as war erupted between the army of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Liberation Army, a guerrilla group. A 1999 NATO bombing campaign struck Yugoslavia, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Yugoslavian soldiers and civilians. As a result, Yugoslavia withdrew from Kosovo and Kosovo became an independent state. President Clinton also ordered cruise missile strikes on Iraq in 1996 and bombing attacks on Iraq in 1998, which were launched in response to Saddam Hussein's violation of several UN resolutions, including repression of ethnic minorities (Kurds) and removing UN weapons inspectors. The 1998 campaign, in particular, was meant to de-stabilize the Iraqi government and degrade the power of Hussein. Clinton also signed the Iraq Liberation Act to appropriate funds to Iraqi opposition groups in the hopes of overthrowing Hussein's regime and establishing democracy. Throughout the 1990s, the United States also played an active role in peace efforts in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. President Clinton, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, and Palestinian Prime Minister Yasser Arafat met and signed the Oslo Accords in 1993, which called for the gradual ceding of control of Palestinian areas to the Palestinians in exchange for peace. However, Rabin was assassinated in 1995 and by 2000, the Camp David Summit failed to yield a new agreement. Early Islamist terrorist attacks The 1990s also featured a series of increasingly violent attacks associated with Islamist terrorists, including al-Qaeda, a radical Islamist militant organization led by Osama bin Laden. On February 26, 1993, a truck bomb was detonated at the World Trade Center in New York City, killing six civilians and injuring 919 others, 88 firefighters, and 35 police officers. The attack was intended to destroy the foundation of the North Tower, knocking the tower into the South Tower, which would destroy both buildings and kill thousands of people. While this did not happen, the bomb caused considerable damage to the lower levels of the North Tower. In 1994, four men were convicted of carrying out the bombing and in 1997, two men were convicted for their roles, including the truck driver and the mastermind, Ramzi Yousef. On June 25, 1996, members of Hezbollah Al-Hejaz bombed the Khobar Towers, a complex in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, where members of the United States Air Force were being housed, killing 19 American airmen and injuring over 300 other people. On August 7, 1998, Al-Qaeda bombed the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, including 12 Americans. The U.S. launched cruise missile strikes on a terrorist training camp in Afghanistan, yet this failed to destroy al-Qaeda's vast network. On October 12, 2000, al-Qaeda militants bombed the USS Cole off the coast of Yemen, killing 17 U.S. sailors and severely damaging the ship. Attacks of September 11 On the morning of September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19 members of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. The first hijacked airliner, American Airlines Flight 11, struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8:46 A.M. (EST) in New York City; with a second, United Airlines Flight 175, striking the South Tower less than twenty minutes later at 9:03 A.M. (EST), resulting in the collapse of both 110 story skyscrapers, and the destruction of the World Trade Center. The third hijacked plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, demolishing a section of the outer southwest facing wall. After discovering that their plane, United Airlines Flight 93, was going to be used as a missile, passengers attempted to regain control of the plane which had been redirected towards Washington, D.C. However, after regaining control from the hijackers, the plane crashed near a rural community near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. In total, the attacks killed 2,996 people—2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists. The 9/11 attack was the single deadliest international terrorist incident and the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It refocused American attention to a long war on terrorism, beginning with an attack on al-Qaeda and its Taliban supporters in Afghanistan. War in Afghanistan After the 9/11 attacks, Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, authorizing the President "all necessary and appropriate force against the nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001." This act resulted in the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, in President George W. Bush's broader Global War on Terrorism. The objective of the 2001 invasion, known as Operation Enduring Freedom, was to remove the Islamic fundamentalist Taliban lead government from power in Afghanistan, and to capture top level al-Qaeda leaders, including its founder Osama bin Laden. The invasion, fought in conjunction with the U.S.'s NATO allies, began on October 7, 2001, quickly leading to the overthrow of the Taliban government and implementation of Hamid Karzai as Afghanistan's interim president. In early 2002, after the Battle of Tora Bora and success with Operation Anaconda, the United States began focusing on military intervention in Iraq, shifting military and intelligence resources away from Afghanistan in War on Terror, with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld stating in May 2003 that the "major combat" in the conflict was over. With the approval of the new Afghan Constitution by the Loya jirga and election of President Karzai in 2004, Afghanistan later held its first parliamentary elections in over 30 years in 2005. With a total of 22,000 U.S. troops deployed in Afghanistan by May 2006, the U.S. joined in the ISAF lead Operation Mountain Thrust. In the attempt to quell the Taliban insurgency in southern Afghanistan, more than 1,000 insurgents and 150 ISAF troops were killed in the two-month operation, being the bloodiest period since the start of the war in 2001. With ISAF assuming complete command of security forces in Afghanistan in October 2006, the U.S. saw mounting skepticism from European allies over the war at the 2006 Riga summit. U.S.-Afghan diplomatic relations began to flare after the August 2008 Azizabad airstrike in Herat Province, which killed 91 civilians, including 60 children and 15 women. The attack sparked protest over "collateral damage"; with a 40% increase in civilian deaths in 2008. Iraq War In his State of the Union address in January 2002, President George W. Bush called Iran, Iraq, and North Korea an "axis of evil". The Bush administration later began making a public case for an invasion of Iraq, accusing them of violating the 1991 UN-imposed ceasefire, supporting terrorism and being in possession of weapons of mass destruction (later, the latter of these accusations were proved to be false, and the first two are considered very dubious by most historians). Some important allies of the U.S., including India, Japan, Turkey, New Zealand, France, Germany, and Canada, did not believe that the evidence for the President's accusations was well-founded enough to justify a full-scale invasion, especially as military personnel were still needed in Afghanistan. The UN Security Council did not approve of the invasion, and the U.S. therefore provided most of the forces in the invasion of Iraq. With the support of a coalition whose major partners included the United Kingdom, Australia, Poland, Spain, and Italy, Iraq was invaded on March 20, 2003. After six weeks of combat between the coalition and the Iraqi army, the invading forces had secured control of many key regions; Hussein had fled his palace, his regime clearly over; on May 1, President Bush declared, under a sign reading "mission accomplished", that major ground operations were at an end. Saddam Hussein's sons Qusay and Uday were killed by U.S. forces; Saddam himself was captured in December 2003 and taken into custody. Nevertheless, fighting with the Iraqi insurgency continued and escalated through the 2004 U.S. national elections and beyond. With casualties increasing and the cost of the invasion and reconstruction of Iraq estimated at over $200 billion, the war has lost about one-third of its supporters in the U.S. since the end of major operations was announced. Contemporary polls suggested that international displeasure with the United States was at an all-time high, with a majority of people in Europe believing that the country was too powerful and acted mainly in self-interest, and a vast majority in predominantly Muslim nations believing that the United States was arrogant, belligerent, or hateful to Islam. Domestic terrorism The 1990s and 2000s (decade) became known for several incidents of domestic terrorism, usually perpetrated by those dissatisfied with actions of the federal government, big business, or other aspects of American society. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, a mysterious man known in the media as the "Unabomber" sent mail bombs to figures in the academic and airline industries for various reasons. After a lull, he began another mail bombing campaign in earnest, beginning in 1993. Two people were killed in the mid-1990s and an exhaustive and expensive investigation by the FBI coupled with intense national media interest in the story resulted in the identification and arrest of the perpetrator Theodore Kaczynski, who was sentenced to life in prison. On April 19, 1995, a truck bomb was detonated outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, killing 168 people and injuring over 600. The bombing became the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in the United States and led to sweeping reforms in United States federal building security. The attack's perpetrator, Timothy McVeigh, was an anti-government extremist who used the Waco Siege and Ruby Ridge incidents as justification for his retaliation against the federal government. While McVeigh wanted to specifically target the federal agencies involved in the Waco siege, such as the ATF and DEA, the bombing killed many innocent civilians, including 19 children. McVeigh was executed in 2001 and his accomplice Terry Nichols was sentenced to life in prison. In July 1996, in the midst of the 1996 Summer Olympics at Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, a homemade bomb was detonated, resulting in the deaths of 2 people and injuring over 100. This was followed by similar attacks at two abortion clinics and a lesbian nightclub. In 2003, suspect Eric Robert Rudolph was arrested and sentenced in 2005 to five life sentences for these attacks. In 2001, only days after the September 11 attacks, letters laced with anthrax were sent to several individuals, including prominent news personalities and government officials. The letters killed 5 people and infected a further 17. This incident of bioterrorism was initially blamed on international terrorist organization al-Qaeda, but in 2008, was determined to stem from a Maryland scientist by the name of Bruce Edward Ivins, who committed suicide before he could be prosecuted. Crime and violence The crime epidemic that had begun during the late 1960s finally reached its climax in the early 1990s before starting a steady decline during the Clinton administration. Nevertheless, ongoing addiction (involving sales of marijuana and cocaine) continued to be a major factor in crime in the United States. The overall rate of major crimes fell during the period. In 2009, the FBI estimated 1,318,000 violent crimes occurred nationwide, 1,425,000 in 2000, down from the 1991 level of 1,912,000. Measured per capita, this was a 43% percent drop in violent crime rates. At the time, it was believed that crime had declined because of stricter judicial sentencing practices, the implementation of Three Strikes laws, improving law enforcement technology that made it easier to catch felons, and the end of the crack epidemic. But later statistical assessments ruled out most of these explanations, and tended to find that factors such as greater prosperity, lower alcohol consumption, generation-specific cultural effects, improved security technology, and decreases in leaded petrol had probably caused most of the decline, while public policy conversation began to regret the incarcerative policies of the preceding decades. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), a number of highly publicized assaults against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people occurred in the United States. The most well known of these was the murder of Matthew Shepard in Wyoming after two young men kidnapped, tortured, and murdered him in 1998. In 2009, Congress passed the Matthew Shepard Act, which extended the hate crime law to women, the disabled, and gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transsexuals. A spate of school shootings rocked the country in the late 1990s and the 2000s, the most notable being the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, that left 15 people dead, including both perpetrators Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold. The actions of Harris and Klebold would go on to influence many future mass killers. Others include the Westside Middle School massacre (1998), the Red Lake shootings (2005), the West Nickel Mines School shooting (2006), the Virginia Tech shooting (2007), and the Northern Illinois University shooting (2008). Those shootings led to increased debate over gun politics and media violence, as well as an increased focus on mental health, school safety, and anti-bullying. The Capital Region was struck by the Beltway sniper attacks, a series of sniper attacks on civilians and federal workers by two gunmen over a month-long period in October 2002. The attackers killed 10 people and injured three. Two men were arrested and convicted. During the 2000s, a series of high-profile child abduction cases occurred, including Danielle van Dam (2002), Samantha Runnion (2002), Elizabeth Smart (2002), Carlie Brucia (2004), and Jessica Lunsford (2005). These incidents led to a public outcry and demands for stricter laws against sex offenders, the most notable of which was Jessica's Law. In 1992, riots occurred in Los Angeles after four police officers were acquitted in the beating of black motorist Rodney King. The riots occurred primarily in South Central Los Angeles, a predominantly black and Hispanic area. Fifty-five people were killed and more than 2000 were injured. 3,600 fires were set, destroying over 1,000 buildings and widespread looting occurred, especially of businesses owned by Korean Americans. In all, nearly $1 billion in damage was caused. Disasters Natural disasters On August 24, 1992, the category-five Hurricane Andrew made landfall in South Florida, devastating the southern suburbs of Miami, including Homestead, Kendall, and Cutler Ridge. Two days later, the storm made landfall again in a sparsely populated part of Louisiana, with relatively less damage than in Florida. The storm killed 26 people directly, 39 indirectly. With $26 billion in damage, it became the costliest storm in history at that time. The storm was known for many controversies including the sluggish federal response, which may have impacted President George H.W. Bush's image on domestic issues, as well as poor housing construction which may have led to such high levels of destruction. In March 1993, a massive storm, known as the "Storm of the Century" or "Superstorm" struck the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. The storm set low pressure records; produced hurricane-force winds, storm surge, and killer tornadoes in Florida; and produced snowfall up to across many portions of the Eastern United States. The storm was particularly crippling to the Southern United States, where places like Birmingham, Alabama received one-and-a-half feet of snow and record low temperatures, highly unusual for the region. In all, 300 deaths were attributed to the storm and $6 billion in damage was caused. The Great Flood of 1993 affected the Midwestern United States in the spring and summer of that year, devastating large portions of the Mississippi and Missouri River Valleys and their tributaries. Many small towns were devastated and agricultural losses were significant. 10,000 homes were destroyed and of agricultural lands were inundated. 50 people perished in the floods and $15 billion in damage was done. In the early morning hours of January 17, 1994, the San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles was hit by a 6.7 magnitude earthquake, known as the "Northridge earthquake". The quake killed more than 70 people and injured 9,000. Most of the fatalities were attributed to collapsed buildings, parking structures, or freeways. Striking an urban area, it was very destructive, causing $20 billion in damage. In July 1995, the city of Chicago was hit by a heat wave that had severe repercussions. During a five-day spell from July 12 to 16, the high temperature hovered from the mid 90s to the mid 100s. The heat index pushed 120 degrees on many days. The heat wave resulted in the deaths of over 700 people, many of whom were black, elderly, or poor. The event brought increased attention to these segments of the population and the importance of reaching out to them during heat waves, as well as the concept of the urban heat island effect, in which urban environments exacerbate heat and humidity levels. Additionally, power failures and lack of adequate warning and general preparedness aggravated the situation and may have contributed to such high fatalities. In January 1996, the Blizzard of 1996 affected the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic United States, dumping up to of snow on many areas, crippling major American cities like Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, and Boston. The storm killed 150 people and caused $3 billion in damages. On May 3, 1999, a violent tornado outbreak struck the Southern Great Plains, predominantly Oklahoma. The most destructive tornado was an F5 tornado that struck Oklahoma City and the suburb of Moore. The tornado is one of the most prominent examples of a tornado striking a major urban area and became the first tornado to incur over $1 billion in damages. In all, the outbreak resulted in 50 deaths and over 600 injuries. In 2004, four hurricanes--Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne—struck the state of Florida in a one-month timespan, resulting in over 100 U.S. deaths and nearly $50 billion in damage combined. Out of the four hurricanes, Ivan was the deadliest in the U.S., while Charley was the most destructive. 2005 brought the most active Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history. In August 2005, the powerful Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast region. Katrina broke the levees of New Orleans, Louisiana and flooded 80% of the low-lying city. Extensive devastation and flooding also occurred from Mobile, Alabama west to Beaumont, Texas, with the Mississippi coastline especially hard hit. At least 1,800 lives were lost in the worst domestic calamity since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane. Port facilities, oil rigs and refineries in the Gulf region were damaged, further increasing already high U.S. fuel prices. Residents of New Orleans, many of whom were impoverished and unable (or unwilling) to evacuate before the storm, were trapped for days by the flood waters. Tens of thousands had to be rescued by the U.S. military from their rooftops or from unsanitary and dangerous shelters in public buildings. State and local authorities were overwhelmed by the scale of the events. Their response to the disaster, as well the federal government's, were harshly criticized by legislators and citizens who saw in the confusion a dangerous lack of readiness and inability to preserve public safety. President Bush promised that the federal government would underwrite the rebuilding of New Orleans and other storm-damaged areas, the cost of which was estimated to run as high as $200 billion. Only weeks after Katrina, Hurricane Rita struck the Texas/Louisiana border in September. Rita caused the largest evacuation in U.S. history, as millions of people fled the Houston area, as well as portions of Louisiana. Rita resulted in over 100 fatalities, the vast majority of which were indirect, occurring during the evacuation or in the aftermath of the storm. Additionally, $10 billion in damage was attributed to Rita. Later in the season, Hurricane Wilma struck the state of Florida in October 2005, killing 35 people and doing $20 billion worth of damage. The storm yielded the lowest pressure value ever recorded in history before making landfall in Florida, making it the most intense storm on record. On Super Tuesday in February 2008, in the midst of heated primary elections in multiple states, a destructive tornado outbreak hit the Mid-South region, spawning dangerous nighttime twisters across the region. A total of 87 tornadoes were reported. Over 60 people were killed across Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Alabama and hundreds were injured. Losses exceeded $1 billion. The outbreak was the deadliest outbreak in the US in 23 years, and brought renewed attention to the dangers of nighttime tornadoes, winter tornadoes, and the vulnerability of populations in the Southern United States. In September 2008, after two straight years of not being affected by a serious hurricane, Hurricane Gustav caused $18 billion in damage in Louisiana, and a few weeks later, the Galveston, Texas and Houston, Texas areas were devastated by Hurricane Ike with over $31 billion in damage, making Ike the third most destructive hurricane ever to hit the United States behind Hurricanes Andrew and Katrina. Over 100 people were killed. The hurricanes also caused gas prices to spike to around $4 per gallon. Other disasters Notable aviation disasters in the 1990s included TWA Flight 800 crashing off the coast of Long Island, en route to Paris, France, on July 17, 1996 due to an explosion of the fuel tank, killing 230 and EgyptAir Flight 990 crashing south of Nantucket, Massachusetts, en route to Cairo, Egypt, on October 31, 1999 due to deliberate crashing by the first officer, killing 217. Shortly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the second-deadliest U.S. aviation incident occurred when American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in Queens, New York, en route to the Dominican Republic, on November 12, 2001 due to overuse of rudder controls by the pilot to counteract turbulence, killing 265 (including 5 on the ground). On February 1, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry to the Earth over parts of Texas and Louisiana during STS-107, resulting in the deaths of all seven astronauts. The incident resulted from a piece of foam insulation that fell off during launch, which struck the shuttle, creating a hole that allowed hot gases to penetrate the shuttle during re-entry. In the aftermath of the disaster, the space shuttle program was suspended for 29 months as NASA investigated the incident and made plans to prevent future tragedies. On February 17, 2003, a stampede occurred at the E2 nightclub in Chicago, after an incident involving pepper spray, resulting in the deaths of 21 people. Three days later, on February 20, 100 people perished and over 200 were injured in The Station nightclub fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island, when pyrotechnics ignited flammable sound-proofing during a performance by the band Great White. Both incidents brought attention to the need to crack down on building, fire, and safety code violations to prevent future tragedies. A porch collapse that killed 13 and seriously injured 57 in June 2003 in Chicago further emphasized the problems with building code violations in the United States. On August 1, 2007, the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis collapsed into the Mississippi River, killing 13 people and injuring over 50. The bridge was under construction at the time. The incident brought to attention the need to inspect and rehabilitate the aging infrastructure system in the United States. Energy issues After 1970 the U.S. began importing oil, as consumption kept rising and the nation's oil fields became less productive. Throughout the 1990s the world price of crude oil ranged between $10 and $40, and the average price at the pump did not exceed $1.40. Oil prices tripled after 2002, peaking at $147 in July 2008, about $4 a gallon; the price has continued to fluctuate widely. The theme of "energy independence" led to legislation mandating more fuel efficient autos—even electric vehicles—and more efficient use of energy, ranging from insulation to new light bulbs. Even worse than the high price, was the fear of shortages. Many proposals and pilot projects for replacement energy sources, from ethanol to wind power and solar power were discussed and, indeed, funded by Congress after 2000. In the economic stimulus package signed by President Obama in early 2009, billions of dollars were allocated for research and development of new energy sources. While public attention focused on supplies from the Middle East, the main source was Canada. After 2007, new methods of extraction opened up vast new deposits of oil in the Bakken Formation in North Dakota and Montana. As much as two trillion dollars worth of natural gas is potentially available in the Marcellus Formation deposits located in the historic 19th-century oil fields in Appalachia, stretching from West Virginia through Pennsylvania into western New York. However, there is sharp debate underway regarding the environmental impact on the region's fresh water supply. The question of drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) was highly controversial, as Republican proposals were blocked by the Democrats in Congress. Republicans in 2008 were campaigning for more offshore drilling, with the slogan "drill, baby, drill", but the 2010 Gulf oil spill put all new drilling on hold. Politics The Clinton administration Following the success of the First Gulf War, George H. W. Bush enjoyed very high approval ratings as president. However, economic recession and a reneged campaign pledge dogged Bush, sinking his formerly high approval ratings from the high 80s to the lower 40s and upper 30s. In the wake of Bush's political problems, Bill Clinton won the 1992 contest with 43% of the vote in a three-way race against Bush's 38%. Independent candidate Ross Perot tapped the discontent of the electorate with both parties, drawing roughly evenly from both candidates to receive a record 19% of the popular vote, but no electoral votes. Perot's result qualified his Reform Party to receive Federal Election Commission matching funds for campaign contributions in the 1996 election, thus laying the groundwork for another three-way race during the 1996 presidential election. Aged 46 when he took office in January 1993, Clinton was one of the youngest presidents in US history and the first born after WWII. Historians and political analysts immediately referred to him as marking a "generational shift" in American politics similar to when John F. Kennedy had become the first president born in the 20th century. His promising to focus on and resolve some of the United States' many domestic issues, he entered office with high expectations. Immediately, however, he was hurt when he had to withdraw major nominees (over nonpayment of taxes). Clinton's surgeon general, Jocelyn Elders, attracted controversy over public remarks that "it would be good for parents to teach their children about masturbation". Much of his planned activity was overwhelmed by the intense debate over his proposal to permit gays to serve in the military. In addition, the president had a difficult time gaining the respect of the US military establishment due to having been painted as a Vietnam War draft dodger. The outcome was a new "don't ask, don't tell" compromise policy and loss of initiative in other areas. One early domestic victory of the Clinton administration was the enactment of the 1994 Assault Weapons Ban. The ban was widely decried by the Republicans, who allowed it to lapse in 2004 while they controlled both Congress and the presidency. Bill Clinton's proposal of a national health care system, championed by his wife Hillary Clinton, ignited a political firestorm on the right, which vigorously opposed it on the general principle that government size should be reduced, not expanded. The proposed system did not survive the debate. However Hillary Clinton did succeed, along with a bipartisan coalition of members of congress, in establishing the Children's Health Insurance Program. The Republican Congress The New Deal, the Great Society, and Watergate helped solidify Democratic control of Congress, but the 1980s and early 1990s were a period of fragmentation of their coalition, when the popularity of Democratic incumbents as constituent servants masked growing disenchantment with Congress' governing capacities. The strongly liberal policies of Clinton's first two years in office were also a cause of controversy, and the Democrats suddenly lost control of the House and the Senate for the first time in four decades in the 1994 midterm elections. Once in power, House Republicans, led by Newt Gingrich, faced the difficulty of learning to govern after 40 years as the minority party while simultaneously pursuing their "Contract with America", which they unveiled on the steps of Congress on September 27, 1994. Along with strong backing from traditional Democrats and liberals, Clinton was able to garner the support of moderates who appreciated his centrist "New Democrat" policies, which steered away from the expansion of government services of the New Deal and Great Society and allowed him to "triangulate", taking away many of the Republicans' top issues. One example of such compromises was welfare reform legislation signed into law in 1996. The new law required welfare recipients to work as a condition of benefits and imposed limits on how long individuals may receive payments, but did allow states to exempt 20% of their caseloads from the time limits. Clinton also pursued tough federal anti-crime measures, steering more federal dollars toward the war on drugs, and calling for the hiring of 100,000 new police officers. Compromise came with difficulty, though, as the parties failed to agree on a budget, causing the federal government to shut down in late 1995 into early 1996. By the end of his administration, the federal government had experienced the country's longest economic expansion and produced a budget surplus. The first year of the budget surplus was also the first year since 1969 in which the federal government did not borrow from the Social Security Trust Fund. In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton faced Bob Dole, Republican Senator from Kansas. An uninspired insider, Dole failed to attract the support of the GOP base and the incumbent president pulled to victory in the November election. Ross Perot ran for a second time, but was not allowed at the debate between Clinton and Dole and failed to attract as much support as he had in 1992. As a sign of the general cynicism and voter apathy during this period, turnout for the election was only 49%. Many voters in 1992 and 1996 had been willing to overlook long-standing rumors of extramarital affairs by Clinton, deeming them irrelevant. These matters came to a head, however, in February 1998 when reports surfaced of ongoing sexual relations between Clinton and a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton initially and vigorously denied the relationship; "I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky." His wife Hillary described the allegations as fraudulent smears dredged up by a "vast right-wing conspiracy." Clinton was forced to retract his assertions in August 1998 after the Lewinsky matter came under investigation by independent counsel Kenneth Starr. Clinton was impeached in the United States House of Representatives, but acquitted at his trial by the U.S. Senate. A public backlash forced Speaker Gingrich to resign after a poor showing in the 1998 midterm elections. In 1999, Republican Dennis Hastert of Illinois became Speaker of the House, a position he would hold until 2007, making him the longest-serving Republican Speaker of the House. The George W. Bush administration Though his 2000 election had been the focus of intense controversy which led eventually to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Bush v. Gore where the court ruled 5–4 in the former's favor by siding with the State of Florida's official vote count, Governor George W. Bush was sworn in as President on January 20, 2001. This made the 2000 election the third presidential election in which the electoral vote winner did not receive at least a plurality of the popular vote. Early in his term, Bush signed a $1.3 trillion federal tax cut aimed at revitalizing the economy, but the wars in the Middle East as well as assorted domestic spending packages passed by the Republican Congress led to ballooning Federal deficits. Other laws enacted in his first term included the No Child Left Behind Act education reform bill in 2002, the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act in 2003 and the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act in 2004. The first eight months of his term in office were relatively uneventful; however, it had become clear by that time that the economic boom of the late 1990s was at an end. The year 2001 was plagued by a nine-month recession, witnessing the end of the boom psychology and performance, with output increasing only 0.3% and unemployment and business failures rising. On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners and attacked the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the September 11 attacks, killing nearly 3,000 and injuring over 6,000 people. Osama bin Laden claimed responsibility for the attacks. President Bush ordered all flights grounded and U.S. airspace remained closed for the rest of the week. An emergency bailout package for the airline industry was passed, and stocks fell dramatically when markets re-opened the following week. In response to the attacks, the Bush administration and Congress passed the controversial USA PATRIOT Act, aimed at enhancing security, and established the Department of Homeland Security, a mass consolidation of many federal agencies charged with investigation, intelligence, and emergency management. A new Terrorist Finance Tracking Program monitored the movements of terrorists' financial resources but was discontinued after being revealed by The New York Times. Telecommunication usage by known and suspected terrorists was studied through the NSA electronic surveillance program. On October 7, 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan as part of a global War on Terrorism, aimed at rooting out al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and other terrorist organizations. In mid-2002, President Bush announced that Iraq possessed chemical and nuclear weapons and posed a "clear and present danger" to stability in the Middle East. Plans for a full-scale military invasion of the country began amid widespread controversy. Antiwar protests occurred around the US and numerous other countries, mostly carried out by left-wing organizations, but some on the right and various military and diplomatic figures also doubted the wisdom of this venture. Regardless, the invasion of Iraq commenced on March 20, 2003. The Iraqi Army disintegrated without much resistance and within three weeks, US troops entered Baghdad to an overjoyed mob of Iraqi civilians who proceeded to tear down the giant statue of Saddam Hussein in the middle of the city. Bush announced on May 1, 2003 from an aircraft carrier that major combat operations in Iraq were completed, with a "Mission Accomplished" banner serving as a backdrop. Although the war was initially popular, a guerrilla insurgency quickly began mostly by Al Qaeda operatives who had entered the country. Led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a wave of bombings and beheadings of captives occurred, including the highly publicized killing of government contractor Nick Berg. Zarqawi was killed by US troops in 2005. Ineffective policing strategies led to a mounting death toll among soldiers, but eventually in 2007 a campaign known as "The Surge" began where the US Army launched a large-scale anti-terrorism offensive. Along with the help of Iraqi locals unhappy with the destruction caused by (largely foreigner) Al Qaeda agents, the surge resulted in the end of most major violence in the country. Late in 2003, Hussein was captured, and was subsequently put to trial before the Iraqi people and executed in 2006. Meanwhile, the economy recovered from the early 2000s economic recession, with GDP growth rising to 7% in the middle of 2003, with continued growth through the mid-2000s. The unemployment rate peaked at 6% in 2003, before falling in 2004 and 2005, and dropping below 5% in 2006 and 2007. President George W. Bush was re-elected in November 2004, defeating Democratic contender Senator John Kerry in the electoral vote, and receiving 50.7% of the popular vote against John Kerry's 48.3%. Republicans also made gains in both houses of Congress. President Bush's reelection was assured by public support for the War On Terror, the dour Senator Kerry's lack of appeal to his voter base, and the excessive attacks made on the president by the left, which helped turn public opinion against them. In addition, it came out that Kerry, a Vietnam War veteran, had participated in antiwar protests after returning home in 1970, including throwing away his medals. Some major acts in President Bush's second term included the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act, and the Troubled Asset Relief Program. After seeing high approval ratings for much of his first term, Bush's popularity plummeted to record lows in his second term, due to his handling of the prolonged Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina, and the financial crisis of 2007–2008. President Bush was succeeded on January 20, 2009 by Barack Obama, a Democratic senator from Illinois. The Democratic Congress Democrats swept to victory in the 2006 elections, making Representative Nancy Pelosi Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, the first woman in that position, and electing record numbers of women and minorities. Upon winning the elections, the Democrats drew up a 100-Hour Plan of policy proposals upon assuming power in Congress. Major components of the plan included a pay-as-you-go plan for reducing the deficit; enacting the 9/11 Commission recommendations; increasing the federal minimum wage to $7.25 an hour; allowing the government to negotiate directly with pharmaceutical companies to secure lower drug prices for Medicare patients; and ending large tax subsidies for big oil companies to help foster energy independence. The 110th Congress did little to influence the war in Iraq besides passing a non-binding resolution against the Bush administration's troop surge. In addition, the House of Representatives passed a $124 billion emergency spending measure for war funding with the stipulation of a phased troop withdrawal. President Bush vetoed the bill because of the proposal of scaling down forces, making this the second veto of his term. During the months of May–June 2007, Senator Ted Kennedy and other senators co-sponsored the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. The purpose of this bill called for immigration reform under the intent of bringing amnesty and citizenship. On June 28 the Senate voted 53–45 for cloture, with 60 votes needed, spelling the end to the 2007 Immigration Bill. See also Presidency of George H. W. Bush Timeline of United States history Timeline of modern American conservatism Timeline of United States history (1990–2009) Notes Further reading Abramson, Paul R., John H. Aldrich, and David W. Rohde. Change and Continuity in the 2004 and 2006 Elections (2007), 324pp Barone, Michael. The Almanac of American Politics (1992 and every 2 years to 2012), highly detailed coverage of electoral politics and Congress. Berman, William C. From the Center to the Edge: The Politics and Policies of the Clinton Presidency (2001) 160pp Edwards III, George C. and Desmond King, eds. The Polarized Presidency of George W. Bush (2007), 478pp; essays by scholars Hyland, William G. Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy (1999) Levy, Peter. Encyclopedia of the Clinton Presidency (2002), 400pp; 230 articles, focus on politics Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation 1993–1997: A Review of Government and Politics: 103rd and 104th Congresses (1998); Congress and the Nation 1997–2001: A Review of Government and Politics: 105th and 106th Congresses (2002). Congress and the Nation 2001–2005: A Review of Government and Politics: 107th and 108th Congresses (2007); Congress and the National XII 2005–2008 (2010). Highly detailed nonpartisan coverage (1200 pp each) of all national political issues, including domestic & foreign affairs Gillon, Steve. The pact: Bill Clinton, Newt Gingrich, and the rivalry that defined a generation (2008) 342 pages Johnson, Haynes. The best of times: America in the Clinton years (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) Detailed survey by prominent liberal journalist Patterson, James T. Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush vs. Gore (2005), Oxford History of the United States Skocpol, Theda, and Lawrence R. Jacobs. "Accomplished and Embattled: Understanding Obama's Presidency," Political Science Quarterly (Spring 2012) 127#1 pp. 1–24 online Stiglitz, Joseph E. The Roaring Nineties: A New History of the World's Most Prosperous Decade (2004) economic history Warshaw, Shirley Anne. The Clinton Years (Infobase Publishing, 2009) 524pp; detailed political encyclopedia by prominent scholar Zelizer, Julian E., ed. The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment (Princeton University Press; 2010) 386 pages Primary sources Bush, George W. Decision Points (2010) Clinton, Bill. My Life (2004). Greenspan, Alan. The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (2007), memoir by head of Federal Reserve External links U.S. Response to End of USSR from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Challenges facing the US in the 90s from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Articles containing video clips 1990s in the United States 2000s in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20Kong%20%282005%20film%29

King Kong (2005 film)

King Kong is a 2005 epic adventure monster film co-written, produced, and directed by Peter Jackson. It is the 8th entry in the King Kong franchise and the second remake of the 1933 film of the same title following the 1976 film. The film stars Andy Serkis, Naomi Watts, Jack Black, and Adrien Brody. Set in 1933, it follows the story of an ambitious filmmaker who coerces his cast and hired ship crew to travel to the mysterious Skull Island. There, they encounter prehistoric creatures living on the island as well as a legendary giant gorilla known as Kong, whom they capture and take to New York City. Filming for King Kong took place in New Zealand from September 2004 to March 2005. The project's budget climbed from an initial $150 million to a then-record-breaking $207 million. It was released on December 14, 2005 in Germany and the United States, and made an opening of $50.1 million. While it performed somewhat lower than expected, King Kong made domestic and worldwide grosses that eventually added up to $562 million, becoming the fourth-highest-grossing film in Universal Pictures history at the time and the fifth-highest-grossing film of 2005. It also generated $100 million in DVD sales upon its home video release. King Kong garnered mostly positive reviews from critics, and appeared on several top ten lists for 2005. The film was praised for its special effects, performances, sense of spectacle and comparison to the 1933 original, though some criticisms were focused on its 3-hour long run time. It won three Academy Awards: Best Sound Editing, Best Sound Mixing and Best Visual Effects. A tie-in video game was released alongside the film, which also became a commercial and critical success. Plot In 1933, during the Great Depression, New York City actress Ann Darrow is hired by financially troubled filmmaker Carl Denham to star in a film with actor Bruce Baxter. Ann learns her favorite playwright, Jack Driscoll, is the screenwriter. Filming takes place on the SS Venture, under Captain Englehorn, and under Carl's pretense it will be sailing to Singapore. In truth, Carl intends to sail to and film the mysterious Skull Island. Captain Englehorn has second thoughts about the voyage, prompted by his crew's speculation of trouble ahead. On the voyage, Ann and Jack fall in love. The Venture receives a radio message informing Englehorn there is a warrant for Carl's arrest due to his defiance of the studio's orders to cease production. The message instructs Englehorn to divert to Rangoon, but the ship becomes lost in fog and runs aground on Skull Island. Carl and his film crew, including cameraman Herb, assistant Preston, and boom operator Mike, explore the island and are attacked by natives who kill Mike and another crewman. Englehorn intervenes to rescue the film crew, but as they make efforts to leave the waters, a native sneaks onto the ship and kidnaps Ann. The natives offer Ann as a sacrifice to King Kong, a ape. Jack notices Ann's disappearance, and the crew returns to the island, but are too late as Kong flees with Ann into the jungle. Carl manages to catch a glimpse of Kong and becomes determined to capture him on film. Though initially terrified of her captor, Ann wins Kong over with her juggling and dancing skills and begins to grasp Kong's intelligence and capacity for emotion. Englehorn organizes a rescue party, led by his first mate Hayes and Jack, and accompanied by Carl, Herb, Baxter and Preston. The party gets caught between a herd of Apatosaurus-like Brontosaurus baxteri and a pack of Utahraptor-like Venatosaurus saevidicus hunting them, with Herb and several others killed in the resulting stampede. After this, Baxter leaves the group to return to the ship. The remaining party members continue through the jungle when Kong attacks, making them fall into a ravine resulting in Hayes' death and Carl losing his camera. Kong returns to Ann and saves her from three theropod dinosaurs, Tyrannosaurus rex-like Vastatosaurus rex, before taking her to his lair in the mountains. The remaining rescue party are attacked by giant insects and worms in the ravine resulting in the death of three more crew members. However Preston, Carl, Jack and Hayes' apprentice Jimmy are rescued by Baxter and Englehorn. Jack continues searching for Ann, while Carl decides to capture Kong. Jack goes to Kong's lair and accidentally awakens Kong but manages to escape with Ann. They arrive at the wall with Kong pursuing them. Kong attempts to get Ann back, killing several sailors, but is subdued when Carl knocks him out with chloroform. In New York City, Carl presents "Kong, the Eighth Wonder of the World" on Broadway, starring Baxter and an imprisoned Kong. Ann, who refused to take part in the performance, is played by an anonymous chorus girl. Agitated by the chorus girl not being Ann and flashes from cameras, Kong breaks free from his chains and wrecks the theater. Out on the city's streets, Kong searches for Ann and chases Jack, before encountering Ann again. The U.S. Army soon attacks, and Kong tries getting Ann and himself to safety by climbing to the top of the Empire State Building, where he fights off six Navy planes. Despite managing to down three of them, Kong is mortally wounded from the planes' gunfire and falls. As Jack reaches the top of the building and comforts Ann, civilians, policemen, and soldiers gather around Kong's body in the street, one bystander commenting the airplanes got him. Carl makes his way through the crowd, takes one last look at Kong and says, "It wasn't the airplanes. It was Beauty killed the Beast." Cast Andy Serkis as Kong (motion capture), a mountain gorilla who is around 100–150 years old. He is the last of his species, Megaprimatus kong. Serkis also plays Lumpy, the ship's cook, barber, and surgeon. A brave sailor, he warns Denham about rumors he has heard about Skull Island and Kong. Naomi Watts as Ann Darrow, a struggling vaudeville actress who is desperate for work. Carl first meets her when she tries to steal an apple from a fruit stand. Further into the voyage, she falls in love with Jack and forms a special relationship with Kong. Jack Black as Carl Denham, a film director who obtained the map to Skull Island. Due to his debts, Carl starts to lose his moral compass and obsesses over his film to the point that he disregards safety. Adrien Brody as Jack Driscoll, a screenwriter who falls in love with Ann. He unwittingly becomes part of the voyage when, while delivering a script to Denham, he is deliberately delayed by the latter before he can get off of the Venture. He is the only member of the crew who agrees with Ann that Kong should be left alone. Thomas Kretschmann as Captain Englehorn, the German captain of the Venture. Englehorn shows a dislike for Denham, presumably because of his obsessive nature. Colin Hanks as Preston, Denham's neurotic but honest personal assistant. Jamie Bell as Jimmy, a naive teenager who was found on the Venture, wild and abandoned. Evan Parke as Benjamin "Ben" Hayes, Englehorn's first mate and a mentor to Jimmy, who leads Ann's rescue mission because of his army training and combat experience gained during World War I. Lobo Chan as Choy, Lumpy's best friend and a janitor on the Venture. Kyle Chandler as Bruce Baxter, an actor who specializes in adventure films. He abandons Ann's rescue mission but brings Englehorn to rescue the search party from the insect pit, and is given credit for rescuing Ann during the Broadway display of Kong. John Sumner as Herb, Denham's loyal cameraman. Craig Hall as Mike, Denham's soundman for the journey. William Johnson as Manny, an elderly vaudevillian actor and colleague of Darrow. Mark Hadlow as Harry, a struggling vaudevillian actor. Jed Brophy and Todd Rippon appeared in the film as crew members. In addition, director Jackson appears with makeup artist Rick Baker as the pilot and gunner on the airplane that kills the title character, his children appear as New York children, The Lord of the Rings co-producer Rick Porras and The Shawshank Redemption director Frank Darabont appear as a gunners in the other airplanes, and Bob Burns and his wife appear as New York bystanders. Frequent Jackson collaborator Howard Shore makes a cameo appearance as the conductor of the New York theater from where Kong escapes. Watts, Black, and Brody were the first choices for their respective roles with no other actors considered. In preparation for her role, Watts met with the original Ann Darrow, Fay Wray. Jackson wanted Wray to make a cameo appearance and say the final line of dialogue, but she died during pre-production at 96 years old. Black was cast as Carl Denham based on his performance in the 2000 film High Fidelity, which had impressed Jackson. For inspiration, Black studied P. T. Barnum and Orson Welles. "I didn't study [Welles] move for move. It was just to capture the spirit. Very reckless guy. I had tapes of him drunk off his ass." The native extras on Skull Island were portrayed by a mix of Asian, African, Maori and Polynesian actors sprayed with dark makeup to achieve a consistent pigmentation. Production Development Earlier attempts and 1990s Peter Jackson was nine years old when he first saw the 1933 film, and was in tears in front of the TV when Kong was shot and fell off the Empire State Building. At age 12, he attempted to recreate the film using his parents' Super 8 mm film camera and a model of Kong made of wire and rubber with his mother's fur coat for the hair, but eventually gave up on the project. King Kong eventually became his favorite film and was the primary inspiration for his decision to become a filmmaker as a teenager. He read books about the making of King Kong and collected memorabilia, as well as articles from Famous Monsters of Filmland. Jackson paid tribute to the 1933 film by including Skull Island as the origin of the zombie plague in his 1992 film Braindead. During the filming of Jackson's 1996 film The Frighteners, Universal Pictures was impressed with Jackson's dailies and early visual effects footage. The studio was adamant to work with Jackson on his next project and, in late 1995, offered him the chance to direct a remake of the 1954 film Creature from the Black Lagoon. He turned down the offer, but Universal became aware of Jackson's obsession with King Kong and subsequently offered him the opportunity to direct that remake. The studio did not have to worry about lawsuits concerning the film rights from RKO Pictures (the studio behind the 1933 film) because the King Kong character is held in the public domain. Jackson initially turned down the King Kong offer, but he "quickly became disturbed by the fact that someone else would take it over," Jackson continued, "and make it into a terrible film; that haunted me and I eventually said yes to Universal." At the same time, Jackson was working with Harvey Weinstein and Miramax Films to purchase the film rights of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, while 20th Century Fox was trying to hire him for the 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes. Jackson turned down Planet of the Apes and because Weinstein was taking longer than expected to buy The Lord of the Rings rights, Jackson decided to move forward on King Kong. Weinstein was furious, and, as a result, Jackson proposed a deal between Universal and Miramax that the two studios would equally finance King Kong with Jackson's production company Wingnut Films. Universal would receive distribution rights in the United States, while Miramax would cover foreign territories. Jackson was also warranted the right of final cut privilege, a percentage of the gross profits, as well as artistic control; Universal allowed all filming and visual effects to be handled entirely in New Zealand. The deal was settled in April 1996, and Jackson, along with wife Fran Walsh, began working on the King Kong script. In the original draft, Ann was the daughter of famed English archaeologist Lord Linwood Darrow exploring ancient ruins in Sumatra. They would come into conflict with Denham during his filming, and they would uncover a hidden Kong statue and the map of Skull Island. This would indicate that the island natives were the last remnants of a cult religion that had once thrived on Asia's mainland. Instead of a playwright, Jack was the first mate and an ex-World War I fighter pilot still struggling with the loss of his best friend, who had been killed in battle during a World War I prologue. The camera-man Herb is the only supporting character in the original draft who made it to the final version. The fight between Kong and the three V. rex also changed from the original draft. In the draft, Ann is actually caught in the V. rex jaws, where she becomes wedged, and slashed by the teeth; after the fight, Kong gets her out but she is suffering from a fever, from which she then recovers. Universal approved of the script with Robert Zemeckis as executive producer, and pre-production for King Kong commenced. The plan was to begin filming sometime in 1997 for a summer 1998 release date. Weta Digital and Weta Workshop, under the supervision of Richard Taylor and Christian Rivers, began work on early visual effects tests, specifically the complex task of building a CGI version of New York City circa 1933. Jackson and Walsh progressed with a second draft script, sets were being designed and location scouting commenced in Sumatra and New Zealand. In late 1996, Jackson flew to production of the 1997 film Titanic in Mexico to discuss the part of Ann Darrow with Kate Winslet, with whom he previously worked with on his 1994 film Heavenly Creatures. Minnie Driver was also being reportedly considered. Jackson's choices for Jack Driscoll and Carl Denham included George Clooney and Robert De Niro. However, development for King Kong was stalled in January 1997 when Universal became concerned over the upcoming release of the 1998 film Godzilla, as well as other ape-related remakes with the 1998 film Mighty Joe Young and the 2001 film Planet of the Apes. Universal abandoned King Kong in February 1997 after Weta Workshop and Weta Digital had already designed six months' worth of pre-production. Jackson then decided to start work on The Lord of the Rings film series. Revival of the project With the financial and critical success of the 2001 film The Fellowship of the Ring and the 2002 film The Two Towers, Universal approached Jackson in early 2003, during the post-production of The Return of the King, concerning his interest in restarting development on King Kong. In March 2003, Universal set a target December 2005 release date and Jackson and Walsh brought The Lord of the Rings co-writer Philippa Boyens on to help rewrite their 1996 script. Jackson offered New Line Cinema the opportunity to co-finance with Universal, but they declined. Universal and Jackson originally projected a $150 million budget, which eventually rose to $175 million. Jackson made a deal with Universal whereby he would be paid a $20 million salary against 20% of the box office gross for directing, producing and co-writing. He shared that fee with co-writers Walsh (which also covered her producing credit) and Boyens. However, if King Kong were to go over its $175 million budget, the penalties would be covered by Jackson. Immediately after the completion of The Return of the King, Weta Workshop and Weta Digital, supervised by Taylor, Rivers, and Joe Letteri, started pre-production on King Kong. Jackson brought back most of the crew he had on The Lord of the Rings series, including cinematographer Andrew Lesnie, production designer Grant Major, art directors Simon Bright and Dan Hennah, conceptual designer Alan Lee, and editor Jamie Selkirk. Jackson, Walsh and Boyens began to write a new script in late October 2003. Jackson acknowledged that he was highly unsatisfied with the original 1996 script. "That was actually just Fran and Peter very hurriedly getting something down on paper", Boyens explained. "It was more one of many possible ways the story could go." The writers chose to base the new screenplay on the 1933 film rather than the 1996 script. They also included scenes from James Ashmore Creelman's screenplay that were either abandoned or omitted during production of the original film. In the scene where Kong shakes the surviving sailors pursuing Ann and himself from a log into the ravine, for example, directors Merian Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack originally intended to depict giant spiders emerging from the rock to devour their bodies. This was cut from the original release print, and remains known to Kong fans only via a rare still that appeared in Famous Monsters of Filmland. Jackson included this scene and elaborated upon it. Jackson, Walsh and Boyens also cited Delos W. Lovelace's 1932 novelisation of King Kong as inspiration, which included the character Lumpy (Andy Serkis). To make the relationship between Ann Darrow and Kong plausible, the writers studied hours of gorilla footage. Jackson also optioned Early Havoc, a memoir written by vaudeville performer June Havoc to help Walsh and Boyens flesh out Ann Darrow's characterisation. Carl Denham was intentionally modeled after and inspired by Orson Welles. Their new draft was finished in February 2004. Filming Principal photography started on September 6, 2004 at Camperdown Studios in Miramar, New Zealand. Camperdown housed the native village and the Great Wall, while the streets of New York City were constructed on its backlot and at Gracefield in Lower Hutt, New Zealand. The majority of the SS Venture scenes were shot aboard a full-scale deck constructed in the parking lot at Camperdown Studio and then were backed with a green screen, with the ocean digitally added in post. Scenes set in the Broadway theater from which King Kong makes his escape were filmed in Wellington's Opera House and at the Auckland Civic Theatre. Filming also took place at Stone Street Studios, where a new sound stage was constructed to accommodate one of the sets. Over the course of filming the budget went from $175 million to $207 million over additional visual effects work needed, and Jackson extending the film's running time by thirty minutes. Jackson covered the $32 million surplus himself and finished filming in March 2005. The film's budget climbed from an initial US$150 million to a then-record-breaking $207 million and received a subsidy of $34 million from New Zealand, making it at one point the most expensive film yet made. Universal only agreed to such an outlay after seeing a screening of the unfinished film, to which executives responded enthusiastically. Marketing and promotion costs were an estimated $60 million. The film's length also grew; originally set to be 135 minutes, it soon grew to 200, prompting Universal executives to fly to New Zealand to view a rough cut, but they liked it so their concerns were addressed. Other difficulties included Peter Jackson's decision to change composers from Howard Shore to James Newton Howard seven weeks before the film opened. Visual effects Jackson saw King Kong as opportunity for technical innovations in motion capture, commissioning Christian Rivers of Weta Digital to supervise all aspects of Kong's performance. Jackson decided early on that he did not want Kong to behave like a human, and so he and his team studied hours of gorilla footage. Serkis was cast in the title role in April 2003 and prepared himself by working with gorillas at the London Zoo. He then traveled to Rwanda, observing the actions and behaviors of gorillas in the wild. Rivers explained that the detailed facial performance capture with Serkis was accomplished because of the similarities between human and gorilla faces. "Gorillas have such a similar looking set of eyes and brows, you can look at those expressions and transpose your own interpretation onto them." Photos of silverback gorillas were also superimposed on Kong's image in the early stages of animation. Serkis had to go through two hours of motion capture makeup every day, having 135 small markers attached to different spots on his face. Following principal photography, Serkis had to spend an additional two months on a motion capture stage, miming Kong's movements for the film's digital animators. Apart from Kong, Skull Island is inhabited by dinosaurs and other large fauna. Inspired by Dougal Dixon's works, the designers imagined what 65 million years or more of isolated evolution might have done to dinosaurs and the other creatures. Music King Kong: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was composed by James Newton Howard, who composed The Sixth Sense, Dinosaur, Atlantis: The Lost Empire and Treasure Planet. Originally, Howard Shore, who worked with Peter Jackson on The Lord of the Rings, was to compose the film's score. Shore completed and recorded several cues before he and Jackson parted ways. Shore's appearance as the conductor in the New York theatre from which Kong escapes remained in the film. James Newton Howard's score was later nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. The film's soundtrack includes Al Jolson's recording of "I'm Sitting on Top of the World", Peggy Lee's "Bye Bye Blackbird", and some themes from Max Steiner's soundtrack for the original 1933 film. Marketing The marketing campaign started in full swing on June 27, 2005, when the teaser trailer made its debut, first online at the official Volkswagen website at 8:45 p.m. EDT, then 8:55 p.m. EDT across media outlets owned by NBCUniversal (the parent of Universal Studios), including NBC, Bravo!, CNBC, and MSNBC. That trailer appeared in theatres attached to War of the Worlds, which opened on June 29. Jackson also regularly published a series of 'Production Diaries', which chronicled the film's production. The diaries started shortly after the DVD release of The Return of the King as a way to give Jackson's The Lord of the Rings fans a glimpse of his next project. These diaries are edited into broadband-friendly installments of three or four minutes each. They consist of features that would normally be seen in a making-of documentary: a tour of the set, a roving camera introducing key players behind the scene, a peek inside the sound booth during last-minute dubbing, or Andy Serkis doing his ape movements in a motion capture studio. A novelisation of the film and a prequel novel entitled King Kong: The Island of the Skull were also written. A multi-platform video game, entitled Peter Jackson's King Kong, was released, which featured an alternate ending. There was also a hardback book entitled The World of Kong: A Natural History of Skull Island, featuring artwork from Weta Workshop to describe the film's fictional wildlife. Jackson has expressed his desire to remaster the film in 3-D at some point in the future. Jackson was also seen shooting with a 3-D camera at times during the shoot of King Kong. Reception Box office In North America, King Kong grossed $9,755,745 during its Wednesday opening and $50,130,145 over its first weekend for a five-day total of $66,181,645 from around 7,500 screens at 3,568 theaters. Some analysts considered these initial numbers disappointing, saying that studio executives had been expecting more. The film went on to gross $218,080,025 in the North American market and ended up in the top five highest-grossing films of the year there. The film grossed an additional $344,283,424 at the box office in other regions for a worldwide total of $562,363,449, which not only ranked it in the top five highest-grossing films of 2005 worldwide, but also helped the film bring back more than two-and-a-half times its production budget. During its home video release, King Kong sold over $100 million worth of DVDs in the largest six-day performance in Universal Studios history. King Kong sold more than 7.6 million DVDs, accumulating nearly $194 million worth of sales numbers in the North American market alone. As of June 25, 2006, King Kong has generated almost $38 million from DVD rental gross. In February 2006, TNT/TBS and ABC paid Universal Studios $26.5 million for the television rights to the film. Critical response King Kong received positive reviews from critics. On aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 84% based on 267 reviews, with an average rating of 7.68/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Featuring state-of-the-art special effects, terrific performances, and a majestic sense of spectacle, Peter Jackson's remake of King Kong is a potent epic that's faithful to the spirit of the 1933 original." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. It was placed on the 'top ten' lists of several critics, with Roger Ebert giving it four stars, and listed it as 2005's eighth-best film. The film received four Academy Award nominations, for Visual Effects, Sound Mixing (Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Michael Hedges, Hammond Peek), Sound Editing, and Production Design, winning all but the last. Entertainment Weekly called the depiction of Kong the most convincing computer-generated character in film in 2005. Some criticised the film for retaining racist stereotypes that had been present in the 1933 film, though it was not suggested that Jackson had done this intentionally. King Kong ranks 450th on Empire magazine's 2008 list of the 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. The Guardian reviewer Peter Bradshaw said that it "certainly equals, and even exceeds, anything Jackson did in Lord of the Rings." However, Charlie Brooker, also of The Guardian, gave a negative review in which he describes the film as "sixteen times more overblown and histrionic than necessary". Accolades Cinematic and literary allusions Jack Black and critics have noted Carl Denham's similarity to Orson Welles. When Driscoll is searching for a place to sleep in the animal storage hold, a box behind him reads Sumatran Rat Monkey – Beware the bite! This is a reference to the creature that causes mayhem in Jackson's 1992 film Braindead. In that film, the rat monkey is described as being found only on Skull Island. Jimmy reads part of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness while en route to Skull Island, at one point comparing their journey to that of the novella. References to original 1933 King Kong Fay Wray, the original Ann Darrow, was asked by Jackson to appear in a brief cameo role in which she would utter the film's final line: "It was beauty killed the beast." At first, she flatly refused, but then seemed to consider the possibility. However, she died shortly after her meeting with Jackson. As in the original film, the line ultimately went to the character of Carl Denham. An ad for Universal is visible while Kong is tearing up Times Square. In the 1933 film, an ad for Columbia Pictures appeared in the same spot, and the production designers replicated it, but Columbia asked for a large amount of money for its use, so effects artists replaced it. When Denham is considering who to play the part before meeting Ann, he suggests "Fay", but his assistant Preston replies, "She's doing a picture with RKO." Music from the 1933 film is heard, and Denham mutters, "Cooper, huh? I might have known." Fay Wray starred in the 1933 film, which was directed by Merian C. Cooper and released by RKO. At the time she was performing in another Cooper/Schoedsack production, The Most Dangerous Game with Robert Armstrong. In the 1933 film, Cooper made up an "Arabian proverb" about "beauty and beast". The 2005 remake repeats the fake proverb. Early in this film, Denham shoots a scene for his film in which Ann, in-character, proclaims she's never been on a ship before, and Bruce Baxter improvises lines proclaiming annoyance. The dialogue they exchange is taken verbatim from early scenes between Ann and Jack Driscoll in the 1933 film. Ironically, in this film, Jack Driscoll expresses disapproval of such words toward Ann. Kong's New York stage appearance looks very much like a re-enactment of the 1933 film's sacrifice scene, including the posts the 'beauty' is tied to and the nearly identical performance, costumes, and blackface makeup of the dancers. In addition, the music played by the orchestra during that scene is Max Steiner's original score for the 1933 film. The battle between Kong and the final V. rex is almost move-for-move like the last half of the fight between Kong and the T. rex in the 1933 film, right down to Kong playing with the dinosaur's broken jaw and then standing, beating his chest and roaring victoriously. After the crew captures Kong on the beach, Denham speaks a line from the 1933 film: "The whole world will pay to see this! We're millionaires, boys! I'll share it with all of you. In a few months, his name will be up in lights on Broadway! KONG, THE EIGHTH WONDER OF THE WORLD!" Home media King Kong was released on DVD on March 28, 2006 in the United States and Canada. The three versions that came out are a single-disc fullscreen, a single-disc widescreen, and a two-disc 'Widescreen Special Edition'. A three-disc Deluxe Extended Edition was released on November 14, 2006 in the U.S., and on November 3 in Australia. Twelve minutes were reinserted into the film, and an additional forty minutes included with the rest of the special features. The film was spread onto the first two discs with commentary by Peter Jackson and Philippa Boyens, and some featurettes on discs one and two, whilst the main special features are on disc three. Another set was released, including a WETA figurine of a bullet-ridden Kong scaling the Empire State Building, roaring at the Navy with Ann in hand. The extended film amounts to 200 total minutes. A special HD DVD version of King Kong was part of a promotional pack for the release of the external HD DVD Drive for the Xbox 360. The pack contained the HD DVD drive, the Universal Media Remote and King Kong on HD DVD. It was also available separately as a standard HD DVD. The film's theatrical and extended cuts were released together on Blu-ray Disc on January 20, 2009. A re-release of the Blu-Ray with a new bonus disc containing nearly all of the extras from the 2-disc Special Edition DVD, the Deluxe Extended Edition 3-disc DVD, and the "Peter Jackson's Production Diaries" 2-disc DVD titled the "Ultimate Edition" was released on February 7, 2017. An Ultra HD Blu-ray followed in July 2017. Cancelled sequel In March 2021, Adam Wingard said in an interview that back in 2013, Peter Jackson had been interested in producing a sequel to the film, titled Skull Island, with Wingard as director and Simon Barrett writing it. Jackson had been impressed with Wingard's work in You're Next, and investigated a potential sequel. However, the King Kong rights had already been transferred to Warner Bros. by 2013, which complicated a sequel to a Universal-produced movie. Wingard says that Jackson was thinking of setting the proposed movie during World War I, which would make it a prequel, but that the studio was uninterested in a World War I era film. Wingard pivoted to offering a modern day sequel, but ultimately nothing came of the proposal. Ultimately, Warner Bros. rebooted the franchise with Kong: Skull Island in 2017, which was part of the MonsterVerse. Wingard would later direct 2021's Godzilla vs. Kong, another film set in the MonsterVerse. Theme park The Universal Orlando Resort location Islands of Adventure features an attraction called "Skull Island: Reign of Kong" which is based on Peter Jackson's remake. While the King Kong part of the Universal Studios Hollywood resort was destroyed by massive fire, a 3D short inspired by the film was eventually created in 2010. This was King Kong: 360 3-D, which is another attraction based on Peter Jackson's remake. See also List of most expensive films References External links 2005 films 2000s action adventure films 2000s monster movies New Zealand epic films New Zealand adventure films American films American action adventure films 2005 horror films American epic films Remakes of American films English-language films BAFTA winners (films) Films about dinosaurs Empire State Building in fiction Films about filmmaking Films directed by Peter Jackson Films set in 1933 Films set in the Indian Ocean Films set on fictional islands Films set in Manhattan Films shot in New Zealand Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award Films that won the Best Sound Mixing Academy Award Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films using motion capture King Kong (franchise) films Lost world films Films with screenplays by Peter Jackson Films with screenplays by Fran Walsh Films with screenplays by Philippa Boyens Universal Pictures films WingNut Films films Films scored by James Newton Howard Films produced by Carolynne Cunningham Films produced by Fran Walsh Films produced by Peter Jackson Adventure film remakes Epic film remakes Films set in prehistory Films about apes

476008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Statement%20%28film%29

The Statement (film)

The Statement is a 2003 drama film directed by Norman Jewison and starring Michael Caine. It is based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Brian Moore, and the screenplay was written by Ronald Harwood. The plot was inspired by the true story of Paul Touvier, a Vichy French police official, who was indicted after World War II for war crimes. In 1944, Touvier ordered the execution of seven Jews in retaliation for the Resistance's assassination of Vichy France minister Philippe Henriot. For decades after the war he escaped trial thanks to an intricate web of protection, which allegedly included senior members of the Roman Catholic priesthood. He was arrested in 1989 inside a Traditionalist Catholic priory in Nice and was convicted in 1994. He died in prison in 1996, at the age of 81. The Statement is the most recent film directed by Jewison. The film was Alan Bates's final theatrical role following his death in the year of the film’s release. Plot Pierre Brossard (Caine), a French Nazi collaborator, orders seven Jews executed during World War II. Some 40 years later, he is pursued by "David Manenbaum" (Matt Craven), a hitman who is under orders to kill Brossard and leave a printed 'Statement' on his body proclaiming the assassination was vengeance for the Jews executed in 1944. Brossard kills "Manenbaum," hiding the dead body after finding the printed "Statement" and discovering that his pursuer was travelling on a Canadian passport. Brossard for years has taken refuge in sanctuaries in southern France within the Traditionalist Catholic community, appealing to long-time allies who have operated in great secrecy to shield him and provide him with funds. But now they bring increased scrutiny to themselves for continuing to do so. The murder of "Manenbaum" attracts the interest of local police and eventually the persistent Investigating Judge Annemarie Livi (Tilda Swinton). She becomes absorbed by the case, not discouraged by the lack of assistance she encounters from official sectors. Livi forms an alliance with the similarly dedicated Colonel Roux (Jeremy Northam), a senior French Gendarmerie investigator, and the pair initially suspect that "Manenbaum" was part of a Jewish assassination plot. They discover that Brossard has been the subject of several previous investigations, dating back more than 40 years, which have all failed. Livi and Roux discover hidden resources, tightening the noose around Brossard, who finds his allies increasingly reluctant to help him. Doubts arise over the theory of a Jewish hit squad, but it is clear that someone wants Brossard dead. Brossard in desperation pays a surprise visit to his estranged wife Nicole (Charlotte Rampling), a maid who is living in lower-middle-class circumstances in Marseille and is very apprehensive about seeing him again. Brossard's allies, including certain priests and a wartime colleague who has risen into a position of great power within the French government, are feeling the heat from the relentless questioning of Livi and Roux. Now desperate and unsure whom to trust, Brossard seeks new identity papers and money so he can escape France forever. On the night he is to escape, however, his handler Pochon (Ciaran Hinds) shoots him dead on orders from his former protectors within the government, who fear he will cause trouble for them if captured. Following Brossard's death, Livi and Roux trace the conspiracy to protect him to a high-ranking government official (John Neville), and arrest him for treason. Cast Michael Caine as Pierre Brossard Tilda Swinton as Anne-Marie Livi Jeremy Northam as Colonel Roux Alan Bates as Armand Bertier John Neville as The Old Man Charlotte Rampling as Nicole Ciarán Hinds as Pochon Frank Finlay as Commissaire Vionnet Matt Craven as David Manenbaum Noam Jenkins as Michael Levy Joseph Malerba as Max Colin Salmon as Father Patrice Historical basis The Statement is based on the best-selling 1995 novel of the same name by Brian Moore. In the novel and film, the fictional Brossard is based on Paul Touvier, a member of the Milice, a paramilitary police force of the Vichy French regime during World War II who ordered the execution of seven Jews in 1944. After the war, he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death in absentia, but with the aid of right-wing Roman Catholic clergymen, who provided him refuge in safe houses and monasteries, Touvier avoided capture. He received a controversial pardon from the President of France, Georges Pompidou, in 1971, but remained on the run. Unlike Brossard, Touvier was finally arrested in 1989, on a new charge of crimes against humanity; tried, convicted, and sentenced to life in prison, he died in jail in 1996, aged 81. Reception The film holds an approval rating of 24% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7/10. The site's consensus reads: "The movie bores despite a splendid performance by Michael Caine." The film grossed a little over $765,000 domestically and $1.55 million worldwide in its limited release against a budget of $27 million. References External links 2003 films 2003 drama films American films American drama films Canadian films Canadian drama films French films English-language Canadian films English-language French films French drama films British films British drama films English-language films Films based on Canadian novels Films set in 1992 Films about Nazi fugitives BBC Film films Sony Pictures Classics films Films directed by Norman Jewison Films scored by Normand Corbeil Films with screenplays by Ronald Harwood

476932

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine%20Ridge%20Indian%20Reservation

Pine Ridge Indian Reservation

The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (), also called Pine Ridge Agency, is an Oglala Lakota Indian reservation located virtually entirely in the U.S. state of South Dakota. Originally included within the territory of the Great Sioux Reservation, Pine Ridge was created by the Act of March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888. in the southwest corner of South Dakota on the Nebraska border. Today it consists of of land area and is one of the largest reservations in the United States. The reservation encompasses the entirety of Oglala Lakota County and Bennett County, the southern half of Jackson County, and a small section of Sheridan County added by Executive Order No. 2980 of February 20, 1904. Of the 3,142 counties in the United States, these are among the poorest. Only of land are suitable for agriculture. The 2000 census population of the reservation was 15,521; but a study conducted by Colorado State University and accepted by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development has estimated the resident population to reach 28,787. Pine Ridge is the site of several events that mark milestones in the history between the Sioux of the area and the United States (U.S.) government. Stronghold Table—a mesa in what is today the Oglala-administered portion of Badlands National Park—was the location of the last of the Ghost Dances. The U.S. authorities' attempt to repress this movement eventually led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890. A mixed band of Miniconjou Lakota and Hunkpapa Sioux, led by Chief Spotted Elk, sought sanctuary at Pine Ridge after fleeing the Standing Rock Agency, where Sitting Bull had been killed during efforts to arrest him. The families were intercepted by a heavily armed detachment of the Seventh Cavalry, which attacked them, killing many women and children as well as warriors. This was the last large engagement between U.S. forces and Native Americans and marked the end of the western frontier. Changes accumulated in the last quarter of the 20th century; in 1971 the Oglala Sioux Tribe (OST) started Oglala Lakota College, a tribal college, which offers 4-year degrees. In 1973 decades of discontent at the Pine Ridge Reservation resulted in a grassroots protest that escalated into the Wounded Knee Incident, gaining national attention. Members of the Oglala Lakota, the American Indian Movement and supporters occupied the town in defiance of federal and state law enforcement in a protest that turned into an armed standoff lasting 71 days. This event inspired American Indians across the country and gradually led to changes at the reservation, with a revival of some cultural traditions. In 1981 the Lakota Tim Giago started the Lakota Times at Pine Ridge; he published it until selling it in 1998. Located at the southern end of the Badlands, the reservation is part of the mixed grass prairie, an ecological transition zone between the short-grass and tall-grass prairies; all are part of the Great Plains. A great variety of plant and animal life flourishes on and adjacent to the reservation, including the endangered black-footed ferret. The area is also important in the field of paleontology; it contains deposits of Pierre Shale formed on the seafloor of the Western Interior Seaway, evidence of the marine Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, and one of the largest deposits of fossils of extinct mammals from the Oligocene epoch. History 19th century Great Sioux Reservation As stipulated in the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. government built Indian agencies for the various Lakota and other Plains tribes. These were forerunners to the modern Indian reservations. The Red Cloud Agency was established for the Oglala Lakota in 1871 on the North Platte River in Wyoming Territory. The location was one mile (1.6 km) west of the present town of Henry, Nebraska. The location of the Red Cloud Agency was moved to two other locations before being settled at the present Pine Ridge location. Pine Ridge Reservation was originally part of the Great Sioux Reservation established by the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868); it encompassed approximately 60 million contiguous acres () of western South Dakota (all of what is now called West River), northern Nebraska and eastern Wyoming. Theft of the Black Hills In 1874 George Armstrong Custer led the U.S. Army Black Hills Expedition, which set out on July 2 from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory, with orders to travel to the previously uncharted Black Hills of South Dakota. Its mission was to look for suitable locations for a fort, find a route to the southwest, and to investigate the potential for gold mining. After the discovery of gold was made public, miners began invading Sioux Territory. "Custer's florid descriptions of the mineral and timber resources of the Black Hills, and the land's suitability for grazing and cultivation ... received wide circulation, and had the effect of creating an intense popular demand for more settlers to invade the Black Hills." Initially the U.S. military tried to turn away trespassing miners and settlers. Eventually President Grant, the Secretary of the Interior, and the Secretary of War, "decided that the military should make no further resistance to the occupation of the Black Hills by miners." These orders were to be enforced "quietly", and the President's decision was to remain "confidential". As more settlers and gold miners encroached upon the Black Hills, the Government determined it had to acquire the land from the Sioux, and appointed a commission to negotiate the purchase. The negotiations failed, as the Sioux resisted giving up what they considered sacred land. The U.S. resorted to military force. They declared the Sioux Indians "hostile" for failing to obey an order to return from an off-reservation hunting expedition by a specific date. In the dead of winter, the Sioux found the overland travel was impossible. The consequent military expedition to remove the Sioux from the Black Hills included an attack on a major encampment of several bands on the Little Bighorn River. Led by General Custer, the attack ended in his defeat; it was an overwhelming victory of chiefs Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse over the 7th Cavalry Regiment, a conflict often called Custer's Last Stand. US forces were vastly outnumbered. In 1876 the U.S. Congress decided to open up the Black Hills to development and break up the Great Sioux Reservation. In 1877, it passed an act to make 7.7 million acres (31,000 km2) of the Black Hills available for sale to homesteaders and private interests. In 1889 Congress divided the remaining area of Great Sioux Reservation into five separate reservations, defining the boundaries of each in its Act of March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888. Pine Ridge was established at that time. Wounded Knee Massacre The Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek (Lakota: Cankpe Opi Wakpala). On the day before, a detachment of the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment commanded by Major Samuel M. Whitside intercepted Spotted Elk's (Big Foot) band of Miniconjou Lakota and 38 Hunkpapa Lakota near Porcupine Butte and escorted them westward to Wounded Knee Creek where they made camp. The rest of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, led by Colonel James Forsyth, surrounded the encampment, supported by four Hotchkiss guns. On the morning of December 29, 1890, the troops went into the camp to disarm the Lakota. One version of events claims that during the process, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote was reluctant to give up his rifle, saying he had paid a lot for it. A scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle escalated and a shot was fired, which resulted in the 7th Cavalry opening firing indiscriminately from all sides, killing men, women, and children, as well as some of their fellow troopers. Those few Lakota warriors who still had weapons began shooting back at the troopers, who quickly suppressed the Lakota fire. The surviving Lakota fled, but U.S. cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed. In the end, U.S. forces killed at least 150 men, women, and children of the Lakota Sioux and wounded 51 (four men, and 47 women and children, some of whom died later); some estimates placed the number of dead at 300. Twenty-five troopers also died, and thirty-nine were wounded (six of the wounded would also die). Many Army deaths were believed to have been caused by friendly fire, as the shooting took place at close range in chaotic conditions. The site has been designated a National Historic Landmark and is administered by the National Park Service. 20th century White Clay Extension In 1882, at the urging of Valentine McGillycuddy—the US Indian Agent at the Pine President Agency—President Chester A. Arthur issued an executive order establishing the White Clay Extension, an area of land in Nebraska extending south of the reservation's border and wide approximately perpendicular to the road leading north into the town of Pine Ridge on the reservation. This road is today's Nebraska Highway 87. McGillycuddy lobbied for the buffer zone to prevent white peddlers from engaging in the illegal sale of "knives, guns, and alcohol" to the Oglala Lakota residents of Pine Ridge. A law passed in Congress in 1832 banned the sale of alcohol to Native Americans. The ban was ended in 1953 by Public Law 277, signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. The amended law gave Native American tribes the option of permitting or banning alcohol sales and consumption on their lands. The OST and many other tribes chose to exclude alcohol from their reservations because of the problems for their people. In 1887, when Congress enacted the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887—breaking up the reservations and allotting a plot to the registered head of each family—the Whiteclay Extension was specifically exempted. On March 2, 1889, the U.S. Congress enacted the Great Sioux Agreement of March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888, breaking up the Great Sioux Reservation and setting boundaries for the six reduced reservations. In this act, the White Clay Extension was incorporated again within the boundaries of the Pine Ridge Agency. "Provided, That the said tract of land in the State of Nebraska shall be reserved, by Executive order, only so long as it may be needed for the use and protection of the Indians receiving rations and annuities at the Pine Ridge Agency." On January 25, 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt signed an executive order returning the of the White Clay Extension to the public domain. The town of Whiteclay in Sheridan County, Nebraska, just over the border from the reservation, was founded in the former "Extension" zone. Merchants quickly started selling alcohol to the Oglala Sioux. On February 20, 1904, Roosevelt amended the executive order to return back to Pine Ridge: "the section of land embracing the Pine Ridge Boarding School irrigation ditch and the school pasture". Bennett County Land dispute In 1975 in Cook v. Parkinson 525 F.2d 120 (8th Cir. 1975) ruled that Bennett County was not considered part of the Pine Ridge Reservation. However, "the United States participated only as amicus before the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals in Cook v. Parkinson, 525 F.2d 120 (8th Cir. 1975) and is not bound by that decision because it did not participate in the litigation. The United States was a party in United States v. Bennett County, 394 F.2d 8 (8th Cir. 1968), in which the State of South Dakota had to obtain permission from the Department of Interior in order to fix roads or condemn property in Bennett County, consistent with the property's reservation status as well as Putnam v. United States 248 F.2d 292 (8th Cir. 1957) which ruled that "Bennett County is within the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation created by the Act of Congress of March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888." The Federal Government recognizes Bennett County as being entirely within the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. More recently in 2004, in State of South Dakota v. Acting Great Plains Regional Director, Bureau of Indian Affairs Docket Number IBIA3-24-A the State of South Dakota argued against an Oglala Sioux Tribal member's application to the BIA to return a 10-acre tract of land in Bennett County into Federal Trust arguing it was outside of the Boundary of the Pine Ridge Reservation. The judge ruled in favor of the applicant and Bureau of Indian Affairs' affirmant that Bennett County is indeed within the boundaries of the Reservation. Indian Reorganization Act During the 1930s, President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration made changes in federal policy to improve conditions for American Indians. In response to complaints about corruption and injustices in the BIA management of reservations, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, permitting tribal nations to reorganize with self-government. It encouraged them to adopt a model of elected representative governments and elected tribal chairmen or presidents, with written constitutions. While tribes welcomed taking back more control of their government, this change eroded the power and structure of the traditional hereditary leaders of the clan system. The Oglala Sioux Tribe developed a tribal government along democratic constitutional lines, with a chairman to be elected for a two-year term. This short term makes it difficult for leaders to accomplish longer-term projects, but the tribe has not changed its constitution. The BIA still has had the ability to oversee some tribal operations, including the police. Historically BIA tribal police were often assigned from other Indian tribes rather than representing local people and understanding their culture, which created tensions. Many traditionalists among the Oglala Lakota never supported the new style of government; tribal elders were still respected, and there were multiple lines of authority and influence among different groups on the reservation. Political factions also formed between those who were mixed-bloods or had urban experiences, and those who were full-bloods and tended to be more traditional in practices and culture. The people continued to be under assimilation pressure: through the early part of the century, many children were sent away to Indian boarding schools where they were usually required to speak English and were prohibited from speaking Lakota; they were usually expected to practice Christianity rather than native religions. In the late 20th century, many of these institutions were found to have had staff who abused the children in their care. Taking of Badlands Bombing Range In 1942 the federal government took privately held Pine Ridge Indian Reservation land owned by tribal members in order to establish the Badlands Bombing Range of (the largest portion is located in Oglala Lakota County). It also leased communally held Oglala Sioux Tribe (OST) land for this defense installation. Among the 125 families evicted was that of Pat Cuny, an Oglala Sioux. He fought in World War II in the Battle of the Bulge after surviving torpedoing of his transport in the English Channel. Dewey Beard, a Miniconjou Sioux survivor of the Wounded Knee Massacre, who supported himself by raising horses on his allotment received in 1907 was also evicted. The small federal payments were insufficient to enable such persons to buy new properties. In 1955 the 97-year-old Beard testified of earlier mistreatment at Congressional hearings about this project. He said, for "fifty years I have been kicked around. Today there is a hard winter coming. ... I might starve to death." Since 1960, the U.S. has returned portions of the bombing range to the OST. The 1968 Public Law 90-468 returned to the OST and set aside former tribal lands as the Badlands National Monument (the smaller Air Force Retained Area is within the boundaries of the reservation.) A 2008 USAF & OST agreement initiated "a three-month $1.6 million project to remove unexploded ordnance" from the bombing range. Wounded Knee Incident In the early 1970s, tribal tensions rose and some members turned to the American Indian Movement (AIM) for help. Longstanding divisions on the reservation resulted from deep-seated political, ethnic and cultural differences. Many residents did not support the elected tribal government. Many residents were upset about what they described as the autocratic and repressive actions by the tribal president Dick Wilson, elected in 1972. On February 21, the tribal council was called into session to consider impeaching Wilson. Five hundred Oglala members were in attendance. He was criticized for favoring family and friends with jobs and benefits, not consulting with the tribal council, and creating a private militia, known as the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONs), to suppress political opponents. He used tribal funds to pay for this force. Wilson's response was to screen a right wing propaganda film. After a series of meetings held in the Calico community near the Pine Ridge Agency, the old traditional chiefs and the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) called down to AIM in Rapid City and asked them to come to Pine Ridge. A meeting was arranged between Wilson and Russell Means. Five of Wilson's supporters cornered Means in the parking lot. Means escaped. Women elders such as Ellen Moves Camp, founder of the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO), called for action. They organized a public protest for the next day. About 200 AIM and Oglala Lakota activists occupied the hamlet of Wounded Knee on February 27, 1973. They demanded the removal of Wilson, restoration of treaty negotiations with the U.S. government, and correction of U.S. failures to enforce treaty rights. Visits by the U.S. senators from South Dakota, FBI agents and United States Department of Justice (DOJ) representatives, were attended by widespread media coverage, but the Richard Nixon administration was preoccupied internally with Watergate. As the events evolved, the activists at Wounded Knee had a 71-day armed stand-off with U.S. law enforcement. AIM leaders at the site were Russell Means, Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellecourt, and Carter Camp; traditional spiritual leaders of the Lakota, such as Frank Fools Crow, were also prominent. Fools Crow led Oglala Lakota spiritual ceremonies and practice in their ways for participants. Joseph H. Trimbach of the FBI and Steve Frizell of DOJ led the government. Casualties of gunfire included a U.S. Marshal, who was seriously wounded and paralyzed; and the deaths of Frank Clearwater, a Cherokee from North Carolina, and Buddy Lamont, a local Oglala Lakota. After Lamont's death, the Oglala Lakota elders called an end to the occupation. Some Lakota have alleged that Ray Robinson, a civil rights activist, was killed during the Wounded Knee occupation, as he disappeared there. The stand-off ended, but Wilson remained in office. The U.S. government said it could not remove an elected tribal official as the Oglala Sioux Tribe had sovereignty. Ensuing open conflict between factions caused numerous deaths. The murder rate between March 1, 1973, and March 1, 1976, was 170 per 100,000; it was the highest in the country. More than 60 opponents of the tribal government allegedly died violent deaths in the three years following the Wounded Knee Incident, a period called the "Reign of Terror" by many residents. Among those killed was Pedro Bissonette, executive director of the civil rights organization OSCRO. Residents accused officials of failing to try to solve the deaths. In 2000, the FBI released a report regarding the 57 alleged unsolved violent deaths on pine ridge reservation and accounted for most of the deaths, and disputed the claims of unsolved murders. The report stated that only 4 deaths were unsolved and that some deaths were not murders. AIM representatives criticized the FBI report. Pine Ridge Shootout During this period of increased violence, on June 26, 1975, the reservation was the site of an armed confrontation between AIM activists and the FBI and their allies, which became known as the 'Pine Ridge Shootout'. Two FBI agents, Jack R. Coler and Ronald A. Williams, were killed and executed at close range. The agents had been following a car when they were shot at by its occupants and others. AIM activist Joe Stuntz was later killed by responding police. Stuntz was found wearing Coler's FBI jacket. In two separate trials, the U.S. prosecuted participants in the firefight for the deaths of the agents. AIM members Robert Robideau and Dino Butler were acquitted after asserting that they had acted in self-defense. Leonard Peltier was extradited from Canada and tried separately because of the delay. He was convicted on two counts of first–degree murder for the deaths of the FBI agents and sentenced to two consecutive terms of life in prison. Murder of Anna Mae Aquash On February 24, 1976, the body of Anna Mae Aquash, a Mi'kmaq activist and the most prominent woman in AIM, was found in the far northeast corner of the Pine Ridge Reservation. Missing since December 1975, she had been shot execution-style. At the time, some AIM people said that she was a government informant, but the FBI has denied that. In 1974 AIM had discovered that Douglas Durham, then head of security, was an FBI informant. Three federal grand juries were called to hear testimony on the Aquash murder: in 1976, 1982 and 1994, but it was more than a quarter of a century before any suspects were indicted and tried for the crime. Two AIM members, Arlo Looking Cloud and John Graham, were convicted of her murder in 2004 and 2010 respectively, and sentenced to life in prison. Bruce Ellison, Leonard Peltier's lawyer since the 1970s, invoked his Fifth Amendment rights and refused to testify at the grand jury hearings on Looking Cloud or at his trial in 2004. At trial, the federal prosecutor referred to Ellison as a co-conspirator in the Aquash case. 21st century Alcoholism among residents has been a continuing problem in the life of the reservation since its founding. Since 1999, activists from the Pine Ridge Reservation, AIM, and Nebraskans for Peace have worked to have beer sales shut down in nearby Whiteclay, Nebraska, a border town. Whiteclay sells millions of cans of beer annually, primarily to residents from the reservation in South Dakota, where alcohol possession and consumption is prohibited. In 2008 the documentary The Battle for Whiteclay, about the toll of alcoholism and activists' efforts to control beer sales, was released, which has attracted wide attention. The Nebraska legislature allocated funds in late 2010 for increased police patrols in Pine Ridge by the county sheriff's office, based away in Rushville. While other tribes and reservations also prohibited alcohol at one time, many have since legalized its sales on their reservations. They use the revenues generated to improve health care and life on the reservation, and they prefer to directly control the regulation of alcohol sales and police its use. A 2007 survey found that 63% of federally recognized tribes in the lower 48 states have legalized liquor sales on their reservations. They include the nearby Sicangu Oyate or Brulé Sioux at the Rosebud Indian Reservation, also located in South Dakota. In 2006, the Omaha Nation in northeastern Nebraska started requiring payment of tribal license fees and sales taxes by liquor stores located in towns within its reservation boundaries in order to benefit in the revenues generated by alcohol sales. Activists at Pine Ridge have worked to persuade Nebraska to enforce its own laws and support the tribe's prohibition. In 2004 the Oglala Sioux Tribe voted down a referendum to legalize alcohol sales, and in 2006 the tribal council voted to maintain the ban on alcohol sales, rather than taking on the benefits and responsibility directly. At a discussion at Bellevue University on April 2, 2010, Lance Morgan, CEO of Ho-Chunk, Inc.—the development corporation of the Winnebago Reservation—said the Oglala Sioux needed to concentrate on economic development. He believes that poverty is at the heart of its people's problems. The Winnebago used revenues from a casino and alcohol sales at their reservation in eastern Nebraska to build an economic development corporation. It now employs 1,400 people in 26 subsidiaries. With its revenues, the Winnebago have been able to build a hospital, a new school and $1 million in new housing. Kevin Abourezk reported that Stew Magnuson—the author of The Death of Raymond Yellow Thunder, a study of issues related to the Pine Ridge reservation and its border towns—described alcohol prohibition at the reservation "as a complete failure." Magnuson said, "Whenever you have prohibition, you're going to have places like Whiteclay." He thought prohibition contributed to bootlegging on the reservation. On February 9, 2012, the Oglala Sioux Tribe filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court of Nebraska against the four liquor stores in Whiteclay, Nebraska, as well as the beverage distributors and the brewery companies who make it. The suit, Oglala Sioux Tribe v. Jason Schwarting, Licensee of Arrowhead Inn, Inc. et al, sought $500 million in damages for the "cost of health care, social services and child rehabilitation caused by chronic alcoholism on the reservation, which encompasses some of the nation's most impoverished counties." The suit claims that the defendants knowingly and willingly sell excessive amounts of alcohol, knowing that most of it is smuggled onto the reservation, in violation of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation and Federal law. The defendants listed in the suit are the following: Anheuser-Busch InBev Worldwide, Inc. SAB Miller d/b/a Miller Brewing Company Molson Coors Brewing Company Miller Coors, LLC Pabst Brewing Company Pivo, Inc. d/b/a High Plains Budweiser. President, Treasurer: Jeffrey J. Scheinost. Secretary: Cynthia A. Scheinost. Director: Marykate Scheinost Dietrich Distributing Co., Inc. President, Director, Treasurer: John D. Dietrich Coors Distributing of West Nebraska d/b/a Coors of West Nebraska; President, Treasurer, Director: James K. Raymond, Treasurer, Director: Evelyn K. Raymond Klemm Distributing Inc.: President: Robert (Bob) F. Klemm, Secretary: Barrett R. Klemm d/b/a Arrowhead Distributing, Inc. President: Patrick A, O'Neal. Secretary: Greg Burkholder, Treasurer: Kent O'Neal Jason Schwarting d/b/a Arrowhead Inn, Inc. President: Jason Schwarting, Secretary: Vic Clarke Sanford Holdings, LLC d/b/a D&S Pioneer Service. Corporation Members: Doug Sanford, Steve Sanford Stuart J. Kozal d/b/a/ Jumping Eagle Inn. Owners: Stuart J. Kozal, Lillie I. Norman Clay M. Brehmer and Daniel J. Brehmer d/b/a State Line Liquor On August 14, 2013, voters voted to end prohibition and legalize alcohol, so the tribe can use the profits for education and detoxification and treatment centers. Demographics In a 2005 interview, Cecilia Fire Thunder, the first female president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, noted, "[Sixty-eight] percent of the college graduates on the reservation are women. Seventy percent of the jobs are held by women. Over 90 percent of the jobs in our schools are held by women." The 2010 U.S. Census counted 18,834 individuals living on the Pine Ridge Reservation. The vast majority (16,906) identified as American Indian. 89% of residents are unemployed; 53.75% of the residents live below the Federal poverty level Average per capita income in Oglala Lakota County is $8,768 and ranks as the "poorest" county in the nation. The infant mortality rate is five times higher than the national average; Native American amputation rates due to diabetes are three to four times higher than the national average; Death rate due to diabetes is three times higher than the national average; Teen suicide is four times the national average; and Average life expectancy on Pine Ridge is 66.81 years, the lowest in the United States. Other statistics, attributed to the Pine Ridge hospital, cite an average life expectancy of just 47 years for men and 55 years for women. Tribal government The reservation is governed by the eighteen-member Oglala Sioux Tribal Council, who are elected officials rather than traditional clan life leaders, in accordance with the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. The Executive Officers of the council are the President (also called Chairman), Vice President, Secretary, and Treasurer. Primary elections are held in October and the General election in November. The President and Vice-President are elected at large by voters to a term of office of two years; the Secretary and Treasurer are appointed by the Tribal Council. Council members serve a term of two years. There are nine election districts on the reservation. One representative is elected for each 1,000 tribe members. A Constitution was approved on January 15, 1936, with amendments approved on December 24, 1969; December 3, 1985; July 11, 1997. Politics While many residents have continued to struggle with the tribal government, BIA and other federal representatives, some have become more politically active in other ways. In 2002, the Pine Ridge Reservation was part of a statewide voter registration campaign organized by the Democratic Party. That year, Oglala Lakota candidates won offices in Bennett County; since the 1990s, Native Americans (mostly Lakota) have become a majority of the county's population. Charles Cummings was elected as county sheriff, Gerald 'Jed' Bettelyoun to one of the positions as county commissioner, and Sandy Flye became the first Native American elected to a seat on the county school board. Statewide turnout by Native Americans helped elect the Democratic candidate Tim Johnson to the U.S. Senate by a narrow margin. In 1992, John Yellow Bird Steele was elected president of the OST, the first of what would become a record-setting seven terms as president. Despite winning seven elections, Steele only won re-election once, in 2002. In most cases, he was defeated when seeking re-election, only to come back and defeat his successor in the next election (or, in the case of the 2006 election, to defeat the person serving out the rest of his successor's term). In 2004, Cecilia Fire Thunder became the first woman elected president of the OST, defeating the incumbent Steele and Russell Means. In 2005 she led negotiations with Nebraska to strengthen law enforcement in Whiteclay by hiring more Oglala tribal police and having them deputized by Nebraska to patrol in the town. The town sells massive quantities of alcohol to the Lakota, although it is illegal on the reservation. The "historic agreement" was signed by Fire Thunder following approval by the tribal council, the Nebraska Governor Dave Heineman and State Attorney General Jon Bruning. On March 21, 2006, Fire Thunder announced her plan to bring a Planned Parenthood clinic to the reservation to improve health services to women. The South Dakota state legislature had recently passed a stringent abortion law. In May 2006, the Oglala Sioux tribal council unanimously voted to ban all abortions on the reservation, regardless of the circumstances. The council also voted to suspend Fire Thunder for 20 days pending an impeachment hearing. On June 29, 2006, the tribal council voted to impeach Fire Thunder: it said that founding the clinic was outside her authority and she had failed to consult with them. Her two-year term would have expired in October 2006. In November 2006, state voters reviewed the law passed by the state legislature, and they overwhelmingly defeated the ban on abortions without exceptions, by 55.57 percent to 44.43 percent. A ban with exceptions was proposed in 2008, and state voters rejected that by a margin of 55.21 percent to 44.79 percent. The U.S. Congress supported Fire Thunder's tribal law enforcement initiative, earmarking $200,000 over two years to pay for the increased cost of OST police patrols in Whiteclay. By May 2007, the tribe had spent none of the money. Fire Thunder's impeachment and tribal political conflict appeared to prevent its implementing the agreement. However, during 2006 and 2007, tribal activists tried to blockade the road inside the reservation to confiscate beer being illegally brought in. The OST police chief complained of having insufficient money and staff to control the beer traffic. The tribe lost the earmarked funds and let the initiative lapse. In November 2008, Theresa Two Bulls, a Democratic State Senator for South Dakota since 2004, became the second woman elected president of the OST. She succeeded Steele and defeated Russell Means. When the reservation had a rash of suicides in late 2009, she declared a state of emergency and organized a call-in to President Barack Obama. She organized services during a blizzard to assist residents in outlying areas on the reservation. Steele was re-elected in 2010, defeating Two Bulls. Bryan Brewer was elected as Tribal president in November 2012, defeating the incumbent Steele with 52% of the vote. A retired educator and school administrator, he was new to tribal politics. He worked to develop housing and discourage alcoholism, even leading a protest against Whiteclay alcohol sales. The journalist Brian Ecoffey noted that Brewer represented a "new direction" for the tribe, as he had not held political office before. Steele then defeated Brewer in 2014, starting what would be Steele's last term. Troy "Scott" Weston represented the Porcupine District in the 2010 and 2012 administrations; Weston was elected OST President in 2016 beating Steele, the incumbent, in a landslide victory. The Rapid City Journal reported that nearly 2/3 of voters at the polls cast their ballot for Weston. Federal, state, and tribal law The Oglala Sioux Tribe maintains legal jurisdiction over all crimes committed on the reservation by tribal members, non-reservation Indians, and those willing to relinquish authority to the tribal courts. Felony crimes and others which have been specifically assumed by the federal government, as defined by various acts of the U.S. Congress, are outside their jurisdiction and are prosecuted by the BIA and FBI. The ruling of the Supreme Court of the United States in Ex parte Crow Dog (1883) marked the high point of Indian sovereignty in law enforcement on reservations; since then federal legislation and subsequent Supreme Court decisions have reduced Native American sovereignty in this area. Public Law 280, enacted by Congress in 1953 and substantially amended in 1968, allows for states to assume jurisdiction on Indian reservations if approved by referendum by the affected reservations. In South Dakota, Public Law 280 is applied only to state highways running through reservations. Landmark cases affecting tribal criminal law include: : On August 5, 1881, Crow Dog, a Brulé Lakota subchief, shot and killed the Oglala principal chief Chief Spotted Tail, on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. A grand jury was convened, and Crow Dog was tried and convicted in Dakota Territorial court in Deadwood, South Dakota, and sentenced to death. In 1883 his lawyers petitioned for writs of habeas corpus and certiorari; his case was argued in November 1883 before the U.S. Supreme Court. In a unanimous decision, the court ruled that, according to the provisions of the Treaty of Fort Laramie, the Dakota Territorial court had no jurisdiction over the Rosebud reservation; it overturned Crow Dog's conviction. In response to this ruling, Congress passed the Major Crimes Act in 1884, defining crimes that would be prosecuted under federal law. Major Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1: Congress gave federal authorities concurrent jurisdiction over seven major crimes committed on a reservation, regardless of whether one of the parties was Indian. This legislation reduced the criminal jurisdiction previously held by tribal courts. : Congress left to the Indian Tribal Courts jurisdiction over all crimes not taken by the Federal government. Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe, 231 F.2d 89 (8th Cir. 1956): Indian Tribal Courts have inherent jurisdiction over all matters not taken over by the Federal government. : Indian Tribes do not have inherent criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians absent Congressional authority. : Indian Tribes have inherent powers to punish offenses against Tribal laws when committed by Tribal members. Law enforcement In traditional Sioux society, law enforcement was performed by members of the warrior societies, such as the Kit Foxes, Badgers and Crow Owners, known as the akicitas. They maintained order in camp and during communal buffalo hunts. Each band would appoint one society as the official akicita group for the year. This custom prevailed for a short time after the Sioux were forced onto the reservations. In 1878 Congress authorized the formation of an Indian police force to provide law enforcement in Indian territory and upon reservations. They were superseded by police assigned and managed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The BIA police force is composed of members of various Native American tribes from throughout the United States, and personnel often do not belong to the nations they oversee. Since the late 1970s, the Oglala Sioux Tribe has received Federal funding to maintain its own reservation police, supplemented by BIA personnel. The FBI has jurisdiction for any felony crimes committed upon the reservation. After the reservation police respond to the initial call, a BIA police person initiates the investigation and notifies the FBI. The OST is developing a new Tribal Justice Center, to include the tribal courts and a restorative justice courtroom. The latter concept relates to traditional Lakota ideas about restoring the victim and offender to balance within the community. In practice, it is intended to bring together the affected parties in facilitated communication, together with members of the community; to settle on a form of reparation or compensation by the offender that is satisfactory to the victim, which may include money, public apology, and/or community service work; and to bring the offender quickly back within the community with its support for the future. As the process is being used at Kahnawake, a Mohawk reserve in Canada, the First Nation community works to intervene and settle issues before arrest. Social issues and economy Pine Ridge is the eighth-largest reservation in the United States and it is the poorest. The population of Pine Ridge suffer health conditions, including high mortality rates, depression, alcoholism, drug abuse, malnutrition and diabetes, among others. Reservation access to health care is limited compared to urban areas, and it is not sufficient. Unemployment on the reservation hovers between 80% and 85%, and 49% of the population live below the federal poverty level. Many of the families have no electricity, telephone, running water, or sewage systems; and many use wood stoves to heat their homes, depleting limited wood resources. Health and healthcare The population on Pine Ridge has among the shortest life expectancies of any group in the Western Hemisphere: approximately 47 years for males and 52 years for females. The infant mortality rate is five times the United States national average, and the adolescent suicide rate is four times the United States national average. Members of the reservation suffer from a disproportionately high rate of poverty and alcoholism. By 2011, a gang culture formed among Native American teenagers on the reservation. Young residents leave the reservation for larger cities. When they return to the reservation, they bring gang culture with them. The Pine Ridge Comprehensive Health Facility is the on-reservation hospital run by the Indian Health Service. The inpatient hospital also has an outpatient clinic, dental clinic, and a surgery suite. The emergency room is staffed by two physicians as well as two physician assistants and a hospitalist in triage. The "Sick Kids" clinic is also based at the facility, with pediatricians on staff. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the hospital increased its capacity to provide respiratory and critical care, with assistance from Stanford Center for Innovation in Global Health. In June 2011, the OST broke ground on a long-planned 60-bed nursing home facility, to be completed within two years. It was developed in cooperation with the federal government, the states of Nebraska and South Dakota. In October 2016, the Oglala Lakota Nursing Home, $6.5-million, 80-bed nursing home for the care of their elderly, opened in White Clay, South Dakota. The tribe borrowed money for a loan for the facility from the Mdewakanton Shakopee tribe, agreeing to "an independent advisory board and an experienced outside management firm." It is working with Native American Health Management, LLC (NAHM), to gain training for staff and oversight of operations until people gain experience. Alcoholism Alcoholism is widespread on the reservation, affecting an estimated 85 percent of the families. Tribal police estimate that 90 percent of the crimes are alcohol-related. Because of historic problems with alcohol use by its members, the Oglala Sioux Tribe has prohibited the sale and possession of alcohol on the Pine Ridge Reservation since 1832. The exception was a brief period in the 1970s when on-reservation sales were tried. The town of Whiteclay, Nebraska (just over the South Dakota-Nebraska border), previously had approximately 12 residents and four liquor stores, which sold over 4.9 million 12-ounce cans of beer in 2010 almost exclusively to Oglala Lakota from the reservation (nearly 170 cans per person). The Whiteclay liquor stores were shut down by the state of Nebraska in 2017, though the store owners are appealing to have the stores reopened. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a spectrum of anatomical structural anomalies, and behavioral, neurocognitive disabilities resulting from the exposure of a fetus to alcohol in the womb. The most severe manifestation within this spectrum is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). A quarter of the children born on the reservation are diagnosed with either FASD or FAS, resulting in lifelong challenges. Education The state of education on the reservation is severely lacking in multiple areas. The school drop-out rate is over 70%, and the teacher turnover rate is eight times that of the U.S. national average. Red Cloud Indian School is located in the area. In 1971 the tribe founded the Oglala Lakota College, one of the earliest tribal colleges in the nation, and part of Native American institution building of the last 40 years. First started as a two-year community college, it has expanded to offer four-year baccalaureate degrees, as well as a master's in Lakota leadership. It is operated by tribal people, with a tribal board. In 2011, it had an enrollment of 1,400. Since 1994, tribal colleges have been classified as land-grant colleges by the U.S. Congress. Oglala Lakota County School District (formerly the Shannon County School District) serves areas in Oglala Lakota County. It includes: Lakota Tech High School Batesland Elementary School (preK-8th) Red Shirt School Rockyford Elementary School Wolf Creek Elementary School Bureau of Indian Education (BIE)-operated and affiliated schools include: Crazy Horse School (K-12th) Little Wound School (K-12) Pine Ridge School (K-12) American Horse School (K-8) Porcupine School (K-8) Wounded Knee District School Other K-12 Schools operating on the Reservation include: Lakota Waldorf School Loneman Day School (Isnawica Owayawa) Head Start at Oglala Lakota College Private schools include: Red Cloud Indian School that consists of three schools: Our Lady of Lourdes School (K–8), Red Cloud Elementary (K-8) and Red Cloud High School. Lakota Immersion Childcare Globally, there are currently only 2,000 Lakota language speakers, and fewer than 1,000 at Pine Ridge, and the age of the average Lakota speaker is 60, making it a "critically endangered" language. In the fall of 2012, a new program was founded to combat the loss of the language and create a young generation of fluent Lakota speakers. Peter Hill, a former elementary teacher at the reservation who speaks Lakota, started the early childcare language immersion program from his own basement, serving just five students with crowdsourced funding. In the program, students and teachers speak exclusively Lakota, with children eventually learning English as a second language. Over the last six years, the childcare program has expanded significantly to serve students ages one to five, and has additionally begun offering kindergarten and first grade. A continuing challenge for the school is creating teaching materials, since textbooks and other teaching resources are not typically printed in Lakota. Thus, creating new materials like children's books, apps, or videos, as well as translation of existing works into the language is crucial. Beyond the immersion childcare, other efforts are underway to bring Lakota into community members' lives in relevant ways: basketball games are frequently announced in Lakota, after new words were coined and the coach began using them in practices and drills with the teams, and the first news website written entirely in Lakota was launched in 2016. Economy As of 2011, the reservation has little economic development or industry. No discount stores are located on the reservation. But, its people receive $80 million annually in federal monies, such as Social Security and veterans benefits; they spend most of this money largely in stores located off the reservation in Nebraska border towns, creating no benefit for the tribe. As the journalist Stephanie Woodward noted, little money changes hands within the reservation. As an example of the money that goes outside the reservation to border towns, the owner of Whiteclay's grocery store, Arrowhead Foods, said he "did more than a million dollars in business last year, with an entirely Native American clientele." Similarly, Nebraska State Senator LeRoy J. Louden, whose district includes Whiteclay, noted the recent construction of a Walmart superstore at Chadron, Nebraska, another border town. He said, "That store was built because of the reservation." The tribe has prohibited sale and consumption of alcohol on the reservation, but Pine Ridge residents support four liquor stores at Whiteclay, which in 2010 paid federal and state excise taxes (included in liquor's sale price) of $413,932, according to the state liquor commission. Some residents have argued that the continuing rate of alcoholism on the reservation shows the failure of the prohibition policy. They say that if the tribe legalized alcohol sales, it could keep much of the revenues now flowing to Nebraska and to state and federal taxes, and use such monies to bolster the reservation's economy and health care services, including building a much-needed detoxification facility and rehab services. Despite the lack of formal employment opportunities on Pine Ridge, considerable agricultural production is taking place on the reservation. Only a small percentage of the tribe directly benefits from this, as land is leased to agricultural producers. According to the USDA, in 2002 there was nearly $33 million in receipts from agricultural production on Pine Ridge. Less than one-third of that income went to members of the tribe. Most employment on the reservation is provided by community institutions, such as the tribal Oglala Lakota College, and other schools; the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA); and the U.S. Indian Health Service (IHS). In October 2016 the tribe opened an 80-bed nursing home; at full operation it will employ 100 staff. The tribe is working on a justice center and has advertised an art competition for works for its spaces, to include the tribal courts and a restorative justice courtroom. Enterprises owned by the Oglala Sioux tribe include the Prairie Wind Casino, a Parks and Recreation Department, guided hunting, and cattle ranching and farming. The Oglala Sioux Tribe also operates the White River Visitor Center near the Badlands National Park. It has one radio station, KILI-FM in Porcupine. In 1973 at the time of the Wounded Knee Incident, not one Native American worked for a South Dakota newspaper. In 1981 the Lakota journalist Tim Giago founded and published the independent Lakota Times on the reservation. (Most such newspapers have been owned by tribal governments.) He renamed it Indian Country Today in 1992, as he was providing more national coverage of Native American news. In 1998 he sold the paper to the Oneida Nation; it was then the largest independent Native American paper in the country. It continues to operate the paper as part of a media network; Indian Country Today features regular political coverage that notes the increasing number of Native Americans gaining office at the local and state levels. Giago founded the Native American Journalists Association (NAJA) and has worked to recruit Native American students into journalism through its foundation, as well as to establish Indian studies in journalism schools. Connie Smith started the Lakota Country Times, a weekly newspaper which she owns. It is the official legal newspaper for the Pine Ridge and Rosebud reservations. It also publishes material online. In 2009 it won first place for general excellence of its website from NAJA, and in 2010 won three prizes, including two for best articles. Lakota Federal Credit Union, established to serve the financial needs of residents of the reservation, was established in 2012. Industrial hemp After doing research and noting the worldwide market for hemp, in July 1998, the Tribal Council approved 'industrial hemp agriculture' for the reservation. With demand high for the crop, three Lakota farmers, Tom Cook, his wife Loretta Afraid of Bear and American Horse, grandson of Chief American Horse, formed the Slim Butte Land-Use Association. To emphasize the issue of Sioux sovereignty in land use, they publicly announced the first planting of industrial hemp seeds on April 29, 2000, on the 132nd anniversary of the signing of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty, which established the reservation. The Association believed production of industrial hemp-based concrete could help solve the severe shortage of suitable dwellings on the reservation, as it is a sustainable construction material, and work for the unemployed. Hemp can also be processed to yield oil for cooking and other products. Congress in 1968 prohibited the cultivation of Cannabis-related crops, including hemp, as part of anti-drug legislation, although hemp does not have the psychoactive properties of cannabis as a drug. Industrial hemp is legal in Canada. The law in the U.S. is enforced by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). In August 2000 and July 2001, federal DEA agents destroyed industrial hemp crops on the Pine Ridge reservation. After the raid destroyed his crops, the farmer Alex White Plume appealed a DEA court order that prohibited his growing the crop, but the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court ruling in United States v. White Plume (8th Cir. 2006), that the Lakota had to comply with DEA registration process and get a permit to cultivate hemp. The former crop is currently growing wild in the area. The North Dakota legislature has authorized hemp growing statewide and issued the nation's first two state licenses to grow hemp. The licensed farmers may face DEA legal problems if they do not acquire DEA permits. As the DEA had not yet acted on their requests, in June 2007 the men filed a lawsuit seeking federal court permission to grow the crop without being subject to federal criminal charges. Private enterprise at Pine Ridge Members of the tribe have developed varieties of private enterprise, from arts to modern technologies. Numerous artists maintain private studios and use diverse media in both traditional Lakota artforms, such as parfleche and beadwork, and contemporary styles. Oglala are becoming involved in modern technologies in start-up companies, such as Lakota Solar Enterprises (LSE), started on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 2006 by Henry Red Cloud (a fifth-generation descendant of Chief Red Cloud) with help from the non-profit Trees, Water and People. Lakota Solar Enterprises is active in education and training for the advancement of renewable and sustainable energy and technology with a focus of bringing employment opportunities to members of OST as well as other tribal nations throughout the United States. Such technologies include: solar heating and electricity; compressed earth blocks for structural use; geothermal heating; solar assisted irrigated farming, cellulose insulation, and wind generated power. Tourism at Pine Ridge History Wounded Knee Massacre and burial site. The events at Wounded Knee represents a significant event in Native American and United States history; it was the last significant clash between Native Americans and U.S. troops and was considered to be the closing of the Western Frontier. The trail that Spotted Elk and his band took on the reservation is marked with signs, including the spot where they surrendered to U.S. troops and were escorted to a site by Wounded Knee Creek. Stronghold Table: a remote mesa in what is now the Stronghold (South) Unit of Badlands National Park, which is administered by the tribe. Site of the last Ghost Dances prior to the Wounded Knee Massacre. Red Cloud Cemetery: location of the grave of Chief Red Cloud, as well as Bloody Knife (1840–1876), Chief of the Indian Scouts of the 7th Cavalry under General George Armstrong Custer. Bloody Knife was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn while assigned to Major Marcus Reno's detachment. Cultural tourism Oglala Lakota Nation Pow Wow, an annual pow wow featuring dancers from various parts of the U.S. Badlands Ranch Resort: Started as private enterprise, it was purchased in July 2009 by the Oglala Sioux Tribe. It is located at the base of Badlands National Park. Ecotourism The Oglala Sioux Park & Recreation Authority offers eco-tours and hunting trips on the reservation as well as engaging in wildlife conservation work. Geology: The Badlands (Makhóšiča)- formed by erosion, represent over 65 million years of the earth's geological history starting from the late Cretaceous when the entire middle of the United States was covered by the Western Interior Seaway. The Pine Ridge area contain one of the largest deposits of mammal fossils from the Oligocene epoch. Paleontology: One of the most complete fossil accumulations in North America is found within the badlands. The rocks and fossils preserve evidence of ancient ecosystems and give scientists clues about how early mammal species lived. Flora: Pine Ridge is located in the Great Plains region, which encompasses the nation's largest grassland ecosystem. the northern portion of the reservation and Badlands National Park contain one of the largest expanses of mixed grass prairie in the United States. Fauna: In addition to bison, the reservation is also home to pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). There is a colony of endangered black-footed ferret, the only ferret native to North America, in the Conata Basin, which is also home to black-tailed prairie dogs. White River: A Missouri River tributary that flows through Nebraska and South Dakota. A variety of fish species suitable for sportfishing live in the river. Casino Prairie Wind Casino, which began operation in 1994 in three doublewide trailers, was upgraded with the completion of a $20 million casino, a 78-room hotel and a full-service restaurant in early 2007. The casino provides 250 jobs, most held by tribal residents, with revenues helping support education and social welfare efforts. Geography Located in southwest South Dakota, the reservation takes of space. The nearest urban center, Rapid City, South Dakota, is from the center of the reservation. The most inland point in North America in located within the reservation, near the town of Allen, and is from the nearest coastline. Topography The topography is generally rolling mixed grass prairie, interspersed in various location, especially to the north, into typical badlands topography. The higher elevations of the prairie are covered by wind blown sands that form dunes, blowouts, and thin sheets. The southern part of the reservation is crossed by Pine Ridge, which is probably a fault scarp, and which supports the growth of scattered pine and cedar trees. Well-developed sandhills are the dominant features along the southern boundary of the reservation, which extend into the sandhills region of Nebraska. Only of the more than of the reservation are considered land suitable for agricultural uses, and the climate, soil and water conditions are challenging. Many farmers among the Lakota can do little more than gain a subsistence living from the land. The White River flows through the reservation. It was named for the water's white-gray color, a result of eroded sand, clay, and volcanic ash carried by the river. Draining a basin of about , the stream flows through a region of sparsely populated hills, plateaus, and badlands. It flows west to east through the reservation. Geology Deposition of sediments in the Badlands began 69 million years ago when an ancient sea, the Western Interior Seaway, stretched across what is now the Great Plains. After the sea retreated, successive land environments, including rivers and flood plains, continued to deposit sediments. Although the major period of deposition ended 28 million years ago, significant erosion of the Badlands did not begin until half a million years ago. Climate Flora and fauna Flora The mixed grass prairie contains both ankle-high and waist-high grasses, and fills a transitional zone between the moister tall-grass prairie to the east and the more arid short-grass prairie to the west. Biologists have identified more than 400 different plant species growing in Badlands National Park. Each plant species is adapted to survive the conditions prevalent in the mixed-grass prairie ecosystem. The climate here is one of extremes: hot, cold, dry, windy and stormy with blizzards, floods, droughts, and fires. Grasses dominate the landscape. The short-grass and tall-grass prairies intergrade just east of an irregular line that runs from northern Texas through Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska, northwestward into west-central North Dakota and South Dakota. The perimeter is not well defined because of the array of short-stature, intermediate, and tall-grass species that make up an ecotone between the short-grass and tall-grass prairies (Bragg and Steuter 1996). In general, the mixed-grass prairie is characterized by the warm-season grasses of the short-grass prairie to the west and the cool- and warm-season grasses, which grow much taller, to the east. Because of this ecotonal mixing, the number of plant species found in mixed-grass prairies exceeds that in other prairie types. Since 2000, hemp has grown wild here, following a failed attempt in growing it commercially, as a local ordinance allows. The attempt was shut down by the DEA and several other agencies. Fauna The mixed grass prairie is home to a variety of animals. In Badlands National Park, scientists have recorded the presence of 37 mammal species, nine reptile species, six amphibian species, 206 bird species, and 69 butterfly species. The rare swift fox and endangered black footed ferret are among two of the various mammal species found in the Badlands region. Both species feed on the black-tailed prairie dog. Transportation Roads passes east to west through Jackson County and Pennington County just north of the reservation with multiple exits in both counties is an east–west U.S. highway which passes through the reservation. The western terminus is in Orin, Wyoming, at an interchange with Interstate 25. Its eastern terminus of U.S. 18 is in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin. However, U.S. 18 runs concurrent with other U.S. routes from its western terminus to Mule Creek Junction, Wyoming. U.S. 18 is one of the original United States highways of 1926. , also known as the "Rimrock Highway" or "Rimrock Drive" connects Rapid City, South Dakota, with U.S. Highway 385 at Pactola Junction, just north of Pactola Lake. One of the most scenic drives in the Black Hills, SD 44 follows Rapid Creek, a blue-ribbon trout fishery, much of the way, and also follows much of the alignment of the old Rapid City, Black Hills and Western Railroad, also known as the Crouch Line. SD 44 passes through the Jackson County portion of the reservation (not shown on FDOT map) is a state route that runs north to south through the Jackson County portion of the reservation. It begins at the Nebraska border north of Merriman, Nebraska, as a continuation of Nebraska Highway 61. It runs to the North Dakota border, where it continues as North Dakota Highway 49. It is 250 miles (402 kilometers) in length. (not shown on FDOT map) is a short state highway in Oglala Lakota County which turns into Nebraska Highway 87 (N-87), SD 407-N-87, serves as a connector route between U.S. Route 18 (U.S. 18) in Pine Ridge, South Dakota, and U.S. 20 in Rushville, Nebraska. Airports Pine Ridge Airport, owned by the Oglala Sioux Tribe, is located two miles (3 km) east of the town of Pine Ridge. The unattended airport has four asphalt runways; runways 12&30 are , runways 6&24 (currently closed) are . The airport is in poor repair and is used predominately for government flights. The nearest commercial airport to Pine Ridge is Chadron Municipal Airport (CDR / KCDR) in Chadron, Nebraska, approximately south. The nearest major airport is Rapid City Regional Airport, in Rapid City, South Dakota, approximately NE. The closest international airport is Denver International Airport in Denver, Colorado approximately SW. Public transportation On January 30, 2009, the Oglala Sioux Tribe of Pine Ridge held the grand opening of their public transportation system, a bus service with multiple vehicles to cover the entire reservation. Communities Nebraska Whiteclay South Dakota Allen Batesland Kyle Manderson-White Horse Creek Oglala Pine Ridge Porcupine Wakpamni Lake Wanblee Wounded Knee Notable leaders and residents Teton Saltes, Member of the Oglala Sioux Tribe and current NFL offensive lineman. Albert Afraid of Hawk (1879-1900, Oglala). In 1898, he became a member of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. He attended the American Indian Congress in Omaha, Nebraska, where all his known photographs were taken. In 1900, Afraid of Hawk traveled with the Wild West Show to Danbury, Connecticut. One evening he was taken ill and treated at Danbury Hospital, where he was believed to have food poisoning; he died on June 29, 1900. He was buried at Wooster Cemetery. 112 years later, his story was investigated and his grave site was discovered by Robert Young, an employee of Wooster. His family came to supervise the ceremonial disinterment of his remains, covered in a bison robe. They were transported for burial and finally taken across the reservation by horse and wagon to Saint Mark's Episcopal Cemetery in Rockyford, South Dakota. American Horse Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke (1840 – December 16, 1908, Oglala Lakota), a chief during the Sioux Wars of the 1870s. Amos Bad Heart Bull, a ledger artist and tribal historian Alice Blue Legs, (1925–2003) master quillworker who worked to revive and preserve the art Tokala Clifford, actor Chief Crazy Horse, war chief of the Oglala, c. 1870 SuAnne Big Crow, led the Pine Ridge High School basketball team to state championship in 1989 Pat Cuny (Oglala), as a soldier in the 83rd Infantry Division, he fought in the Battle of the Bulge and took part in the liberation of Langenstein concentration camp in Nazi Germany. Ed McGaa (Eagle Man), author, attorney and veteran U.S. Marine Corps F-4B Phantom fighter pilot in Vietnam; flew 110 combat missions, received eight Air Medals, two Crosses of Gallantry, and a recommendation for the Distinguished Flying Cross. Cecilia Fire Thunder, first woman elected as president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe, 2004; promotes women's issues and revival of the Lakota language. Tim Giago started the first independent Native American newspaper, Lakota Times (now Indian Country Today); received a 1991 Nieman Fellowship at Harvard University, and is a contributing writer to the Huffington Post. Brady Jandreau, former rodeo rider and star of The Rider (2017) Kicking Bear (Oglala), became a chief of the Miniconjou Lakota Sioux tribe. He fought in several battles during the Great Sioux War of 1876, including the Battle of Little Big Horn. Also a holy man, he was active in the Ghost Dance religious movement of 1890. He traveled with fellow Lakota Arnold Short Bull to visit the leader Wovoka, a Paiute holy man residing in Nevada. Eddie Little Sky, actor. Little Wound (Tȟaópi Čík'ala: 1835–1899, Oglala). Following the death of his brother Bull Bear II in 1865, he became chief of the Kuinyan branch of the Kiyuksa band (Bear people). Chief Long Wolf (1833–1892), warrior of Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Sioux Wars. He died at age 59 of bronchial pneumonia while taking part in the European tour of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. He was buried at West Brompton's cemetery with a 17-month-old Sioux girl, White Star Ghost Dog, believed to have died after falling from her mother's arms while on horseback. 105 years later, Elizabeth Knight, a British woman, traced his family and campaigned with them to have his remains returned to his homeland. In 1997, Long Wolf's coffin was moved to a new plot at Saint Ann's Cemetery in Wolf Creek. White Star Ghost Dog's coffin was also reinterred there. Old Chief Smoke (Šóta; 1774–1864), an early Oglala chief and Shirt Wearer Black Elk (Heȟáka Sápa; 1863–1950), an Oglala holy man, and second cousin to Crazy Horse Chief Red Cloud (1822–1909, Oglala), a chief, respected warrior and statesman. From 1866 to 1868, he succeeded in closing the Bozeman Trail, which passed through prime bison hunting grounds. At Pine Ridge, Red Cloud worked to establish a Jesuit school for Native American children. The Red Cloud Agency was established in Nebraska in 1873. Philip N. Hogen, United States Attorney for the District of South Dakota 1981–1991 Ola Mildred Rexroat, the only Native American pilot in the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) Sean Sherman, food educator, caterer, author of The Sioux Chef's Indigenous Kitchen Chief Spotted Elk, called Big Foot by the U.S. soldiers. His band of Miniconjou Sioux were massacred at Wounded Knee in 1891. Touch the Clouds, Oglala chief JoAnn Tall, environmental activist at Pine Ridge, honored in 1993 for her opposition to uranium mining on the reservation Theresa Two Bulls, first American Indian woman elected to the South Dakota legislature; served as state senator (2004–2008) and president of Oglala Sioux Tribe (2008–2010)<ref>"Two Bulls to lead Oglala Sioux Tribe", AP, News From Indian Country', November 2008, accessed 8 July 2011</ref> Richard Wilson (April 29, 1934 – January 31, 1990), tribal chairman from 1972 to 1976 during the Wounded Knee Incident; accused of violently suppressing political opposition. John Yellow Bird Steele, elected president of the Oglala Sioux Tribe six times from 1992 to 2010 Young Man Afraid Of His Horses (Tȟašúŋke Kȟokípȟapi) (1830–1900). His name means "They fear his horse" or "His horse is feared," meaning the warrior was so renowned that the sight of his horse inspired fear. Charles Trimble (Oglala Lakota Nation), activist and former Executive Director of the National Congress of American Indians (1972–1978) William Mervin "Billy" Mills, also known as Makata Taka Hela, is the second Native American to win an Olympic gold medal and the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in the 10,000 meter run. References Further reading Glover, Vic (2004), Keeping Heart on Pine Ridge. Natives Voices. . Hedges, Chris and Joe Sacco (2012). Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt. Nation Books. . Laughland, Oliver and Tom Silverstone. "Liquid genocide: alcohol destroyed Pine Ridge reservation - then they fought back." The Guardian. September 29, 2017. Magnuson, Stew (2009), The Death of Raymond Yellow Thunder: And Other True Stories from the Nebraska–Pine Ridge Border Towns, Texas Tech University Press, . Reinhardt, Akim D. (2007), Ruling Pine Ridge: Oglala Lakota Politics from the IRA to Wounded Knee. Texas Tech University Press, 2007. . Wagoner, Paula L. (2002) They Treated Us Just Like Indians: The Worlds of Bennett County, South Dakota, University of Nebraska Press Extensive photo essay on Pine Ridge made for National Geographic Magazine TED talk about Pine Ridge Native Americans in South Dakota: An Erosion of Confidence in the Justice System, South Dakota Advisory Commission to U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2000 The Dull Knifes of Pine Ridge : a Lakota odyssey https://lccn.loc.gov/94042883 External links Community websites Official website of the Oglala Sioux tribe/Pine Ridge ReservationThe Lakota Country Times'' Friends of Pine Ridge Reservation Databases USDA 2002 Census of Agriculture for Native American Reservations Pine Ridge Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land, South Dakota/Nebraska United States Census Bureau American Indian reservations in South Dakota Geography of Bennett County, South Dakota Geography of Jackson County, South Dakota Geography of Oglala Lakota County, South Dakota Geography of Sheridan County, Nebraska Native American tribes in South Dakota Federally recognized tribes in the United States Sioux Wars Badlands of the United States Lakota

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20California%2C%20Merced

University of California, Merced

The University of California, Merced (UC Merced) is a public land-grant research university in Merced, California, and is the tenth and newest of the University of California campuses. Established in 2005, UC Merced was founded to "address chronically low levels of educational attainment in the region." UC Merced enrolls 8,847 undergraduates and 696 graduates with 63.8% of students receiving Pell Grants, more than 99% of UC Merced students coming from California, and the largest percentage of low-income students from underrepresented ethnic groups in the UC system. UC Merced is one of the largest employers in Merced County, and contributes about $1.7 billion to the San Joaquin Valley. The university is also one of the most sustainable universities in the country under its Triple Zero Commitment, with every building on campus being environmentally certified. UC Merced is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity", with undergraduate programs ranked 97th overall among U.S. national research universities by U.S. News & World Report. History The creation of a UC campus in the San Joaquin Valley was delayed for almost three decades as a result of the slow-motion air pollution disaster at UC Riverside. In approving the 1960 UC master plan, the Regents of the University of California were already mindful of the worsening smog at the hot and dry Riverside campus. Their concern turned out to be a valid one: smog would bring UC Riverside to its knees within a decade and cause UC President David S. Saxon to float the idea of closing Riverside. The Regents were also concerned about smog in the hot and dry San Joaquin Valley, and this was a factor behind their decision to delay action on a future campus in that region. By the 1980s, the San Joaquin Valley was the state's largest and most populous region without a UC campus. On May 19, 1988, the Regents voted to begin planning for a campus in the region in response to increasing enrollment and growth constraints at existing UC campuses. On May 19, 1995, the Regents selected Merced, midway between Fresno and Modesto, as the location for the University of California's tenth campus. In 2001, the university used an $11 million grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation to acquire a 7,030-acre site adjacent to Lake Yosemite, just north of Merced, from the Virginia Smith Trust, the largest acreage the UC system has acquired for one of its campuses. The university originally planned to conserve to protect sensitive vernal pool habitats. A public golf course known as the Merced Hills Golf Course had been constructed at the site in the early 1990s. This course was shut down to make way for the new campus when the original site for the campus was made unavailable due to the discovery of fairy shrimp – an endangered species – on the originally proposed site. Since the construction of the golf course had negated concerns about wetland and vernal pool environmental issues, building the campus at this location was easier than fighting to save the original construction site. Two small bridges on campus date from the time of the golf course. UC Merced established a satellite campus in Bakersfield, California in 2001 in its downtown University Square. The satellite campus extended a UC education to prospective college-bound students of Kern County and the southern San Joaquin Valley before UC Merced opened its official campus in Merced. Classes and counseling were also provided at the Bakersfield center to newly admitted UC students. In 2011, UC Merced closed its Bakersfield campus in a cost-cutting effort. An administrative building was then planned to be located in downtown Merced. The campus groundbreaking ceremony was held October 25, 2002, and the first day of undergraduate classes was September 6, 2005. Three years and eight months later, on May 16, 2009, First Lady Michelle Obama gave the commencement address for the university's first full graduating class. In 2010, the United States Census Bureau made UC Merced its own separate census-designated place. Later that same year, the new student housing facilities, The Summits, opened to provide two additional residential halls for incoming students. The two four-story buildings, Tenaya Hall and Cathedral Hall, are reserved primarily for incoming freshmen students. Three years later, another housing facility, Half Dome, was built next to the existing Tenaya and Cathedral Halls. Half Dome houses both freshman and continuing students. In January 2015, UC Merced was nationally classified with the Carnegie Classification for community engagement, along with UC Davis and UCLA. On November 4, 2015, 18-year-old student Faisal Mohammad stabbed and injured four people with a hunting knife before being shot to death by a campus police officer. In November 2015, the University of California regents approved a $1.14 billion proposal, known as the 2020 Plan, to double the capacity of UC Merced, boosting its enrollment by nearly 4,000 students. The new buildings are expected to be completed by 2020. In April 2019, the school's student government cut off funding for UC Merced's only student-run newspaper. UC Merced claims to be the only institution in the United States whose buildings are all LEED certified. Its Triple Net Zero Commitment is expected to create zero net landfill waste and zero net greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2020. Organization and governance As with all UC campuses, UC Merced is headed by a chancellor. Carol Tomlinson-Keasey held the position from 1999 until she resigned on August 31, 2006. She returned to teaching and research in psychology in 2007 and later died of breast cancer in 2009. On September 21, 2006, the Regents named Roderic B. Park, a former interim chancellor at the University of Colorado at Boulder, as the acting chancellor for UC Merced. Park remained acting chancellor until Sung-Mo (Steve) Kang, Dean of the Baskin School of Engineering at UC Santa Cruz took office in early March 2007. Kang held the position from 2006 to 2011, when he stepped down so he could return to research and teaching. After a nationwide search, on May 24, 2011, the Regents of the University of California named Dorothy Leland, then president of Georgia College & State University, to be the university's newest chancellor. On May 13, 2019, Leland announced that she would be stepping down from her position, effective Aug 15, 2019. UC Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer Nathan Brostrom would serve as interim chancellor until July 2020. In July 2020, Juan Sánchez Muñoz, then president of University of Houston-Downtown, would ascend to the position of Chancellor. The campus takes advantage of the surrounding environment by investigating issues relating to environmental systems of the Central Valley and Sierra Nevada, and of its youth by having programs in genetic research conducted in state-of-the-art research labs. It also benefits from proximity to Silicon Valley and other major universities. Research in fields like language acquisition and cultural issues is facilitated by the highly diverse ethnic makeup of the Central Valley. UC Merced operates on a semester system rather than the quarter system for its academic term. The Berkeley campus is the only other UC campus on a semester system. Academics UC Merced has 3 schools offering 23 undergraduate majors and 25 minors: School of Engineering School of Natural Sciences School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts The Science and Engineering Building 2 opened in 2014. The Classroom and Office Building 2 opened in 2016. The UC Merced Graduate Division offers 18 graduate programs: Applied Mathematics (M.S., Ph.D.) Bioengineering (M.S., PhD) Chemistry and Chemical Biology (M.S., Ph.D.) Cognitive and Information Sciences (Ph.D.) Economics (Ph.D.) Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (M.S., PhD) Environmental Systems (M.S., Ph.D.) Interdisciplinary Humanities (M.A., Ph.D.) Management of Complex Systems (M.S., PhD) Master of Management Professional Degree (M.M.) Materials and Biomaterials Science Engineering (M.S., PhD) Mechanical Engineering (M.S., PhD) Physics (M.S., PhD) Political Science, (Ph.D.) Psychological Sciences (Ph.D.) Public Health (Ph.D.) Quantitative and Systems Biology (M.S., PhD) Sociology (PhD) Graduate degree holders have found work in faculty positions at different colleges and universities, while others have chosen to enter government service. In 2011, the campus was granted accreditation by WASC. In 2014, the School of Engineering received an ABET accreditation for the Mechanical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering programs. The university is also home to the CCBM Summer Internship Program, an undergraduate research fellowship for non-UC Merced students sponsored by the NSF CREST Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Machines. Rankings UC Merced was tied for 40th "Top Public School" and tied for 97th in the 2021 rankings of "Best National Universities" in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report. Also in the same rankings, it was ranked 5th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", 171st in "Best Value Schools", and tied for 145th in "Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs" at schools whose highest degree is a doctorate. Admissions and enrollment UC Merced received 25,368 undergraduate applications for admission for the Fall 2019 incoming freshman class; 18,263 were admitted (72.0%). Undergraduate enrollment in Fall 2019 was 51.7% women, 47.5% men and 0.8% unknown; approximately 99% were from California. Research institutes Health Sciences Research Institute (HSRI) Sierra Nevada Research Institute (SNRI) University of California Advanced Solar Technologies Institute (UC Solar) NSF CREST Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Machines (CCBM) Merced nAnomaterials Center for Energy and Sensing (MACES) In 2007, UC Merced researchers obtained nearly $7 million in funding from the National Science Foundation. Grant funding for research has reached over $168.9 million in 2013. Campus The campus is bounded by Lake Yosemite on one side, and two irrigation canals run through the campus. The campus master plan was developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, its initial infrastructure by Arup, and its first buildings were designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Thomas Hacker and Associates, and EHDD Architecture. The library and central power plant have been classified as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold structures in terms of their high energy efficiency and low environmental impact. The campus is located about seven miles (11 km) north of downtown Merced in the middle of a cattle ranch. Rather than build on of protected land east of Lake Yosemite, where endangered fairy shrimp hatch in vernal pools, the school has built on a parcel of grazing land south of campus, under a revised layout. The revised plan covers a total of rather than the original proposed in 2000. The new design was expected to impact a total of of native wetlands in the region compared to the forecast in the 2000 footprint. According to the United States Census Bureau, the university is a census-designated place (CDP) that was uninhabited at the 2010 census and covers an area of 1.126 square miles (2.916 km), all of it land. Kolligian Library The library was the first building to open on campus. During the Fall 2005 semester, while construction of the Classroom and Science/Engineering buildings was still taking place, all academic courses were conducted in the library. Its official motto is "Not what other research libraries are, what they will be." The library building is named after Leo and Dottie Kolligian. Leo served as the chairman of the UC Board of Regents in 1988 when the board decided to explore building a 10th campus, in the San Joaquin Valley. The first floor of the library was dedicated by Ed and Jeanne Kashian. The McFadden-Willis Reading Room is located on the fourth floor and named in honor of the McFadden and Willis children by Christine McFadden. The library also has a technology classroom dedicated by Doris Gonella in honor of her late husband Louis, The Gonella Discovery Room. The library offers 10 public workstations for students, faculty, staff and visitors to access electronic resources. The library contains more electronic holdings than print holdings, consisting of about 70,000 online journals and 3.965 million electronic books (including 3.15 million HathiTrust full-text books), compared to 102,000 print books. In addition, the library provides access to 937 databases. Kolligian is a Green library and has Gold LEED certification. Athletics UC Merced's recently established an intercollegiate athletic program presently competes in the California Pacific Conference of the NAIA. It fields officially sponsored teams in men's and women's basketball, men and women's cross country, women's soccer and women's volleyball; men's soccer and men's volleyball began competition during the 2013–2014 season. UC Merced hopes to join the NCAA in the near future. The school's goal is to compete at the NCAA Division II level as part of the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA). On November 13, 2006, the university opened its gymnasium. The Joseph Edward Gallo Recreation and Wellness Center, named after the rancher and dairy farmer who donated money for the facility's construction, features an "NCAA-sized basketball court, workout facilities, room for performances, wellness and fitness education and the Rajender Reddy Student Health Center". At the opening of the facility, In November 2010 the university announced its intentions to join the NAIA for the 2011–2012 academic year, in the NAIA's California Pacific Conference. Student life Approximately 2,100 students currently live on campus in the Valley and Sierra Terraces and the Summits, which includes Tenaya and Cathedral Halls, 4.2 miles (6.8 km) away from the city of Merced. The most recent addition is Half Dome Hall which completed the UC Merced's first residential square. The Summits includes cleaning services, study lounges, a market, and a game room. Student housing, as well as the dining commons, are closed during winter break. Much of the student life in the Residence Halls is led by the Resident Assistants (RAs) and Lead Resident Assistants (LRAs) through various programs and activities. Due to the United States housing bubble and the high cost of bond-funded student housing ($13,720 on-campus compared to $7,000 off campus), many students choose to live in new housing subdivisions outside of campus. The Cattracks transit system serves student-dense developments. The university's Campus Activities Board (CAB) engages students in campus-wide activities such as the annual Treats N' Beats, CAB Cinema, Enchanted Ball, and more. Past guests that have been brought to these campus activities by CAB include Sage the Gemini, J. Holiday, and George Lopez. Additionally, many students visit nearby Lake Yosemite which includes recreational swimming, fishing, and water skiing. Merced has several artistic venues which host plays, concerts, and art shows. These include The Mainzer Theater, The Partisan, Merced Multicultural Arts Center, and Playhouse Merced. Castle Air Museum is within close driving distance from Merced. Merced is known as the "Gateway to Yosemite" and it is common for students recreational use Yosemite National Park where they may hike, snowboard, rock climb, and camp overnight. Student publications include The Prodigy, student newspaper, Bobcat Radio, student radio station, The Undergraduate Research Journal (URJ), The Undergraduate Historical Journal, and literary journals The Kumquat and Imagination Dead Imagine. The Vernal Pool is a student literary journal for fiction, poetry, creative non-fiction, and visual art. Student governments The founding graduate students, who joined the Graduate School of UC Merced in early 2004, initiated the Graduate Student Association (GSA) in that year, before the university officially opened its doors to undergraduate students in the fall of 2005. The constitution and by-laws were prepared by them. They were then approved by all the graduate students. The undergraduate students of UC Merced have initiated and established their own student government. The Committee on Constitution and By-Laws was established in fall 2005 and was responsible for writing the constitution for the Associated Students of UC Merced (ASUCM). Elections for the ratification of the constitution were held in April, 2006. The constitution was approved by a majority of the student body, officially establishing ASUCM, which serves as the official representative and voice of students. Clubs There are approximately 200 student run clubs, including: RadioBio, Bobcat Band, The Prodigy, Bobcat Radio, Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers (SHPE), Bobcat Model United Nations (MUN), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Sports Shooting, Society of Asian Scientists and Engineers (SASE), Merced Pre-Law Society, Business Society, National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE), American Women Making A Difference, Black Student Union (BSU), Lambda Alliance, Society of Women Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Math Society, Amnesty International, American Medical Student Association, Colleges Against Cancer, Chinese Student Association, Circle K International, Economics Club, Hermanas Unidas de UCM, Korean American Coalition (KAC), Hmong Student Association (HSA), Nikkei Student Union (NSU), The UC Merced Historical Society, Dance Coalition, Distinguished Ladies, Student Transfer Outreach and Mentor Program, Democrats at UC Merced, HHM (Hip Hop Movement), Society of Freethinkers, Intervarsity Christian Fellowship, Martial Arts Club, Microfinance Project Student Association, Muslim Student Association, NORML, Persian Student Association of UC Merced (PSAUCM), Pilipino American Alliance (PAA), Anime Club, League of Legends Club at UC Merced (UCMLoL), College Republicans at UC Merced, South Asian Student Association, Merced Indian Graduate Student Association (MIGSA), Taekwondo (TKD), Rotaract, UCM Symphonics Acapella Group (UCMSA), UNICEF at UC Merced, Best Buddies, Project Smile, rock climbing, Yosemite Leadership Program, bakery clubs, archery clubs, and frisbee golf clubs. Greek life North-American InterfraternityConference Fraternities Omega Delta Phi ΩΔΦ, Alpha Psi chapter International Fraternities Sigma Chi ΣΧ, Lambda Delta chapter Kappa Sigma ΚΣ, Rho Omicron chapter Pi Kappa Phi ΠΚΦ, Kappa Mu chapter Pi Lambda Phi ΠΛΦ, National Panhellenic ConferenceWomen's Fraternities and Sororities Delta Delta Delta ΔΔΔ, Epsilon Kappa chapter Delta Gamma ΔΓ, Eta Rho chapter Kappa Kappa Gamma ΚΚΓ, Eta Xi chapter Phi Mu ΦΜ, Eta Sigma chapter Latina-Based Sororities Lambda Theta Nu ΛΘΝ, Alpha Pi chapter Kappa Delta Chi ΚΔΧ, Beta Lambda chapter Mult-Cultural Sororities Sigma Theta Psi ΣΘΨ Professional Co-ed Fraternities Delta Epsilon Mu ΔΕΜ, Theta chapter Phi Delta Epsilon ΦΔΕ, CA Lambda Premedical chapter Alpha Kappa Psi ΑΚΨ, Psi Upsilon chapter Theta Tau ΘΤ, Mu Delta chapter Alpha Phi Omega ΑΦΩ, Alpha Eta Gamma chapter Phi Alpha Delta ΦΑΔ Delta Sigma Pi ΔΣΠ, Tau Chi Chapter Alumni The UC Merced Alumni Association consists of more than 12,000 living members. The UC Merced Alumni Association is a non-dues organization. UCMAA membership is granted upon successful attainment of a UC Merced undergraduate or graduate degree. The association is led by a volunteer board of directors, which is staffed by the UC Merced Office of Alumni Relations. As stated by the LA Times, "Although most UC Merced alumni are still in their 20s, 11% of them contributed to their alma mater — outstripping the giving rate of all other UC campuses except UC Santa Barbara (16%) and UC Berkeley (12%). UCLA's rate was 8%, and UC Riverside, the most comparable campus, was 4%." See also :Category:University of California, Merced faculty :Category:University of California, Merced alumni References External links UC Merced Athletics website Merced Educational institutions established in 2005 Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges University of California, Merced University of California, Merced 2005 establishments in California Census-designated places in California University of California, Merced University of California, Merced

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambino%20crime%20family

Gambino crime family

The Gambino crime family (pronounced ) is an Italian-American Mafia crime family and one of the "Five Families" that dominate organized crime activities in New York City, United States, within the nationwide criminal phenomenon known as the American Mafia. The group, which went through five bosses between 1910 and 1957, is named after Carlo Gambino, boss of the family at the time of the McClellan hearings in 1963, when the structure of organized crime first gained public attention. The group's operations extend from New York and the eastern seaboard to California. Its illicit activities include labor and construction racketeering, gambling, loansharking, extortion, money laundering, prostitution, fraud, hijacking, and fencing. The family was one of the five families that were founded in New York after the Castellammarese War of 1931. For most of the next quarter-century, it was a minor player in organized crime. Its most prominent member during this time was its underboss Albert Anastasia, who rose to infamy as the operating head of the underworld's enforcement arm, Murder, Inc. He remained in power even after Murder, Inc. was smashed in the late 1940s, and took over his family in 1951—by all accounts, after murdering the family's founder Vincent Mangano—which was then recognized as the Anastasia crime family. The rise of what was the most powerful crime family in America for a time began in 1957, when Anastasia was assassinated while sitting in a barber chair at the Park Sheraton Hotel in Manhattan. Experts believe that Anastasia's underboss Carlo Gambino helped orchestrate the hit to take over the family. Gambino partnered with Meyer Lansky to control gambling interests in Cuba. The family's fortunes grew through 1976, when Gambino appointed his brother-in-law Paul Castellano as boss upon his death. Castellano infuriated upstart capo John Gotti, who orchestrated Castellano's murder in 1985. Gotti's downfall came in 1992, when his underboss Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano cooperated with the FBI. Gravano's cooperation brought down Gotti, along with most of the top members of the Gambino family. Beginning in 2015, the family was headed by Frank Cali until his assassination outside his Staten Island home on March 13, 2019. History Origins D'Aquila gang The origins of the Gambino crime family can be traced back to the faction of newly transplanted mafiosi from Palermo, Sicily who were originally led by Ignazio Lupo. When he and his partner by business and marriage, Giuseppe Morello, were sent to prison for counterfeiting in 1910, Salvatore "Toto" D'Aquila, one of Lupo's chief captains, took over. D'Aquila was an influential emigrant from Palermo who joined the Lupo gang based in East Harlem. Founded in the 1900s, the Lupo Mano Nera gang was one of the first Italian criminal groups in New York. Lupo was partner in many ventures with Morello, who was the original capo di tutti capi (boss of bosses), a title that would later be coveted by D'Aquila. As other gangs formed in New York, they acknowledged Morello as their boss of bosses. In 1906, D'Aquila's name first appeared on police records for running a confidence scam. In 1910, Giuseppe Morello and Ignazio Lupo were sentenced to 30 years in prison for counterfeiting. With the Morello family weakened, D'Aquila used the opportunity to establish the dominance of what was now his own Palermitani family in East Harlem. D'Aquila quickly used his ties to other Mafia leaders in the United States to create a network of influence and connections and was soon a powerful force in New York. New York gangs By 1910, more Italian gangs had formed in New York City. In addition to the original Morello gang in East Harlem and D'Aquila's own, now growing gang, also in East Harlem (but expanding into Little Italy in Manhattan's Lower East Side), there were other organizations forming. In Brooklyn, Nicolo "Cola" Schirò established a second gang of Sicilian mafiosi from Castellammare del Golfo, west of Palermo, in Sicily. A third Sicilian gang was formed by Alfred Mineo in Brooklyn. Another Morello captain, Gaetano Reina, had also broken away in the Bronx, ruling that area with impunity. In south Brooklyn, first Johnny Torrio, then Frankie Yale were leading a new and rising organization. Finally, there were two allied Neapolitan Camorra gangs, one on Coney Island and one on Navy Street in Brooklyn, that were run by Pellegrino Morano and Alessandro Vollero. In 1916 the Camorra had assassinated Nicholas Morello, head of the Morello gang. In response, D'Aquila allied with the Morellos to fight the Camorra. In 1917, both Morano and Vollero were convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison. With their leadership gone, the two Camorra gangs disappeared and D'Aquila and the Schiro family in Brooklyn took over many of their rackets in Brooklyn. Soon after, D'Aquila absorbed the Mineo gang, making Mineo his first lieutenant. D'Aquila now controlled the largest and most influential Italian gang in New York City. It was about this time that Joe Masseria, another former Morello captain, began asserting his influence over the Lower East Side's Little Italy and began to come into conflict with D'Aquila's operations there, as Prohibition approached. Prohibition In 1920, the United States outlawed the production and sale of alcoholic beverages (Prohibition), creating the opportunity for an extremely lucrative illegal racket for the New York gangs. By 1920, D'Aquila's only significant rival was Giuseppe "Joe the Boss" Masseria. Masseria had taken over the Morello family interests, and by the mid-1920s, had begun to amass power and influence to rival that of D'Aquila. By the late 1920s, D'Aquila and Masseria were headed for a showdown. On October 10, 1928, Masseria gunmen assassinated Salvatore D'Aquila outside his home. D'Aquila's second-in-command, Alfred Mineo, and his right-hand man, Steve Ferrigno, now commanded the largest and most influential Sicilian gang in New York City. Castellammarese War In 1930, the Castellammarese War started between Masseria and Salvatore Maranzano, the new leader of Cola Schirò's Castellammarese gang, for control of Italian-American organized crime in New York. Mineo was a casualty; he and Ferrigno were shot dead during an assassination attempt on Masseria on November 5, 1930. In April 1931, Masseria was murdered in a restaurant by several of his gang members who had defected to Maranzano. Maranzano declared himself the boss of all bosses and reorganized all the New York gangs into five crime families. Maranzano appointed Frank Scalice as head of the old D'Aquila/Mineo gang, now designated as one of New York's new five families. In September 1931, Maranzano was himself assassinated in his office by a squad of contract killers. The main beneficiary (and organizer of both hits) was Charlie "Lucky" Luciano. Luciano kept Maranzano's five families and added a Commission to mediate disputes and prevent more gang warfare. Also in 1931, Luciano replaced Scalice with Vincent Mangano as head of the D'Aquila/Mineo gang, now the Mangano crime family. Mangano also received a seat on the new Commission. The modern era of the Cosa Nostra had begun. Mangano era Vincent Mangano now took over the family, with Joseph Biondo as consigliere and Albert Anastasia as underboss. Vincent Mangano still believed in the Old World mob traditions of "honor", "tradition", "respect" and "dignity." However, he was somewhat more forward-looking than either Masseria and Maranzano. To compensate for loss of massive revenues with the end of Prohibition in 1933, Vincent Mangano moved his family into extortion, union racketeering, and illegal gambling operations including horse betting, running numbers and lotteries. Vincent Mangano also established the City Democratic Club, ostensibly to promote American values. In reality, the Club was a cover for Murder, Inc., the notorious band of mainly Jewish hitmen who performed contract murders for the Cosa Nostra nationwide. Anastasia was the operating head of Murder, Inc.; he was popularly known as the "Lord High Executioner". Vincent Mangano also had close ties with Emil Camarda, a vice-president of the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA). Through the ILA, Mangano and the family completely controlled the Manhattan and Brooklyn waterfronts. From 1932 onward, the president of ILA Local 1814 was Anthony "Tough Tony" Anastasio, Albert Anastasia's younger brother (Anthony kept the original spelling of their last name). Anastasio was one of the family's biggest earners, steering millions of dollars in kickbacks and payoffs into the family's coffers. Anastasio made no secret of his ties to the mob; he only had to say "my brother Albert" to get his point across. With the family's backing, the Brooklyn waterfront was Anastasio's bailiwick for 30 years. Around this time, Carlo Gambino was promoted within the Mangano family, along with another future boss, Gambino's cousin Paul Castellano. Anastasia and Mangano were usually in conflict, even though they worked together for 20 years. On numerous occasions, Anastasia and Vincent Mangano came close to physical conflict. Vincent Mangano felt uncomfortable with Anastasia's close ties to Lucky Luciano, Frank Costello, Joseph Bonanno and other top mobsters outside his family. Mangano was also jealous of Anastasia's strong power base in Murder Inc. and the waterfront unions. In April 1951, Vincent Mangano disappeared without a trace, while his brother Phillip was found dead. No one was ever charged in the Mangano brothers' deaths and Vincent's body was never found. However, it is generally believed that Anastasia murdered both of them. Anastasia regime Called to face the Commission, Anastasia refused to accept guilt for the Mangano murders. However, Anastasia did claim that Vincent Mangano had been planning to kill him. Anastasia was already running the family in Vincent Mangano's "absence" and the Commission members were intimidated by Anastasia. With the support of Frank Costello, boss of the Luciano crime family, the Commission confirmed Anastasia's ascension as boss of what was now the Anastasia crime family. Carlo Gambino, a wily character with designs on the leadership himself, maneuvered himself into the position of consigliere. The former boss of Murder, Inc., Anastasia was a vicious murderer who inspired fear throughout the New York families. With Costello as an ally, Anastasia came to control the Commission. Costello's bitter rival was Vito Genovese, a former underboss for Lucky Luciano. Since 1946, Genovese had been scheming to remove Costello from power but was not powerful enough to face Anastasia. Plot against Anastasia Anastasia's own brutal actions soon created a favorable climate in New York for his removal. In 1952, Anastasia ordered the murder of a Brooklyn man, Arnold Schuster, who had aided in the capture of the bank robber Willie Sutton. Anastasia did not like the fact that Schuster had helped the police. The New York families were outraged by this gratuitous killing that raised a large amount of public furor. Anastasia also alienated one of Luciano's powerful associates, Meyer Lansky, by opening casinos in Cuba to compete with Lansky's. Genovese and Lansky soon recruited Carlo Gambino to the conspiracy by offering him the chance to replace Anastasia and become boss himself. In May 1957, Frank Costello escaped a Genovese-organized murder attempt with a minor injury and decided to resign as boss. However, Genovese and Gambino soon learned that Costello was conspiring with Anastasia to regain power. They decided to kill Anastasia. On October 25, 1957, several masked gunmen murdered Anastasia in the barbershop at the Park Sheraton Hotel in Manhattan. As Anastasia sat in the barber's chair, the three assailants rushed in, shoved the barber out of the way, and started shooting. The wounded Anastasia allegedly lunged at his killers, but only hit their reflections in the wall mirror. Anastasia died at the scene. Many historians believe that Gambino ordered caporegime Joseph Biondo to kill Anastasia and Biondo gave the contract to a squad of Gambino drug dealers led by Stephen Armone and Stephen Grammauta. Gambino era With Anastasia's death, Carlo Gambino became boss of what was now called the Gambino crime family. Joseph Biondo was appointed underboss; he was, by 1965, replaced by Aniello Dellacroce. Gambino and Luciano then allegedly helped pay part of $100,000 paid to a Puerto Rican drug dealer to falsely implicate Genovese in a drug deal. In April 1959, Genovese was sentenced to 15 years in federal prison, where he died in 1969. Gambino quickly built the family into the most powerful crime family in the United States. He was helped by Meyer Lansky's offshore gaming houses in Cuba and the Bahamas, a lucrative business for the Cosa Nostra. Control of other crime families In 1964, Joseph "Joe Bananas" Bonanno, the head of the Bonanno crime family, and Joseph Magliocco, the new boss of the Profaci crime family, conspired to kill Gambino and his allies on the Commission. However, the man entrusted with the job, Joseph Colombo, instead revealed the plot to Gambino. The Commission, led by Gambino, forced Magliocco to resign and hand over his family to Colombo, while Bonanno fled New York. Gambino then became the most powerful leader of the "Five Families". In 1971, Gambino allegedly used his power to orchestrate the shooting of Colombo. Gambino and his allies were unhappy about Colombo's high public profile. Jerome Johnson shot Colombo on June 28, 1971 at the second "Italian-American Unity Day" rally; Johnson was then shot and killed on the spot by Colombo's bodyguards. Johnson was tentatively linked to the Gambino family, but no one else was charged in the shooting. Colombo survived the shooting, but remained paralyzed until his death in 1978. Gambino's influence also stretched into behind-the-scenes control of the Lucchese crime family, led by Carmine "Mr. Gribbs" Tramunti. In 1972, Gambino allegedly picked Frank "Funzi" Tieri to be front boss of the Genovese crime family. Gambino had allegedly ordered the murder of Tieri's predecessor Thomas Eboli after Eboli failed to repay a $3 million loan to Gambino. Others believe that Eboli was killed by his own crime family for his erratic ways. Under Gambino, the family gained particularly strong influence in the construction industry. It acquired behind-the-scenes control of Teamsters Local 282, which controlled access to most building materials in the New York City area and could literally bring most construction jobs in New York City to a halt. On October 15, 1976, Carlo Gambino died at home of natural causes. Against expectations, he had appointed Castellano to succeed him over his underboss Dellacroce. Gambino appeared to believe that his crime family would benefit from Castellano's focus on white collar businesses. Dellacroce, at the time, was imprisoned for tax evasion and was unable to contest Castellano's succession. Castellano's succession was confirmed at a meeting on November 24, with Dellacroce present. Castellano arranged for Dellacroce to remain as underboss while directly running traditional Cosa Nostra activities such as extortion, robbery, and loansharking. While Dellacroce accepted Castellano's succession, the deal effectively split the Gambino family into two rival factions. Castellano regime When Castellano became boss, he negotiated a division of responsibilities between himself and Dellacroce. Castellano took control of the so-called "white collar crimes" that included stock embezzlement and other big money rackets. Dellacroce retained control of the traditional Cosa Nostra activities. To maintain control over the Dellacroce faction, Castellano relied on the crew run by Anthony "Nino" Gaggi and Roy DeMeo. The DeMeo crew allegedly committed from 74 to 200 murders during the late 1970s and mid-1980s. As Castellano became more powerful in the Gambino family, he started to make large amounts of money from construction concrete. Castellano's son Philip was the president of Scara-Mix Concrete Corporation, which exercised a near monopoly on Staten Island on construction concrete. Castellano also handled the Gambino interests in the "Concrete Club," a club of contractors selected by The Commission to handle contracts between $2 million and $15 million. In return, the contractors gave a two percent kickback of the contract value to The Commission. Castellano also supervised Gambino control of Teamsters Union Local Chapter 282, which provided workers to pour concrete at all major building projects in New York and Long Island. Gambino family case In response to the rise of the Gambino family, federal prosecutors targeted the family leadership. On March 31, 1984 a federal grand jury indicted Castellano and 20 other Gambino members and associates with charges of drug trafficking, murder, theft, and prostitution. The following year, he received a second indictment for his role in the Mafia's Commission. Facing life imprisonment for either case, Castellano arranged for Gotti to serve as an acting boss alongside Thomas Bilotti, Castellano's favorite capo, and Thomas Gambino in his absence. Gotti, meanwhile, began conspiring with fellow disgruntled capos Frank DeCicco and Joseph "Joe Piney" Armone and soldiers Sammy Gravano and Robert "DiB" DiBernardo (collectively dubbed "the Fist" by themselves) to overthrow Castellano, insisting, despite the boss' inaction, that Castellano would eventually try to kill him. Armone's support was critical; as a respected old-timer who dated back to the family's founder, Vincent Mangano, he would lend needed credibility to the conspirators' cause. Conflict with Gotti Castellano's most vocal critic was John Gotti, a Queens-based capo and Dellacroce protégé. Gotti was ambitious and wanted to be boss himself. Gotti rapidly became dissatisfied with Castellano's leadership, regarding the new boss as being too isolated and greedy. Like other members of the family, Gotti also personally disliked Castellano. The boss lacked street credibility, and those who had paid their dues running street level jobs did not respect him. Gotti also had an economic interest: he had a running dispute with Castellano on the split Gotti took from hijackings at Kennedy Airport. Gotti was also rumored to be expanding into drug dealing, a lucrative trade Castellano had banned. In August 1983, Ruggiero and Gene Gotti were arrested for dealing heroin, based primarily on recordings from a bug in Ruggiero's house. Castellano, who had banned made men from his family from dealing drugs under threat of death, demanded transcripts of the tapes, and, when Ruggiero refused, threatened to demote Gotti. It has long been a rule in the Mafia that killing a boss is forbidden without the support of a majority of the Commission. Indeed, Gotti's planned hit would have been the first attack on a boss since Albert Anastasia was killed in 1957. Gotti knew that it would be too risky to solicit support from the other four bosses, since they had longstanding ties to Castellano. To get around this, he got the support of several important figures of his generation in the Lucchese, Colombo and Bonanno families. He did not consider approaching the Genovese family, as Castellano had close ties with Genovese boss Vincent "Chin" Gigante. However, Gotti could also count on the complicity of Gambino consigliere Joseph N. Gallo. After Dellacroce died of cancer on December 2, 1985, Castellano revised his succession plan: appointing Bilotti as underboss to Thomas Gambino as the sole acting boss, while making plans to break up Gotti's crew. Infuriated by this, and Castellano's refusal to attend Dellacroce's wake, Gotti resolved to kill his boss. On December 16, 1985, Bilotti and Castellano arrived at Sparks Steak House in Manhattan for a dinner meeting with capo Frank DeCicco. DeCicco had tipped off Gotti that he would be meeting with Castellano and several other Gambino mobsters at Sparks that evening. As Bilotti and Castellano were exiting their car, four unidentified men under Gotti's command shot them to death. Gotti watched the hit from his car with Gravano. John Gotti Several days after the Castellano murder, Gotti was named to a three-man committee, along with Gallo and DeCicco, to temporarily run the family pending the election of a new boss. It was also announced that an internal investigation into Castellano's murder was underway. However, it was an open secret that Gotti was acting boss in all but name, and nearly all of the family's capos knew he had been the one behind the hit. He was formally acclaimed as the new boss of the Gambino family at a meeting of 20 capos held on January 15, 1986. Gotti appointed Frank DeCicco as underboss and promoted Angelo Ruggiero and Sammy Gravano to capo. At the time of his takeover, the Gambino family was regarded as the most powerful American mafia family, with an annual income of $500 million. Gotti was known as "The Dapper Don", renowned for his hand-tailored suits and silk ties. Unlike his colleagues, Gotti made little effort to hide his mob connections and was very willing to provide interesting sound bites to the media. His home in Howard Beach, Queens was frequently seen on television. He liked to hold meetings with family members while walking in public places so that law enforcement agents could not record the conversations. One of Gotti's neighbors in Howard Beach was Joseph Massino, underboss of the Bonanno crime family. Gotti and Massino had a longstanding friendship dating back to the 1970s when they were known as two of the most proficient truck hijackers in New York. Mob leaders from the other families were enraged at the Castellano murder and disapproved of Gotti's high-profile style. Gotti's strongest enemy was Genovese crime family boss Vincent "Chin" Gigante, a former Castellano ally. Gigante conspired with Lucchese boss Anthony "Tony Ducks" Corallo to have Gotti killed. Corallo gave the contract to two top members of his family, Vittorio "Vic" Amuso and Anthony "Gaspipe" Casso. Gotti's newfound fame had at least one positive effect for Gotti; upon the revelation of his attacker's occupation, and amid reports of intimidation by the Gambinos, Romual Piecyk decided not to testify against Gotti thanks to Boško "The Yugo" Radonjić, the head of the Westies in Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan. When the trial began in March 1986, Piecyk testified he was unable to remember who attacked him. The case was promptly dismissed, with the New York Post summarizing the proceedings with the headline "I Forgotti!" It was later revealed that Gambino thugs had severed Piecyk's brake lines, made threatening phone calls, and stalked him before the trial. On April 13, 1986, DeCicco was killed when his car was bombed following a visit to Castellano loyalist James Failla. The bombing was carried out by Victor Amuso and Anthony Casso of the Lucchese family, under orders of Gigante and Lucchese boss Anthony Corallo, to avenge Castellano and Bilotti by killing their successors; Gotti also planned to visit Failla that day, but canceled, and the bomb was detonated after a soldier who rode with DeCicco was mistaken for the boss. Bombs had long been banned by the Mafia out of concern that it would put innocent people in harm's way, leading the Gambinos to initially suspect that "zips"—Sicilian mafiosi working in the U.S.—were behind it; zips were well known for using bombs. Following the bombing, Judge Eugene Nickerson, presiding over Gotti's racketeering trial, rescheduled the trial to avoid a jury tainted by the resulting publicity, while prosecutor Diane Giacalone had Gotti's bail revoked due to evidence of witness intimidation in the Piecyk case. From jail, Gotti ordered the murder of Robert DiBernardo by Gravano; both DiBernardo and Ruggiero had been vying to succeed DeCicco until Ruggiero accused DiBernardo of challenging Gotti's leadership. When Ruggiero, also under indictment, had his bail revoked for his abrasive behavior in preliminary hearings, a frustrated Gotti instead promoted Armone to underboss. Jury selection for the racketeering case began again in August 1986, with Gotti standing trial alongside Willie Boy Johnson (who, despite being exposed as an informant, refused to turn state's evidence), Leonard DiMaria, Tony Rampino, Nicholas Corozzo and John Carneglia. At this point, the Gambinos were able to compromise the case when George Pape hid his friendship with Radonjić and was empaneled as juror No. 11. Through Radonjić, Pape contacted Gravano and agreed to sell his vote on the jury for $60,000. In the trial's opening statements on September 25, Gotti's defense attorney Bruce Cutler denied the existence of the Gambino family and framed the government's entire effort as a personal vendetta. His main defense strategy during the prosecution was to attack the credibility of Giacalone's witnesses by discussing their crimes committed before their turning state's evidence. During Gotti's defense, Cutler called bank robber Matthew Traynor, a would-be prosecution witness dropped for unreliability, who testified that Giacalone offered him drugs and her panties as a masturbation aid in exchange for his testimony; Traynor's allegations would be dismissed by Judge Nickerson as "wholly unbelievable" after the trial, and he was subsequently convicted of perjury. Despite Cutler's defense and critiques about the prosecution's performance, according to mob writers Jerry Capeci and Gene Mustain, when the jury's deliberations began, a majority were in favor of convicting Gotti. However, due to Pape's misconduct, Gotti knew from the beginning of the trial that he could do no worse than a hung jury. During deliberations, Pape held out for acquittal until the rest of the jury began to fear their own safety would be compromised. On March 13, 1987, they acquitted Gotti and his codefendants of all charges. Five years later, Pape was convicted of obstruction of justice for his part in the fix and sentenced to three years in prison. In the face of previous Mafia convictions, particularly the success of the Mafia Commission Trial, Gotti's acquittal was a major upset that further added to his reputation. The American media dubbed Gotti "The Teflon Don" in reference to the failure of any charges to "stick." 1992 conviction On December 11, 1990, FBI agents and NYPD detectives raided the Ravenite Social Club, arresting Gravano, Gotti and Locascio. Gravano pleaded guilty to a superseding racketeering charge, and Gotti charged with five murders (Castellano, Bilotti, DiBernardo, Liborio Milito and Louis Dibono), conspiracy to murder Gaetano Vastola, loansharking, illegal gambling, obstruction of justice, bribery and tax evasion. Based on tapes from FBI bugs played at pretrial hearings, the Gambino administration was denied bail. At the same time, attorneys Bruce Cutler and Gerald Shargel were disqualified from defending Gotti and Gravano after prosecutors successfully contended they were "part of the evidence" and thus liable to be called as witnesses. Prosecutors argued that Cutler and Shargel not only knew about potential criminal activity, but had worked as "in-house counsel" for the Gambino family. Gotti subsequently hired Albert Krieger, a Miami attorney who had worked with Joseph Bonanno, to replace Cutler. The tapes also created a rift between Gotti and Gravano, showing the Gambino boss describing his newly appointed underboss as too greedy and attempting to frame Gravano as the main force behind the murders of DiBernardo, Milito and Dibono. Gotti's attempt at reconciliation failed, leaving Gravano disillusioned with the mob and doubtful of his chances of winning his case without Shargel, his former attorney. Gravano ultimately opted to turn state's evidence, formally agreeing to testify on November 13, 1991. At the time, he was the highest-ranking member of a New York crime family to turn informer. Gotti and Locascio were tried in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York before District Judge I. Leo Glasser. Jury selection began in January 1992 with an anonymous jury and, for the first time in a Brooklyn federal case, fully sequestered during the trial due to Gotti's reputation for jury tampering. The trial commenced with the prosecution's opening statements on February 12; prosecutors Andrew Maloney and John Gleeson began their case by playing tapes showing Gotti discussing Gambino family business, including murders he approved, and confirming the animosity between Gotti and Castellano to establish the former's motive to kill his boss. After calling an eyewitness of the Sparks hit who identified Carneglia as one of the men who shot Bilotti, they then called Gravano as a witness on March 2. On the stand, Gravano confirmed Gotti's place in the structure of the Gambino family and described in detail the conspiracy to assassinate Castellano, giving a full description of the hit and its aftermath. Gravano confessed to 19 murders, implicating Gotti in four of them. Neither Krieger nor Anthony Cardinale, Locascio's attorney, were able to shake Gravano during cross-examination. Among other outbursts, Gotti called Gravano a junkie while his attorneys sought to discuss his past steroid use. After presenting additional testimony and tapes, the government rested its case on March 24. On June 23, 1992, Glasser sentenced Gotti and Locascio to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole and a $250,000 fine. Gotti surrendered to federal authorities to serve his prison time on December 14, 1992. On September 26, 1994, a federal judge sentenced Gravano to five years in prison. However, since Gravano had already served four years, the sentence amounted to less than one year. Gotti continued to rule the family from prison, while day-to-day operation of the family shifted to capos John "Jackie Nose" D'Amico and Nicholas "Little Nick" Corozzo. The latter was due to take over as acting boss but was himself sentenced to eight years in prison on racketeering charges. Gotti's son John "Junior" Gotti took over as head of the family, but he pled guilty to racketeering in 1999 and was sentenced to 77 months in jail. Peter Gotti When John Gotti died in prison on June 10, 2002, his brother Peter Gotti took over as boss. The family's fortunes dwindled to a remarkable extent, given their power a few decades ago when they were considered the most powerful criminal organization in America. Peter Gotti was imprisoned as well in 2003, and the leadership allegedly went to administration members Nicholas Corozzo, Jackie D'Amico, and Joseph Corozzo. Peter Gotti remained the official boss while in prison. Gotti's rivals regained control of the family, mostly because the rest of Gotti's loyalists were either jailed or under indictments. Michael "Mikey Scars" DiLeonardo, the former head of the family's white collar operations and one of the last Gotti supporters, turned state's evidence due to increased law enforcement pressure and credible evidence to be presented in his racketeering trial. He chose to testify against mobsters from all of the Five Families. DiLeonardo testified against Peter Gotti and Anthony "Sonny" Ciccone, among others, from 2003 to 2005, and then disappeared into the Witness Protection Program. In 2005, Nicholas "Little Nick" Corozzo and his longtime underling Leonard "Lenny" DiMaria were released from prison after serving ten years for racketeering and loansharking charges in New York and Florida. That same year, US law enforcement recognized Corozzo as the boss of the Gambino crime family, with his brother Joseph Corozzo as the family consigliere, Arnold "Zeke" Squitieri as the acting underboss, and Jackie D'Amico as a highly regarded member with the Corozzo brothers. On Thursday, February 7, 2008, a federal grand jury issued an indictment which led to the arrest of 54 Gambino family members and associates in New York City, its suburbs, New Jersey, and Long Island. This indictment was the culmination of a four-year FBI investigation known as Operation Old Bridge. It accused 62 people of murder, conspiracy, drug trafficking, robberies, extortion, and other crimes. The FBI used informant Joseph Vollaro as a government witness. Operation Old Bridge broke up a growing alliance between the Gambinos and the Sicilian Mafia, which wanted to get further into the drug trade. One of those arrested in the raids in the US was Frank Cali, future boss of the Gambino family. He was allegedly the "ambassador" in the US for the Inzerillo crime family. Most of those arrested ended up pleading guilty, thus getting sentenced less than three years in prison. Domenico Cefalù and Frank Cali When federal and New York State authorities rounded up the entire Gambino family hierarchy in early 2008, a three-man panel of street bosses Daniel "Danny" Marino, John Gambino and Bartolomeo Vernace took control of the Gambino family while the administration members were in prison. In July 2011, it was reported that Domenico Cefalù had been promoted to acting boss of the crime family, putting an end to the Gotti regime. Cefalù's reign saw the Sicilian faction, better known as "Zips", gain control of the Gambino crime family. It was reported by crime reporter Jerry Capeci that Cefalù stepped down in 2015 and his underboss, Frank Cali, took full control. However, a week later, Capeci issued a correction reporting that Cefalù remained the acting boss. The family was believed to have between 150 and 200 members as well as over 1100 associates. The family continued to be active in a variety of criminal enterprises, including gambling, loansharking, extortion, labor racketeering, fraud, money laundering and narcotic trafficking. In 2012 the Gambino family still had some control on piers in Brooklyn and Staten Island through infiltrated labor unions. Indictments from 2008 to 2014 showed that the family was still very active in New York City. During 2009, the Gambino family saw many important members released from prison. On November 18, 2009, the NYPD arrested 22 members and associates of the Luchese and Gambino crime families as part of "Operation Pure Luck". The raid was a result of cases involving loansharking and sports gambling on Staten Island. There were also charges of bribing New York City court officers and Sanitation Department officials. In 2014, FBI and Italian police arrested 17 members and associates of the 'ndrangheta Mafia, in particular the Ursino clan, and 7 members and associates of the Gambino and Bonanno families. The arrested were accused by prosecutors and law enforcement officials of organizing a transatlantic drug ring with the aim of shipping 500 kg of pure cocaine from Guyana in South America to the port of Gioia Tauro in Calabria. US Attorney Loretta Lynch singled out Gambino family associate Franco Lupoi as the linchpin of the operation, accusing him of conspiring with his father-in-law, Nicola Antonio Simonetta, a member of the Ursino clan, to set up the network. On December 12, 2017, five associates of the Gambino family, Thomas Anzaone, Alessandro "Sandro" Damelio, Joseph Durso, Anthony Rodolico, and Anthony Saladino, along with 74-year-old captain John "Johnny Boy" Ambrosio, were arrested and accused of operating an illegal racketeering enterprise from January 2014 to December 2017, involving racketeering, extortion, drug trafficking, loansharking and illegal gambling. Bonanno crime family soldier, Frank "Frankie Boy" Salerno, was also arrested and accused of conspiring with the Gambino crime family. Associates Anzaone, Damelio and Durso, together with Bonanno soldier Saladino, were alleged to have sold cocaine, marijuana and Xanax in large quantities. Prosecutors said Salerno and Saladino sourced the drugs in kilograms then sold it to the others to be distributed. An undercover agent alleged that he paid $1,250 for an ounce of cocaine and also bought nearly a kilogram in 12 different sales between February and June in 2016. Ambrosio was said to have been the head of a very profitable loansharking and illegal gambling operation, including unlicensed gambling parlors, electronic gaming machines and internet sports betting. Prosecutors said that he and Rodolico attempted to obstruct the federal grand jury proceeding into their criminal activities by intimidating a loan shark victim into lying to law enforcement. Frank Cali was shot dead on March 13, 2019 outside his home on Staten Island by a lone gunman. Cali's murder was the first murder of a boss since the 1985 assassination of Paul Castellano. Three days later, 24-year-old Anthony Comello was arrested and charged with the murder. Authorities reportedly believe the crime was related to a personal dispute rather than any organized crime activity. Current position and leadership Following Cali's death, it was reported that Lorenzo Mannino had become the new Gambino leader. In July 2019, Thomas Gambino, 47, (considered by the FBI to be a significant member of the Gambino family) was one of 15 suspected members of the Inzerillo crime family arrested in coordinated raids in Sicily and the United States. Italian police said Gambino was caught on video meeting with ranking members of the Inzerillo clan on a speedboat off the coast of Palermo a year earlier, allegedly discussing the sale of property formerly owned by Frank Cali. Rosario Gambino was also arrested. On December 5, 2019, Gambino family capo Andrew Campos and nine other gangsters were arrested in a federal mob crackdown in the Bronx and Westchester County, on allegations of threats of violence to extort money. On December 6, John Simonlacaj, cousin of Mark “Chippy” Kocaj and a managing director of the HFZ Capital Group was arraigned in Brooklyn Federal Court on federal charges of wire fraud conspiracy and tax fraud. Prosecutors alleged that CWC Contracting, operated by Kocaj, Campos and Vincent Fiore, paid bribes to employees of numerous construction companies and real estate developers, including HFZ Capital. List of murders committed/ordered by the Gambino crime family Historical leadership Boss (official and acting) 1900s–1910 – Ignazio "the Wolf" Lupo – imprisoned in 1910. 1910–1928 – Salvatore "Toto" D'Aquila – took over the Brooklyn Camorra in 1916 and merged with Al Mineo's gang forming the largest family in New York. He was killed on orders of boss Joe Masseria in 1928. 1928–1930 – Manfredi "Alfred" Mineo – killed in Castellammarese War in 1930. 1930–1931 – Frank Scalice – demoted after murder of boss of all bosses Salvatore Maranzano. 1931–1951 – Vincent Mangano – disappeared in April 1951, allegedly killed on orders of underboss Albert Anastasia. 1951–1957 – Albert Anastasia – murdered in October 1957 on orders of Carlo Gambino. 1957–1976 – Carlo Gambino – died of natural causes in 1976. Acting 1964–1976 – Paul Castellano – acting boss for Gambino, became official boss after his death. 1976–1985 – Paul Castellano – murdered in December 1985 on orders of capo John Gotti. 1985–2002 – John Gotti – imprisoned in 1990, died in 2002. Acting 1992–1999 – John A. Gotti – imprisoned in 1999, later retired. Acting 1999–2002 – Peter Gotti – promoted to official boss. 2002–2011 – Peter Gotti – imprisoned in 2002, died in 2021. Acting 2002–2005 – Arnold Squitieri Acting 2005–2008 – John D'Amico 2011–present – Domenico "Italian Dom" Cefalù Acting 2015–2019 – Frank Cali – murdered in March 2019. Acting 2019–present – Lorenzo Mannino Committees From Gotti's imprisonment in 1990, several capo committees have periodically replaced the underboss and consigliere positions, allowing an imprisoned boss better control of the family. 1986 – Angelo Ruggiero (died 1989), Joseph Armone (died 1992), Salvatore Gravano (until 1987 when he became consigliere), Frank Locascio (until 1990 when he became consigliere) 1990–1991 – John A. Gotti, James Failla, John D'Amico, Louis Vallario, Peter Gotti 1991–1993 – John A. Gotti, James Failla, John D'Amico, Joseph Arcuri, Peter Gotti 1993–1996 – John A. Gotti, Nicholas Corozzo, John D'Amico, Joseph Arcuri, Peter Gotti 1996–1999 – John A. Gotti, Stephen Grammauta, John D'Amico, Joseph Arcuri, Peter Gotti 2008–2010 – Daniel Marino (jailed), Bartolomeo Vernace (jailed), and John Gambino 2013–2016 – John Gambino (died 2016), Anthony Gurino, Joseph Juliano 2016–2019 – Anthony Gurino (died 2019), Joseph Juliano Underboss (official and acting) 1928–1930 – Stefano Ferrigno – killed in 1930. 1930–1951 – Albert Anastasia – became official boss in 1951. 1951–1957 – Salvatore Chiri Acting 1953–1957 – Frank Scalise – murdered in 1957. Acting 1957 – Antonino "Nino" Conte 1957–1965 – Joseph Biondo – removed by Gambino in 1965. 1965–1985 – Aniello Dellacroce – died of natural causes in 1985. Acting 1974–1976 – James Failla – replaced by Dellacroce after release from prison. 1985 – Thomas Bilotti – murdered in 1985 on orders of capo John Gotti after 11 days. 1985–1986 – Frank DeCicco – murdered in 1986 by Lucchese family hitmen. 1986–1990 – Joseph Armone – sentenced to 15 years in prison in 1987, became consigliere. Acting 1988–1990 – Frank Locascio – became acting consigliere. 1990–1991 – Salvatore Gravano – turned government witness in 1991. 1999–2012 – Arnold Squitieri – arrested in 2005, released in 2012. Acting 1999–2002 – Stephen Grammauta – retired. Acting 2002–2005 – Anthony Megale – arrested in 2005. Acting 2005–2011 – Domenico Cefalù – became boss. 2012–2015 – Frank Cali – became acting boss. 2015–2017 – Giovanni "John" Gambino – died of natural causes, on November 16, 2017. 2018–2019 – Lorenzo Mannino – became acting boss. Consigliere (official and acting) 1931–1957 – Joseph Biondo 1957 – Carlo Gambino – became boss. 1957–1975 – Joseph Riccobono – retired in 1967, deceased in 1975. Acting 1967–1975 – Joseph N. Gallo – became official consigliere. 1975–1987 – Joseph N. Gallo – demoted Acting 1987 – Salvatore Gravano – became official consigliere. 1987–1990 – Salvatore Gravano – became underboss. 1990–1992 – Joseph Armone – former underboss, died in prison 1992. Acting 1990–1992 – Frank Locascio - convicted 1992. 1992–2011 – Joseph Corozzo – imprisoned in 2008, released January 5, 2016. 2011–2017 – Bartolomeo "Bobby Glasses" Vernace - arrested 2011, convicted 2014, died in prison 2017. Acting 2014–2018 – Lorenzo Mannino – became underboss Acting 2018–2019 – Michael "Mickey Boy" Paradiso – became official consigliere. 2019–present – Michael "Mickey Boy" Paradiso Administration Boss – Domenico "Italian Dom" Cefalù – despite rumours and speculation over the years, Cefalù has continued his reign as official boss since 2011. Born in Palermo in 1947. He became involved through the drug trade. Not much is known about Cefalù due to his deliberate "low-key" presence other than his 1982 heroin trafficking sentence; he served 6 years. He was inducted by John Gotti in 1991. In 1992 and 1993, he refused to testify against Pasquale Conte and was given an 18-month imprisonment; released in February 1994. Around 1995 or 1996, he was sentenced to 33 months for criminal contempt. In the mid-2000s, Jackie D'Amico promoted Cefalù as acting underboss, until his succession to boss in 2011. Acting boss – Lorenzo Mannino – suspected of being part of the top administration, at least regarded as a former respected and powerful captain in Brooklyn. Mannino was implicated by Sammy Gravano in the 1988 killing of Francesco Oliveri. He was formerly part of the "Sicilian faction" and also an acquaintance of John Gambino. In 1994, he was sentenced to 15 years and fined $25,000 for drug trafficking & racketeering. Underboss – Unknown/Vacant Consigliere – Michael "Mickey Boy" Paradiso – reportedly promoted in 2019. He has been active since the 1960s. In the 1970s, he assaulted John Gotti and was appointed as captain by Gotti in the mid-1980s. Paradiso has been suspected of hiring Jimmy Hydell and two other associates in the failed September 1985 murder of Lucchese crime family underboss Anthony Casso. By 1986, he completed his eight-year sentence of the hijacking of two trailer-trucks containing 500 bags of Colombian coffee and was released on $500,000 bail, when he was convicted of operating a major heroin distribution network at Lewisburg Penitentiary. It has been alleged Gotti ordered a contract on his life around late 1987 as retribution for Casso. In 1989, he was acquitted of murder after his own brother accused him of committing a January 1978 murder among nine others. He was paroled in 1998, returned to prison in 1999 on a parole violation then released in 2000. Paradiso was released in 2011 for an unknown crime. In 2016, he and 21 other members and associates of the Gambino, Bonanno and Genovese crime families were indicted as part of an illegal gambling and $15 million marijuana and oxycodone drug operation which stretched from California to New York. Caporegimes During the 1980s and 90s, the Gambino crime family had 24 active crews operating in New York City, New Jersey, Long Island, South Florida, and Connecticut. By 2000, the family had approximately 20 crews. However, according to a 2004 New Jersey Organized Crime Report, the Gambino family had only ten active crews. Brooklyn faction Dominick "Big D" Cefalù – Capo of a Brooklyn crew, and first cousin to boss Domenico Cefalù. Cefalù was indicted in 2011 on extortion and illegal gambling counts for threatening and shaking down a man over a $500,000 debt. Joseph "Sonny" Juliano – Capo of a Brooklyn crew that operates illegal gambling, loansharking, fraud and wire fraud activities. Juliano previously managed a multimillion-dollar illegal gambling ring in 30 New York City locations. Nicholas "Little Nick" Corozzo – Capo operating from Brooklyn and Queens. His brother is Joseph Corozzo, his is uncle of Joseph Jr. Became a fugitive for almost four months, and was incarcerated for 13-years. He was released from prison in March 2020. John Rizzo – Capo with operations in Brooklyn, Staten Island and Manhattan. Rizzo was invited to the wedding of Gambino mobster Joseph Virzi in 2012, but had to be removed at the pressure of authorities since he is a known felon. Staten Island faction Frank Camuso – Capo of a Staten Island crew. Carmine Sciandra – Capo of a crew in Staten Island who also co-owns three "Top Tomato" vegetable and fruit markets. In December 2005, Sciandra was shot and wounded by a retired policeman while working at his Staten Island market. On March 25, 2010, Sciandra pled guilty to state charges of enterprise corruption and grand larceny for running a massive sports betting and loan shark operation and was sentenced to serve between 1½ to 4½ years in prison. He was released on January 5, 2012. Queens faction Thomas "Tommy Sneakers" Cacciopoli – Capo of a crew in Queens, New Jersey, and Westchester. A top lieutenant of John A. Gotti during his time as Acting Boss, Cacciopoli was indicted on March 9, 2005 on charges of extortion, and was again indicted on February 8, 2008 for his part in the extortion of trucking companies at the NASCAR track site in Staten Island. He was released from prison on April 4, 2011. Thomas "Monk" Sassano – Capo of the Queens crew formerly headed by Alphonse Trucchio before his 2011 imprisonment, Sassano was involved with an extortion scheme in the 2000s along with captain Salvatore Scala. The two extorted the owner of a Manhattan strip club and used it as a training ground for family associates. Manhattan faction Salvatore "Mr. Sal" Franco – Capo of a Manhattan crew, Franco is the nephew of former family captain Joe Arcuri. Franco is a former union president and is the brother of Joseph Franco, who runs a restaurant located in the former Queens home of actor Rudolph Valentino. Louis Mastrangelo – Capo with operations in Manhattan. Mastrangelo, along with former captain Alphonse Trucchio and other family members, were sentenced in 2012 for various crimes, including conspiracy, loansharking, and illegal gambling. Bronx faction Andrew "Andy Campo" Campos – Capo operating in the Bronx and Westchester. In December 2019, Campos was indicted along with Richard Martino, Vincent Fiore and others on charges of racketeering conspiracy, bribery, fraud and obstruction of justice. In the 2019 indictment authories revealed that Campos made numerous visits to imprisoned Frank LoCascio. In January 2021, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 37 months in prison and was given a $15,000 fine. New Jersey Louis "Bo" Filippelli – New Jersey mobster who took over Alphonse Sisca's crew due to Sisca's growing age. Filippelli was a top confidant of former underboss and acting boss Arnold Squitieri, serving as "street boss" of the family's New Jersey operations. He was convicted and sent to prison in 2006, along with Sisca. Nicholas "Nicky Mita" Mitarotonda – Capo of a crew in Elizabeth, New Jersey. In August 1996, he was sentenced to almost 7 years in prison for running a loan sharking operation and fined $40,000. Mitarotonda was also convicted of running an illegal gambling business worth $5 million however the charges were dropped as he agreed to a plea agreement. He was released in 2002. He was released from federal prison on March 1, 2011. Sicilian faction The Sicilian faction of the Gambino crime family is known as the Cherry Hill Gambinos. Gambino boss Carlo Gambino created an alliance between the Gambino family and three Sicilian clans: the Inzerillos, the Spatolas and the Di Maggios. Carlo Gambino's relatives controlled the Inzerillo clan under Salvatore Inzerillo in Passo di Ragano, a neighborhood in Palermo, Sicily. Salvatore Inzerillo coordinated the major heroin trafficking from Sicily to the US, bringing his cousins John, Giuseppe and Rosario Gambino to the US to supervise the operation. The Gambino brothers ran a Cafe on 18th Avenue in Bensonhurst and took their name Cherry Hill Gambinos from Cherry Hill, New Jersey. The Gambino family in America began increasing in size with more Sicilian members. News reports in July 2019 indicated that a recent police investigation confirmed strong links between the Palermo area Cosa Nostra and the Gambino crime family in New York. According to Italian newspaper La Repubblica, "Off they go, through the streets of Passo di Rigano, Boccadifalco, Torretta and at the same time, Brooklyn, Staten Island, New Jersey. Because from Sicily to the US, the old mafia has returned". Soldiers Vincent "Little Vinny Dirtbag" Artuso - former Capo controlling the Florida faction, Artuso was convicted of racketeering on October 3, 2008, along with his son John. Artuso was released from federal prison on July 28, 2016. Salvatore "Tore" LoCascio – former Capo of a Bronx crew and son of Frank LoCascio. Along with Richard Martino, Salvatore introduced the Gambinos to online pornography operations that earned the family up to $350 million per year. In 2003, Salvatore was convicted and sent to prison. He was released from prison on August 1, 2008. Alphonse "Funzi" Sisca – former Capo operating a crew in New Jersey. He was a John Gotti ally and a former drug dealing partner of Angelo Ruggiero and Arnold Squitieri. Prior to being convicted in 2006, Sisca had spent 20 of the past 30 years in prison. He was released from prison on September 27, 2010. Leonard "Lenny" DiMaria former Capo with operations in Florida. DiMaria served as a top associate of John Gotti during his reign. Anthony "Sonny" Ciccone – Soldier of the Gambino crew on the Brooklyn waterfront. Ciccone was convicted on extortion charges in 2003. He was released from prison on April 24, 2013. Blaise Corozzo – Soldier and another of the Corozzo brothers. He is serving a one to three-year sentence in state prison for a 2008 illegal gambling operation. His son Nicholas Corozzo, also involved with the Gambino family, was arrested in 2004. In 2009, Blaise Corozzo was released from prison. Vincent "Vinny Butch" Corrao – former capo of a Manhattan crew. Vincent's grandfather, "Vinny the Shrimp", operated the same crew and passed it to his son Joseph Corrao. Joseph later passed the crew to his son Vincent. Gene Gotti – Soldier in the Gambino family. He is a brother of John, Peter, Richard, and Vincent Gotti. Richard G. Gotti – Soldier in the Gambino family and served as a member of his father Richard V. Gotti's crew. He is a nephew of John, Peter, Gene, and Vincent Gotti and cousin of former acting boss John A. Gotti. Vincent Gotti – soldier in the Gambino family. Vincent is the youngest of the Gotti brothers and was inducted as a made man in 2002, the year his brother John died. In 2008, Vincent pled guilty to 8 years in prison for attempted murder and was released on February 22, 2015. Michael Murdocco – Soldier in Carmine Sciandra's crew. Murdocco and his son-in-law Sanitation Deputy Chief Frederick Grimaldi, rigged bids to help a New Jersey firm win a sanitation contract. In exchange for kickbacks, Grimaldi allegedly leaked bid information to Murdocco in May 2009. Currently serving two to six years in state prison after pleading guilty in March 2010 to enterprise corruption, grand larceny and receiving bribes. Murdocco was paroled on July 7, 2012. Louis "Louie Bracciole" Ricco – Gotti-era capo of a crew in the Bronx, Brooklyn, and New Jersey. The crew had illegal gambling, loansharking and racketeering activities in the Bronx. Joseph Sclafani – current soldier who used to operate in Staten Island. Before his 2013 sentence of cocaine and marijuana trafficking, he was planning on marrying Ramona Rizzo, a star on Mob Wives. Rizzo is also the granddaughter of deceased Bonanno crime family soldier Benjamin Ruggiero. Sclafani was a friend and drug partner of Bonanno family associate Costabile Farace and was also alongside him when he was murdered in 1989, having been seriously wounded himself. He is the son of recently deceased Gambino captain Augustus Sclafani. He was released on August 4, 2019. Rosario Spatola – Member of the Cherry Hill Gambinos. His cousin was John Gambino and his brother-in-law was Salvatore Inzerillo. Louis Vallario – current Gambino family soldier and influential member during the 1980s. He was a close and trusted friend of John Gotti. Due to Gotti's incarceration, he led the family as a member of the Ruling Panel which consisted of other Gambino family members, until 2002. Vallario was most recently released from prison in 2013. Michael Matterazzo – current Gambino family soldier, he is allegedly a member of the old Anthony Gurino crew. Imprisoned members Gennaro "Jerry" Bruno - currently serving a 21-year prison sentence for shooting drug dealer Martin Bosshart in the back of his head over a marijuana dispute in 2002 in Queens; convicted for the crime in May 2017. Gambino associate Todd LaBarca was convicted for his role in the murder in 2012 and was sentenced to 23 years in prison. The 82nd Attorney General Eric Holder refused to seek the death penalty for Bruno. He held a top ranking position within the official Gambino crime family crew the Ozone Park Boys. He is a close ally of consigliere Joseph Corozzo and previously sided with his faction in the family. Andrew Merola – Former acting capo of the Mitarotonda crew. Merola is connected to Lucchese crime family Jersey faction leader Martin Taccetta. Merola's crew operates illegal gambling, loansharking, extortion and labor racketeering. Pleaded guilty to racketeering conspiracy and was sentenced to 11 years in prison. His projected release date is June 5, 2020. Michael Roccaforte – a reputed rising star in the Gambino family. He was reported to be the only member from the Gambino family under the rank of Captain to attend the 2010 conference consisting of members from the New York crime families and the Philadelphia crime family. He served under capo Alphonse Trucchio, son of Ronnie Trucchio. Roccaforte was sentenced alongside Anthony Moscatiello for racketeering, selling narcotics, gambling, loansharking and numerous other offenses. He was released on December 14, 2018. Paul Semplice - soldier given a 28-month prison term for running a loan-sharking operation in March 2019. Associates Joseph "Joe the German" Watts - high-ranking associate convicted in 2011 for his part in a 1989 murder conspiracy ordered by John Gotti. He is currently imprisoned at FCI Cumberland, and is scheduled for release in March 2022. Steven Kaplan – A family associate who was the manager of the Gold Club, a strip club in Atlanta, Georgia. He employed women to provide sexual services in his club. Anthony Pandrella – Associate from Brooklyn, Pandrella was arrested on March 13, 2019 for the robbery and murder of Vincent Zito, a Gambino-affiliated loan shark who was killed on October 26, 2018. Other territories The Gambino family operates primarily in the New York City area; their main rackets are illegal gambling and labor racketeering. New York City – The Gambino family operates in all five boroughs of New York as well the New York suburbs. The family operates numerous illegal gambling and loansharking throughout the area. New Jersey – The Gambino family operates in Northern New Jersey counties of Bergen, Passaic, and Essex Counties. The family also operates in Southern New Jersey in South Trenton, and Atlantic City. In 2004, it was reported that two Gambino crews operated in New Jersey. Florida – The Gambino family's Florida faction operates in Tampa and the South Florida counties of Broward, Palm Beach and Dade. Crews Cherry Hill Gambinos (headed by John Gambino) Howard Beach Crew The Ozone Park Boys Los Angeles Crew Defunct Baltimore Crew Alliances with other criminal groups The Gambino-Lucchese-Genovese (1953–1985) between Carlo Gambino, Tommy Lucchese, and Vito Genovese began with a plot to take over the Mafia Commission by murdering family bosses Frank Costello and Albert Anastasia. At that time, Gambino was Anastasia's new underboss and Vito Genovese was the underboss for Costello. Their first target was Costello on May 2, 1957. Costello survived the assassination attempt, but immediately decided to retire as boss in favor of Genovese. Their second target was Anastasia on October 25, 1957. The Gallo brothers (from the Colombo family) murdered Anastasia in a Manhattan barber shop, opening the war for Gambino to become the new boss of the now-Gambino crime family. After assuming power, Gambino started conspiring with Lucchese to remove their former ally Genovese. In 1959, with the assistance of Lucky Luciano, Costello, and Meyer Lansky, Genovese was arrested and Gambino assumed full control with Lucchese of the Mafia Commission. Under Gambino and Lucchese, the Commission pushed Bonanno boss Joseph Bonanno out of power, triggering an internal war in that family. In the 1960s, the Commission backed the Gallo brothers in their rebellion against Profaci family boss Joe Profaci. In 1962, Gambino's oldest son Thomas married Lucchese's daughter, strengthening the Gambino and Luchese family alliance. Lucchese gave Gambino access into the New York airports rackets he controlled, and Gambino allowed Lucchese into some of their rackets. After Lucchese death in July 1967, Gambino used his power over the Commission to appoint Carmine Tramunti as the new Luchese family leader. Gambino later continued the alliance with Tramunti's successor, Anthony Corallo. After Gambino's death, new Gambino boss Paul Castellano continued the Luchese alliance. In 1985, the original Gambino-Luchese alliance dissolved when John Gotti ordered Castellano's assassination and took power in the Gambino family without Commission approval. The Gambino-Lucchese (1999–present) was initiated by acting Luchese boss Steven Crea in 1999. The two families extorted the construction industry and made millions of dollars in bid-rigging. In early 2002, Luchese capo John Capra worked with Gambino acting boss Arnold Squitieri, acting underboss Anthony Megale, and Bronx-based acting capo Gregory DePalma. The group was involved in illegal gambling and extortion activities in Westchester County, New York. The members were arrested in 2005 leading to the revelation that Gambino acting capo DePalma had allowed an FBI agent Joaquín García (known as Jack Falcone) work undercover with his crew since 2002. In late 2008, Gambino family acting capo Andrew Merola teamed with Luchese Jersey faction acting boss Martin Taccetta in an illegal gambling ring, shaking down unions, and extorting car dealerships. Merola was indicted in 2008 and Taccetta was returned to prison in 2009. The Gambino-Genovese (1962–1972) was between Carlo Gambino and Genovese family acting boss/front boss Thomas Eboli. The alliance was short-lived because Eboli was unable or unwilling to repay Gambino money from a bad narcotics deal. The alliance ended when Gambino ordered Eboli's murder on July 16, 1972. The Gambino-Bonanno (1991–2004) started with John Gotti and new Bonanno boss Joseph Massino. As a member of the Mafia Commission, Gotti helped Massino regain the Bonanno commission seat that was lost in the early 1970s. The Gambino family influenced the Bonanno family to give up narcotics trafficking and return to more traditional Cosa Nostra crimes (loan sharking, gambling, stock fraud, etc.) By the late 1990s, the Bonannos had become almost as strong as the Gambinos. The Gambino-Westies (1970s–1990s) this alliance resulted from an ongoing war between the Genovese family and the Westies, an Irish-American street gang in the Hell's Kitchen section of Manhattan. Genovese front boss Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno wanted to seize control of lucrative construction rackets at the new Jacob Javits Convention Center from the Westies. When the Westies balked, Salerno ordered the murder of the top gang leaders. Eventually, the Genovese family invited the Gambinos to broker a peace agreement with the Westside Gang. As part of this agreement, the Westies formed an alliance with Gambino soldier Roy DeMeo. The Gambino-Corleonesi This association was revealed in May 2019 when news reports indicated that a Cosa Nostra insider revealed that John Gotti of the Gambino family had sent one of their explosives experts to Sicily to work with the Corleonesi Mafia clan. This individual allegedly helped plan the Capaci bombing that was set by Giovanni Brusca to kill prosecuting judge Giovanni Falcone and his team. One mafia expert was surprised that the two groups would cooperate because the American Cosa Nostra was affiliated with the rivals of the Corleonesi. But another expert said the joint effort was understandable. "It may be that the Gambinos at a certain point recognised that the Corleonesi had been victorious in the war between rival families in Sicily ... there is nothing unusual in the traffic of personnel and ideas across the Atlantic ... they were cousin organisations," according to John Dickie, professor of Italian studies at University College London and the author of Mafia Republic – Italy's Criminal Curse. Government informants and witnesses Alphonso "The Peacemaker" Attardi - the first confirmed Gambino crime family informant. Attardi was born in Sicily in 1897 and allegedly joined the Sicilian Mafia before immigrating to New York in 1919. He became a bootlegger and joined the D'Aquila gang during the 1920s – later evolved into the Gambino crime family. It is noted that Attardi was heavily involved in the narcotic trade from the 1930s to late 1940s. By 1947, he was an informant for the FBN and by 1952, Attardi was informing on the American Mafia, he disappeared shortly thereafter. Attardi gave an interview to columnist Jack Anderson in 1968. Depending on the sources, he died in 1970 or 1972 in Suffolk County, New York. Alfredo "Freddie the Sidge" Santantonio - he was initiated into the Gambino family in 1953. Santantonio was reportedly very close to Albert Anastasia and he was also the brother-in-law of Jack Parisi, a Gambino soldier and former Murder, Inc gunman. It is believed Santantonio became an informant in 1961. In 1962, he avoided a prison sentence for attempting to sell stolen bonds, with two other criminals. On July 11, 1963, he was shot dead 5 times by two men whilst inside of a Brooklyn florist shop. Wilfred "Willie Boy" Johnson - former associate and confidant of John Gotti. He could never become a member of the Gambino family due to his Native-American heritage, for which he was named "Wahoo". Johnson became an informer in 1966 for the FBI due to apparent dissatisfaction with the mob. During a public hearing in 1985, federal prosecutor Diane Giacalone revealed that Johnson was cooperating with law enforcement. Johnson immediately refused to enter the Witness Protection Program and was subsequently murdered on August 29, 1988. Bonanno crime family hitmen Vincent "Kojak" Giattino and Thomas Pitera murdered Johnson as a favor for Gotti, Johnson was reportedly shot 19 times and found face-down in a pool of his own blood. Dominick Montiglio - former associate who testified in 1983. He attended the wake of Gambino underboss Frank Scalise in 1957 with his uncle and future Gambino capo Nino Gaggi. In 1973, he met Roy DeMeo, then an associate in the Gambino family, and Chris Rosenberg. He served as an errand boy for his uncle which required him to collect payments from the DeMeo crew. DeMeo had offered him the opportunity of selling narcotics however Gaggi ordered Montiglio not to get involved. Montiglio was involved in the April 1975 attempted murder of Vincent Governara. He fled to California in 1979 after believing Roy DeMeo and his uncle Nino Gaggi were planning to murder him, after Gambino boss Paul Castellano heard gossip of Montiglio selling and using heroin. His testimony in 1983 led Gaggi to be sentenced to 5 years in prison, where he would die in 1988. His testimony has brought down at least 60 American Mafia mobsters, with a confirmed number of 56 people before vanishing into the Witness Protection Program in 1983. James Cardinali - born in 1950. He is a former Gambino crime family associate who testified against John Gotti in December 1986. In 1975, he was given a four-year sentence for possession of weapons and drugs. Cardinali first met Gotti at the Clinton correctional facility in the late 1970s before he was transferred to Attica and Gotti to Green Haven. Cardinali was released from the program in July 1989 by confiding his identity. He admitted to participating in 5 murders. Dominick "Big Dom" LoFaro - former associate. In 1983 or 1984, depending on the source, LoFaro attempted to sell a kilogram of heroin to undercover FBI and DEA agents, he shortly became an informer after his arrest due to the fact that he faced over 20 years in prison. In 1986, he was one out of three American Mafia informers to testify against Gambino boss John Gotti, alongside James Cardinali and Colombo crime family associate, Salvatore Polisi. LoFaro received probation for his testimony against Gotti. On 7 January 1987, he admitted to fabricating stories in order to make a deal with the government. He later admitted to murdering Salvatore Calabria at his home in 1982, and served as an accomplice in the murder of Calabria's wife in 1983. Also during January 1987, he pled guilty to attempted murder, illegal gambling and loan sharking. He died in 2003. Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano - the first underboss to break his blood oath. Gravano admitted to the killings of 19 people and cooperated with the government in 1991. He also admitted to fixing John Gotti's trials, which led Gotti to be called "the Teflon Don" due to his evasion from prosecution. He was released from prison in 1994 and immediately entered the Witness Protection Program which allowed him to flee to Arizona under protection. Gravano gave several publicised interviews, including with Dianne Sawyer, however Peter Gotti ordered a death-contract on Gravano after his 1999 Vanity Fair interview. The plan consisted of murdering Gravano with a land mine or shooting him with a hunting rifle. After his 2002 drug-related arrest, the assigned Gambino hitmen, Thomas "Huck" Carbonaro and Eddie Garafola, planned to send a nail bomb into his prison cell via mail. Gravano was released from prison in 2017. Dominic "Fat Dom" Borghese - former soldier. He served in the crew of Jackie D'Amico and later John A. Gotti. Borghese was very close with John A. Gotti, he even attended his wedding in 1990 and were partners together in several lucrative Staten Island illegal bookmaking operations; he later testified against him in 1998. Borghese admitted to helping dispose of 2 murdered bodies however he was unable to dig underneath due to the fact that he weighed over 400 pounds. He entered the Witness Protection Program in 1995. He testified against high-ranking Gambino associate Joe Watts. Andrew DiDonato - he was a former associate of the Gambino family and protegee of former Gambino acting boss and captain, Nicholas Corozzo. DiDonato was suspected of participating in 2 murders. He became an informant in 1997 and later testified against John A. Gotti. Craig DePalma - son of deceased Gambino acting captain Gregory DePalma. DePalma was a soldier and was proposed for membership by John Gotti, he later served in the crew of John A. Gotti. He cooperated in 2000 and died in December 2010 from eight years spent in a coma after a failed jailhouse suicide in 2002. Michael "Mickey Scars" DiLeonardo - former Gambino capo. DiLeonardo was active since the 1960s. His brother was shot to death in 1981 in a dispute related with the Gambino and Colombo crime families, DiLeonardo was denied permission to avenge the murder by boss Paul Castellano. He was inducted into the Gambino crime family alongside John A. Gotti on December 24, 1988. In 1989, he helped arrange the murder of publisher and sanitation business owner Fred Weiss, who was shot to death by the New Jersey DeCavalcante crime family as a favor to John J. Gotti. He became a government witness shortly after his June 2002 arrest; he was accused of labor racketeering, extortion, loan sharking, witness tampering, and the murder of Fred Weiss. He later testified against former Gambino boss Peter Gotti, captain Louis Vallario, hitman Michael Yanotti, Richard G. Gotti and the brother of John Gotti, Richard V. Gotti. His testimony has secured the convictions of more than 80 American Mafia members and associates. Frank "Frankie Fapp" Fappiano - former soldier. He allegedly became a Gambino soldier during the early 1990s and decided to cooperate in 2002. Fappiano has a brother in the Colombo crime family. He admitted to corruption, bribery and the extortion of construction companies based in Manhattan and Brooklyn, with the Genovese crime family. During one incident, Anthony Graziano, the consigliere of the Bonanno crime family, managed to obtain the "kickback" for a $22 million building contract at MDC Brooklyn, which the Gambino family also rivalled for. Primo Cassarino - former soldier and was part of Anthony Ciccone's crew. He was convicted of racketeering and extortion in 2003, alongside former boss Peter Gotti and several other Gambino members. In 2004, he was additionally convicted of racketeering, money-laundering and for the extortion of action-film star Steven Seagal. Cassarino became a government witness in 2005 after he was sentenced to over 11 years in prison. In 2005, he confessed about the infiltration of the International Longshoremen's Association. He testified in the trial of Genovese capo Lawrence Ricci in November 2005, who was later murdered a few weeks after, and also testified against Gambino soldier Anthony "Todo" Anastasio. John Alite - former associate who testified against John A. Gotti and hitman Charles Carneglia. Alite pleaded guilty to two murders, four murder conspiracies, at least eight shootings and two attempted shootings as well as armed home invasions and armed robberies in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Florida. His testimony against Carneglia resulted in the defendant receiving a life sentence after being found guilty of four murders. On April 26, 2011, Alite was sentenced to 10 years in prison, however was released in January 2012. Joseph "Little Joe" D'Angelo - former soldier who cooperated in 2005. D'Angelo was once the driver for John A. Gotti. He testified against Gotti alongside former Bonanno crime family captain Dominick Cicale in 2009. He confessed to 2 murders and served as the driver during the attempted murder of Curtis Sliwa in 1992. Former United States federal judge Shira Scheindlin announced at his July 2012 trial that D'Angelo's testimony has brought down at least 40 mobsters, he was sentenced to four years time already served. Lewis Kasman - former associate. He was close to the Gotti family. John Gotti considered Kasman as a son. He cooperated in 2005. In 2015, he was arrested on felony grand theft and fraud charges in Florida. Kasman reportedly lived in a $900,000 mansion on Delray Beach. Robert Mormando - former soldier and hitman for the Gambino crime family. In October 2009, Mormando became the first mobster to admit in open court that he is gay. He was involved in the 2003 shooting of a Queens bagel store owner. Nicholas "Nicky Skins" Stefanelli - former soldier who was active in New Jersey, he was a member of Nicholas Corozzo's crew. He became an informant in 2010. Stefanelli reportedly murdered an informant in February 2011, Joseph Rossi, who he blamed for forcing him into becoming an informer. He committed suicide two days after he murdered Rossi, he was found dead in a hotel room. Anthony Ruggiano Jr. - former soldier. He is the son of Gambino captain Anthony Ruggiano Sr, who died in 1999. He lured his brother-in-law, Frank "Geeky" Boccia, to his death in 1988, Ruggiano spent three days in prison for his role in the murder after his cooperation in 2012. Ruggiano later testified against high-ranking members of the Gambino, including Dominick Pizzonia, Bartolomeo "Bobby Glasses" Vernace and hitman Charles Carneglia. Giovanni "Johnny" Monteleone - former associate who turned informer in 2013. Sopranos actor Tony Darrow asked Monteleone and Gambino soldier Joseph Orlando to recover money from a debt owed to him. Facing extortion charges, it was revealed in 2013 that Monteleone had cooperated, he received no prison time. Former Gambino family mobsters Anthony "Tough Tony" Anastasio - brother of Albert Anastasia. Anastasio held control of the Brooklyn docks until his death in 1963. Bartholomew "Bobby" Boriello - born in 1944, Boriello was one of John Gotti's top bodyguards. He was assassinated in 1991 on orders of Lucchese underboss Anthony Casso. Roy DeMeo - ran the DeMeo crew, DeMeo was known for the excessive amount of brutal murders and dismemberment of rival criminals that took place in the "Gemini Lounge", the crew's hideout. He was shot and killed in 1983. William "Billy Batts" Bentvena - also known as William Devino, Bentvena was a racketeer and drug smuggler. His infamous murder by Thomas DeSimone was portrayed in the film Goodfellas. Carmine "Charley Wagons" Fatico - born in 1910, Fatico served as a capo and was an early mentor to John Gotti. Paolo "Paul" Gambino - born in 1904. Former captain and younger brother of Carlo Gambino. In 1970, he was accused by police of establishing a heroin pipeline in the city of Toronto with Paolo Violi, Rocco Zito and Vincenzo Cotroni. He died in 1973. Joseph "Joe the Blond" Giordano - capo, Giordano was the brother of John "Handsome Jack" Giordano, a Gotti-era capo. died of lung cancer in 2013. Carmine "The Doctor" Lombardozzi - Gambino capo, Lombardozzi held near-total control over the family's stock market and shylock rackets. Lombardozzi was once described as having a "brilliant mind" for numbers. Lombardozzi had a long criminal history and tallied up numerous arrests. He died on May 9, 1992. Pasquale Marsala - born in 1940, Marsala served as a capo under Frank Cali and Lorenzo Mannino's leadership, with operations in Brooklyn and Manhattan. In 1974, he was indicted for his part in a multimillion-dollar illegal gambling operation in which police officers were bribed. He died in 2021. Alphonse "Funzi" Mosca - born in 1913. Former soldier and major heroin wholesale trafficker. He was a confidante of Gambino boss Paul Castellano. He died in 1987. Ralph "Ralphie Bones" Mosca - capo during John Gotti's reign. Frank "Big Frank" Pasqua Sr. - born in 1923. Former Gambino family soldier and major drug trafficker with known contacts in the Chicago Outfit. In December 1952, he was arrested in New York for trafficking several kilos of heroin to Chicago from New York on a weekly basis, the district supervisor in Chicago alleged the price of heroin increased by $100 an ounce due to the arrest of Pasqua and his Chicago associates. He was given a four-year prison sentence in 1958 for heroin conspiracy. Pasqua and his son were arrested on 9 December 1982 as part of operation "Major Supplier" which allegedly earned $25,000 per week from 1979 to 1982 and oversaw 15 percent of the heroin distributed wholesale in the city of New York, or about 400 pounds of heroin per year. He was convicted in 1984 for heroin conspiracy. Frank Piccolo - caporegime with family operations in Bridgeport, Connecticut. He was shot and killed in 1981 on orders of Paul Castellano, reportedly for his attempt at overtaking Genovese rackets in Connecticut. Angelo "Quack Quack" Ruggiero - close friend of John Gotti, Ruggiero died of cancer in 1989. Gaetano Russo - born in Palermo, Sicily in 1891. By 1969, he was identified as a captain in the Gambino family by the federal government. He died in 1970. Anthony Scotto Arthur "Artie Todd" Tortorello - born in 1913. Former soldier in the crew of Carmine Lombardozzi. He was heavily involved in stock fraud notable for his 1964 arrest which saw investors lose over $2 million in a bank and stock fraud case. He died in 1980. Anthony "Tony Pepsi" Vitta - born in 1938. Former soldier and confidante of Joseph N. Gallo. In December 1987, he was sentenced to 10 years in prison and fined $250,000 for obstruction of justice, racketeering and the extortion of a photography color laboratory and a Bronx construction firm. He died in 2018. Media adaptations The Gambino family has been featured in several films. The 1994 film Getting Gotti showcases a 1980s prosecution of Gambino boss John Gotti (portrayed by Tony Denison). Witness to the Mob was a made-for-television movie about the life of Gambino underboss turned FBI informant Sammy Gravano. In the 2001 TV movie, Boss of Bosses, actor Chazz Palminteri portrays Gambino boss Paul Castellano. In the 1996 TV movie Gotti, actor Armand Assante portrays Gambino boss John Gotti. In the movie Goodfellas, Gambino family made member William "Billy Batts" DeVino (played by Frank Vincent) is killed in a fight with Thomas DeSimone (portrayed as "Tommy DeVito" by Joe Pesci) a Lucchese crime family associate. The 2018 film Gotti, a commercial and critical flop, stars John Travolta in the titular role. See also Capeci, Jerry. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Mafia. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, 2002. Jacobs, James B., Christopher Panarella and Jay Worthington. Busting the Mob: The United States Vs. Cosa Nostra. New York: NYU Press, 1994. Maas, Peter. Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997. References External links Seize The Night: Gambino Crime Family Gambino Mafia Leadership 2009 Gambino Mafia News Organizations established in the 1910s 1910s establishments in New York City Organizations based in New York City Five Families Gangs in Connecticut Gangs in Florida Gangs in New Jersey Gangs in New York City

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canvey%20Island

Canvey Island

Canvey Island is a civil parish and reclaimed island in the Thames estuary, near Southend-on-Sea in Essex, England. It has an area of and a population of 38,170. It is separated from the mainland of south Essex by a network of creeks. Lying only just above sea level, it is prone to flooding at exceptional tides and has been inhabited since the Roman conquest of Britain. The island was mainly agricultural land until the 20th century, when it became the fastest-growing seaside resort in Britain between 1911 and 1951. The North Sea flood of 1953 devastated the island, killing 58 islanders and leading to the temporary evacuation of the 13,000 residents. Canvey is consequently protected by modern sea defences comprising of concrete sea walls. Canvey Island is also notable for its relationship to the petrochemical industry. The island was the site of the first delivery in the world of liquefied natural gas by container ship and later became the subject of an influential assessment on the risks to a population living within the vicinity of petrochemical shipping and storage facilities. History Roman Excavations on Canvey have unearthed a collection of early man-made objects comprising axes from the Neolithic era, a bracelet dating from the Bronze Age, and Iron Age pottery. However, the remains of Roman structures and objects suggests the first settlement of Canvey occurred between AD 50 and 250. The remains point to a community existing with a farmstead, a garrison, a burial ground, and the operation of a large salt-making industry (revealed by the existence of several red hills). The discovery of a Roman road found to terminate across the creek in neighbouring Benfleet suggests a means may have existed to facilitate the salt's distribution to Chelmsford and Colchester, and the recovery of rich items of pottery and glassware of a variety only matched elsewhere by excavations of port facilities suggests the Romans may also have exploited Canvey's location in the Thames for shipping. Counus Island events In 1607 the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden noted in his work Britannia (a topographical and historical survey of all of Great Britain and Ireland) that Canvey Island (which he called Island Convennon) was documented in the 2nd century by the Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy. In his work Geographia, Ptolemy mentions a headland in the mouth of the Thames to the east of the Trinovantes region called Counus Island. However, the difficulties faced in determining the location of land areas in Ptolemy's ancient work have led modern researchers to question the correlation between Ptolemy's island and contemporary Canvey. MacBean and Johnson, 18th-century historians, contend that Counus Island would have existed much further out to sea (or may even have been the Isle of Sheppey), so any similarity between the names is mere coincidence. Without any suitable island matching Ptolemy's Counus Island, 20th-century historians White and Yearsley posit the documented island to have been lost or reduced to an insignificant sandbank by subsidence and the constant effects of the sea.' Saxon and medieval The settlement and agricultural development of Essex by the Saxons from the 5th century saw the introduction of sheep farming, which would dominate the island's industry until the 20th century. After the Norman conquest the area of Canvey was recorded in the Domesday Book as a sheep-farming pasture under the control of nine parishes across south inland and coastal Essex; some of these parishes were on the adjacent mainland, but others were as far afield as Laindon and Prittlewell. Apart from the meat and wool produced from the sheep, the milk from the ewes was used for cheese-making. The abundance in later centuries would see the cheeses become a commodity taken for sale at the London markets, and at one stage exported via Calais to the continent. The existence of several place names on modern Canvey using the wick suffix (denoting the sheds in which the cheese was made) shows the influence of the early Saxon culture. Yearsley states that the name of the island is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Caningaege, meaning "the Island of Cana's People". Developments in the English language yielded the more familiar form Caneveye found in manorial records of 1254. The period of transition from Old to Early Middle English often give rise to confusions of orthography, leading, in this instance, to such variant spellings as Canefe, Kaneweye, Kaneveye and Koneveye. By the 12th century, Essex and subsequently Canvey were in the possession of Henry de Essex who inherited the land from his grandfather, Swein, son of Robert fitz Wymarch. During the reign of Henry II (1154–1189) the land was confiscated from de Essex and redistributed among the King's favoured nobles. Tudor divisions Shown on John Norden's 1594 map with the second word "insula" with the traditional middle "s", facing the 'Isle' of Grain rather than a Latinised "Sheppey insula" to the southeast, is a close eastern division which is perhaps the part which later almost wholly merged into the present island, with a ditch being the current boundary, having the same far eastern points as the Canvey Point and Leighbeck Point marshes. Two Tree Island to the north is also recognisable, if halved in length. The third eastern island or mudflat could well be the Counus (i.e. "council") Island, where the Trinovantes, Cantiaci and the Catuvellauni counselled with the Iceni, shortly before staging Boudicca's rebellion against the Romans. If so, Counus occupies an area from the Canvey Point Sand Bank until just before Shoeburyness, the eastern point of the relatively straight estuary so stretched the whole length of Southend on Sea, giving a reason for the tidal flats along this shore being so shallow (see for instance the world's longest pier which is in the town). Cana's People were descendants of both Cantiaci and the Catuvellauni. If a boundary point, Counus would then be in tribal terms placed at the southern border of the Trinovantes on the eastern extent of the loose tribes also seen as the Tames (Thames). 14th century – 17th century During Edward II's reign (1307–1327) the land was under the possession of John de Apeton and the first attempts were made at managing the effects of the sea with rudimentary defences, but periodical flooding continued to blight the small population of mostly shepherds and their fat-tailed variety of sheep for a further 300 years. William Camden wrote of the island in 1607 that it was so low that it was often quite flooded, except the hills, upon which the sheep had a place of safe refuge. The uniform flatness of Canvey suggests that these hills are likely to be the red hills of the Roman saltmaking industry, or the early makeshift sea defences constructed by some of the landowners around their farms. In 1622, Sir Henry Appleton (a descendant of John de Apeton) and Canvey's other landowners instigated a project to reclaim the land and wall the island from the Thames. The scheme was managed by an acquaintance of Appleton's – Joas Croppenburg, a Dutch Haberdasher of Cheapside in London. An agreement reached in 1623 stipulated that in return for inning and recovering the island, the landowners would grant a third of the land as payment for the work. The presence of the Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden, a relation of Croppenburg's, in England at the time of the project on a commission to drain the Fens and involved in repairing the seawall at Dagenham, has led to speculation that Vermuyden oversaw the project, but proof appears to be vague; nevertheless, the work was completed by around 300 Dutch workers skilled in the construction of dykes and other sea defences. The engineers successfully reclaimed by walling the island with local chalk, limestone and the heavy clay of the marshes, with the main length along the Thames faced with Kentish ragstone. A broad drainage ditch was dug inland off the area facing the river while smaller inlets were filled in. Excess water would have collected in the broad ditch and then been discharged into the river by the means of seven sluices (later known as Commissioners Dykes). The completion of the work saw a considerable number of the Dutch engineers take land as payment for their work, and consequently settle on the island. Approximately one-third of Canvey's streets have names of Dutch origin. Modern era Chapman Lighthouse The Chapman Lighthouse, briefly described in Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness, was on the coast of Canvey Island. It is believed that the peril of the mudflats below such shallow waters off the Canvey Island coast prompted the Romans to devise some form of beacon as a warning in the area. In 1851 a hexagonal lighthouse was constructed by the engineer James Walker, a consultant lighthouse engineer at Trinity House at the time. This all-iron lighthouse replaced a lightship which had been moored in the area for the preceding four years. The lighthouse was demolished in 1957–1958 because of its poor condition. Bare-knuckle boxing The Lobster Smack Inn saw many bare-knuckle fights in the 1850s, but few as dramatic as that between Tom 'the Brighton Boy' Sayers (1826–65) and Aaron Jones on 6 January 1857. The fight lasted for three hours and 65 rounds, and was finally declared a draw when it became too dark to see. Sayers won at the rematch a month later in London. Sometimes the bouts were between local families, the best known being that between champion Ben Caunt and Nat Langham. The fight arose from a family feud and Caunt took Langham to 60 rounds in September 1853. Langham was knocked down 59 times during the bout and because, it is said, of his sportsmanship Caunt agreed to settle their differences with a handshake. Preventive service Philip Benton reported about Canvey Chapel in 1867: "The seats are open and unappropriated, except one, which is set apart for the officer and the men under him of the Preventive Service; there being a station on the island for nine men, an officer and a chief boatman." The Preventive Men had their own special row of cottages close to the seafront near the old Lobster Smack Inn. That ancient pub was itself described by Charles Dickens in Great Expectations. So out of the way (and therefore the smugglers) was the inn behind the sea wall, in the 18th century it was known as 'The World's End'. In the 19th century, the isolation made it an ideal point for the meetings of pugilists. The row of Preventive Men's Cottages has survived against the odds. Today they are surrounded by a small housing estate. Canvey-on-sea During the Victorian era Canvey became a very fashionable place to visit, and its air was promoted as having healing properties. This started in 1899, after the Black Monday floods, when an entrepreneur called Frederick Hester bought Leigh Beck Farm, and started what was to be called Southview Park estate. The properties sold very quickly so Frederick bought more plots of land, selling them as dream homes for London's Eastenders. Hester wanted to create Canvey as a great seaside resort for Londoners, and so built the first promenade, a pier and a magnificent winter garden and palace, which he planned to cover six miles (but only covered a mile), as well as a monorail system (initially horse-drawn then later electric). Hester marketed Canvey as "Ye Old Dutch Island", giving many of the new roads Dutch-sounding names and enticing potential buyers with free rail tickets. The project started well with thousands of plots sold, but by 1905 had fallen apart due to materials not being delivered and issues with land ownership with the laying of the monorail. Hester was declared bankrupt and everything was sold off at an auction held at Chimney's Farm. A new seafront was developed in the 1930s, with Canvey Casino – an amusement arcade and park – opening as the first building on what would become Eastern Esplanade. Since then further amusements, a cinema, the pioneering Labworth Cafe, the Monico pub and nightclubs such as the Goldmine were built. Canvey Island remained a popular holiday and weekend destination until the cheap foreign package holiday became popular in the 1970s. Second World War During the Second World War the island was a part of the GHQ Line, a line of concrete pillboxes constructed as a part of the defence against the expected German invasion. Some of the old pillboxes are still in place. Also, concrete barges were used extensively just off the south coast of the island, partly as a sea-barrier and also as a mounting point for anti-aircraft guns; one of which was beached on the east end of the island and remained for many years as a point of interest for visitors and a play area for many generations of the island's children. It has since been demolished by the Island Yacht Club as it was considered dangerous. Along with the Coalhouse Fort at nearby East Tilbury, Thorney Bay on the southern coast of the island was the site of a degaussing station built to monitor the effectiveness of the equipment on board the allied ships passing along the Thames. The structure is the last intact degaussing station on the north side of the river, and was still operating in 1974. Known as the Canvey loop, the building was occupied by the Women's Royal Naval Service and used for monitoring merchant ships. The building has since been re-opened as a museum dubbed the "Bay Museum" and has First World War exhibits on the ground floor and Second World War exhibits on the first floor.Canvey's World War II Degaussing Station. Canvey Island Community archive. Retrieved 25 July 2008. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records four civilian residents of Canvey Island Urban District died as a result of enemy action during the war. Floods of 1953 On 1 February 1953, the infamous North Sea Flood hit the island during the night and caused the deaths of 58 people. Many of the victims were in the holiday bungalows of the eastern Newlands estate and perished as the water reached ceiling level. The small village area of the island is approximately two feet (60 cm) above sea level and consequently escaped the effects of the flood. This included the Red Cow pub, which was later renamed the King Canute in reference to the legend of the 11th-century Danish king of England commanding the tide to halt with the sea lapping at his feet. The King Canute pub was closed in May 2014. In 2016 a scheme to convert the building into retail space and apartments was proposed. After the flooding of 1953, a new seawall was built, which was then replaced with a significantly larger construction in the 1980s. Petrochemical industry The southern area of the Canvey Island West ward at Hole Haven has predominantly existed as petrochemical site since the first construction of an oil terminal there in 1936. In 1959, as part of a pioneering Anglo-American project designed to assess the viability of transporting liquefied natural gas overseas, a gas terminal with two 1000-tonne storage tanks was constructed at the site alongside the oil terminal. The gas terminal built by the British Gas Council was designed to store and distribute imported gas to the whole of Britain via the facilities at Thames Haven and the local refinery at Shellhaven in Coryton. The first delivery of 2,020 tonnes arrived on 20 February 1959 from Lake Charles, Louisiana, by a specially modified liberty ship Normarti renamed The Methane Pioneer. The success of seven further deliveries over the following 14 months established the international industry for transporting liquefied natural gas (LNG) by sea, but the discovery of oil and gas in North Sea limited further British development. Canvey continued to receive 50 shipments of LNG per year from Arzew Algeria, until about 1984, British Gas closed the site in 1994. In 1964 the Italian company Agip Ltd were given an industrial development certificate to build a £15 million oil refinery in the north west of the island. The refinery was never built. In 1972 Occidental Petroleum began construction of an oil refinery. Access roads, about 20 oil-storage tanks, a river jetty and a concrete chimney were constructed, but work was halted in 1975 pending a major design study review following the oil crisis of 1973–4 and OPEC's increase of oil prices. On 28 March 1973 planning permission was granted to United Refineries Ltd to develop a site to the north of the Occidental refinery site for the construction of another oil refinery. An exploratory public inquiry was held in February/March 1975 into the possible revocation of the planning permission for the United Refineries development. The report of 30 April 1975 recommended revocation and further expert evaluation of the totality of risks facing people who lived in and around Canvey. In March 1976 the Secretaries of State for the Environment and Employment asked the Health and Safety Commission to investigate the risks to health and safety of various installations on Canvey and the neighbouring part of Thurrock. The Commission invited the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to carry out an investigation. From the Canvey Report (1978) the following hazardous installations were identified: In 1978 the HSE concluded that the residents of the island faced a risk more than five times higher than those in neighbouring South Benfleet. On 27 July 1978 Castle Point District Council asked the Secretary of State "to revoke the planning permission granted to United Refineries Ltd in accordance with his Inspector's recommendation at the exploratory inquiry in 1975". The issue of risk was again highlighted in an attack by the IRA in January 1979 on a storage tank at the island's Texaco oil terminal. A bomb was detonated at a tank containing aviation fuel, but failed to ignite with the fuel escaping into a safety moat.Sir Bernard Braine. (27 March 1979). Commons Sitting – Liquified gas storage (Canvey Island). Retrieved 18 June 2008. The Occidental site was abandoned in 1975 leaving a half-built oil refinery, storage tanks, and an unused mile-long jetty that cost around £10 million of the approximate total of £60 million spent on the project. However, in the following years the disused and undisturbed site flourished as a haven for wildlife, and in 2003, the final storage tanks were removed in a clean-up operation, and the site was renamed as Canvey Wick and opened as a nature reserve. In September 1997, the celebrity steeplejack Fred Dibnah was hired by Safeway supermarkets to demolish the unused concrete chimney that was part of the abandoned oil refinery. Safeway had planned for the 2,500-ton chimney to be demolished on 18 September in front of a large crowd of invited guests. This would have been the first time Dibnah's demolition technique of pit props and fire (without explosives) had been attempted on a concrete chimney and it was also the tallest chimney he had ever attempted to fell. However the chimney unexpectedly collapsed the previous day whilst Dibnah and his team were making the final preparations for the controlled demolition, fortunately without injury. The incident is described in detail in various biographies and by Dibnah himself in his public speaking events afterwards. Dibnah later presented Safeway head office staff with brass paperweights (made from material salvaged from the chimney) stamped "The Great Canvey Island Chimney Disaster 1997". The sites today Calor Gas Ltd now operate the former British Gas site. The site imports, stores, bottles and exports liquified petroleum gases (LPG) propane and butane. There were plans in 2005–7 to convert the plant back to the import of liquified natural gas (LNG) but the planning application was rejected. Oikos Storage Limited now operate the former London & Coastal Wharves Ltd. The site offers a bulk liquid storage facility for refined petroleum products. Neither of the refineries proposed in the 1970s were completed or commissioned. The Occadential site was demolished and the tanks removed, though the former river jetty is still extant. Geography Canvey Island lies off the south coast of Essex east of London, and west of Southend-on-Sea. The island is separated from the mainland to the north and west by Benfleet, East Haven and Vange creeks, and faces the Thames Estuary to the east and south. Along with neighbouring Two Tree Island, Lower Horse and Upper Horse, Canvey is an alluvial island formed in the Holocene period from silt in the River Thames and material entering the estuary on the tides of the North Sea from the coast of Norfolk.Hallmann, Robert. (2006). Canvey Island, A History. Phillimore. . An unsuccessful search for coal beneath the island in 1953 revealed that the alluvium rests upon layers of London Clay, Lower London Tertiaries, Chalk, Lower Greensand and Gault Clay, with the basement rocks at a depth of consisting of hard Old Red Sandstone of Devonian age.Geology Site Account: Castle Point District, CANVEY ISLAND, Canvey Island Borehole, TQ82158330. (2008). The Essex Field Club. Retrieved 17 September 2008. The island is extremely flat, lying below mean high water level and consequently is at risk of flooding. Before reclamation, the surrounding area contained a number of islands separated by tidal creeks. Flood defences have been constructed since the Middle Ages, and the first sea wall to completely surround the island was built as part of the island's reclamation in 1622. The island suffered extensive flooding in 1731, 1736, 1791, 1881 and 1897, and substantial loss of life in the North Sea Flood of 1953. , the flood defences consist of a concrete seawall, flood sirens and an internal surface storm water drainage system. The extensive sea wall, completed in 1982, is long and surrounds 75% of the island's perimeter terminating with flood barriers spanning Benfleet Creek to the north and East Haven Creek in the west. The drainage system consists of sewers, culverts, natural and artificial dykes and lakes which feed seven pumping stations and gravity sluices that discharge the water into the Thames and creeks. Four of the discharge sites are "high flow" stations capable of discharging 600 litres of water per second at any tide level. The levels within the system are managed by a further five "low flow" pumping stations. The Environment Agency's Thames Estuary 2100 flood defence plan includes Canvey Island as one site for alleviating the flood risks to London and the Thames estuary area. It is proposed that the western side of Canvey is developed as a site which is either temporarily flooded at times of risk, or transformed into a permanent wetland.Steve Hackwell. (19 September 2008). You just can't use Canvey as an experiment with this flood scheme. Castle Point Echo. Newsquest. Retrieved 2008-09-19. Developments in the 20th century have produced a marked contrast between the environments in the east and west of the island. The eastern half of the island is allocated to residential areas, the main public amenities and a small holiday camp and seafront, while the western half of the island is mainly farmland, marshes and industrial areas. The marshes in the west include the 30 hectares known as West Canvey marshes, acquired by the RSPB in 2007, and the Canvey Wick nature reserve. Canvey Wick is a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) at the site of the abandoned and incomplete oil refinery. The foundations of the 100-hectare (0.4 sq mile) site were prepared in the 1970s by laying thousands of tonnes of silt dredged from the Thames; the abandoned and undisturbed area has flourished as a haven for around 1,300 species of wildlife, some of which are endangered or were thought to be extinct in the UK, including the shrill carder bee, the emerald damselfly and the weevil hunting wasp. It has been said that the site may have one of the highest levels of biodiversity in Western Europe.Canvey Wick SSSI Designation by English Nature Other areas of natural interest include the of Canvey Lake Local Nature Reserve owned by Castle Point Borough Council. The lake was used for salt-making during the Roman settlement of the island, and is also thought to have functioned as an oyster bed. At the eastern point of the island is the Canvey Heights Country Park which was reclaimed from the Newlands landfill site that operated there between 1954 and 1989. The park is the highest land on the island and thus has wide views across the creeks and marshes and along the Thames. The environment supports an array of birds including skylarks, dark-bellied brent geese and grey plover. Governance Canvey Island coalesced into a separate civil parish and ecclesiastical parish in 1881. These with separate remits replaced the 17 divisions of the land split largely into grazing meadowland since the Norman era by the neighbouring parishes of North Benfleet, South Benfleet, Bowers Gifford, Prittlewell, Southchurch, Hadleigh, Laindon, Pitsea and Vange. In 1926, the parish was converted to the Canvey Island Urban District, then dissolved along with the Benfleet Urban District in the Local Government Act 1972 to form the local government district and borough of Castle Point. Since the 2010 General Election, the Member of Parliament representing the parliamentary constituency of Castle Point has been Rebecca Harris of the Conservative Party. Canvey holds two seats on Essex County Council. Canvey Island is home to all four of the UKs emergency services. Essex Police has a small police station located near to an On Call fire station crewed by Essex County Fire and Rescue Service. Her Majestys Coastguard also have a station located on Charfleets Industrial Estate close to Holehaven Creek. There is also a small localised ambulance station run by East of England Ambulance Service Trust. Canvey is represented on Castle Point Borough Council by 17 councillors elected from six wards: Canvey Island Central, East, North, South, West and Winter Gardens. 16 of the 17 councillors belong to the Canvey Island Independent Party (CIIP) formed in 2003 by ex-Labour deputy Council leader and local resident Dave Blackwell. The remaining councillor is Conservative. Town Council The Canvey Island town council was formed in 2007 after a petition spearheaded by islander Albert Payne, with the signatures of 3,000 islanders, was accepted by the government. , the council has 11 councillors, all of whom are Canvey Island Independent members, and functions with Councillor surgeries and through four committees – Community Relations, Environment and Open Spaces, Planning and Policy and Finance. The surgeries are held at the town council offices, while the committees meet at various venues every fortnight. Some Canvey Islanders want independence from Castle Point Borough Council. Demography Cockney diaspora Like much of Essex, the population of Canvey has increased significantly in the last 100 years, with migration from London, especially East London, driving the growth. Government policy and the island's former popularity as a holiday resort were important factors. An example of the policy of moving East Londoners to Canvey and elsewhere, was the introduction of council estates for 100 families from the Dagenham and Walthamstow boroughs in 1959. Since the 2011 census, this trend has been renewed with a number of orthodox Jewish families moving to the island from the Stamford Hill neighbourhood of Hackney. Characteristics At the 2001 UK census, the population of Canvey was 37,479 of which 87.9% of people were living within the five wards of the eastern area of the island at a population density of 38 persons per hectare, while the population density within the west ward – covering a larger area of the island – was 4.6 persons per hectare. There were 15,312 dwellings on Canvey of which 98.7% were households. 42.4% were occupied by married couples, 13.9% of households contained three or more adults and no children, 26% were one person households and 8.1% were occupied by co-habiting couples. Canvey had a higher proportion at 35.2% of households owning their properties outright compared with the average of 29.2% for England, but had a lower proportion when compared to the average for Castle Point at 39.9%. There was a higher proportion of female residents than male by 0.03%. The median age of the population was 40 years, and 23% were under 18, while 15% of residents were over 65. The island has a high proportion of white people compared to national figures; the ethnicity recorded was 98.2% white compared with 91% for England. 0.6% of the population of Canvey were of a mixed ethnic group, while 0.6% were Asian, 0.2% Black and 0.2% Chinese. 4.2% of the population were foreign born, with 1.7% of residents born in another constituent country of the UK. 2.5% of the population were born outside the UK; and 1.2% of residents born outside Europe. Religion was recorded as 74% Christian, 0.2% Muslim, 0.1% Jewish, 0.1% Hindu, while 16% of islanders had no religion. The proportion of unemployed persons on Canvey was lower at 2.2% than for Castle Point at 2.4%, and England at 3.3%. Retail, leisure and industry Canvey Island has several shopping areas. The main town centre known by older locals as the Haystack (after the pub in the town centre) is based around Furtherwick Road and the High Street. Most shops are located either in the Knightswick Centre (opened 1978) and Furtherwick Road with the lead store being Sainsbury's (formerly Key Markets). The other main store on Canvey is Morrisons which is located on Northwick Road, some way from the town centre. There are small shopping parades in St Michael's Road, The village on Long Road, Jones Corner on Long Road, Third Avenue, Point Road and dotted along the High Street. Castle Point Council are currently planning a £50m regeneration scheme for the town centre including building a larger Sainsbury's on the current Knightswick Car Park (with parking on the roof) and better connection to the town centre and the lake. Canvey currently has a small multi screen cinema located on the seafront called Movi-Starr (opened late 1990s) which replaced the former Rio Cinema which closed in the 1970s and was replaced by Rio Bingo Hall (Furtherwick Road). There are several arcades along this stretch of the seafront, along with a small amusement park and the Monico public house. The island had previously been known for its nightlife with both the Goldmine (hosted big name DJs including Emperor Rosko and Chris Hill) and King's Nightclubs (acts included comedian Mike Read) being well known hot spots but these closed in the 1980s and 1990s respectively. Canvey's industry is primarily based in two locations. The main location is Charfleet Industrial Estate, while there is further industrial buildings in Point Road. Canvey Island was home to Prout's Catamarans from 1949 to 2002. Canvey is also home to a Calor Gas Storage Terminal, and an Oikos Oil depot located off Thames Road and Holehaven Road. Additionally private developers have announced a new retail park to be built next to Morrisons supermarket at Roscommon Way on Canvey Island which will be due to open in 2018. A Marks & Spencer's opened next to Morrisons in 2019 and was later accompanied by a Costa coffee, sports direct, and b&m home bargains store Landmarks The Lobster Smack public house at the southwest corner of the island is a grade II listed building dated to the 17th century. The pub was known to Charles Dickens who mentioned it in Great Expectations. Alongside the pub is a row of wooden Coastguard cottages that date from the late 19th century which are also of grade II listed status.2–8 Haven Road. (2006). Listed Buildings Online. Heritage Gateway. Retrieved 28 August 2008. Landmarks from the era of Canvey's development as a seaside resort in the 20th century include the International style Labworth Café built 1932–33 and designed by Ove Arup. The building fell into a state of disrepair in the 1970s and 1980s but was renovated in 1996 and now functions as both a beach bistro and restaurant. Opened in 1979, the Heritage Centre along Canvey Road is housed in the former St. Katherine's Church, which was built in 1874. Originally timber-framed, the church was rendered over in the 1930s to give it its present appearance; it closed as a place of worship in 1962. It now contains an art and craft centre with a small folk museum. The island is also home to two Dutch Cottages, one in Haven Road and the other on Canvey Road, which were built during the 17th century by Dutch immigrants working on the sea walls. The cottage at Canvey Road is home to the Dutch Cottage museum. Some of Canvey's lost landmarks include the Goldmine club on Western Esplanade, the original Oysterfleet public house and lighthouse and Cherry Stores. Transport Road Canvey Island is connected to the mainland in the northwest by two roads with bridges: the A130 (Canvey Way) and the B1014 (Canvey Road). Built in 1972, the A130 crosses East Haven Creek to Bowers Gifford and joins the London-Southend A13 at Sadler's Farm Roundabout. The two lanes of the A130 are currently the island's primary access route with 25,000 vehicles using the road and bridge per day. The B1014 and Canvey Road Bridge (or Canvey Bridge) crosses Benfleet Creek to South Benfleet, and provides access to the c2c London (Fenchurch Street) to Shoeburyness line via Benfleet railway station. Canvey Road Bridge was built in 1973, and replaced the island's first bridge to the mainland, which dated from 1931. The Colvin Bridge – named after the Lord Lieutenant of Essex, Brigadier-General R.B. Colvin – operated with a sliding central section that retracted for boats passing along Benfleet Creek. Prior to the Colvin Bridge's construction, crossing the creek was achieved by either rowing-boat ferry or by a gravel causeway or stepping-stones at low tides. Congestion and the third road Since the late 1970s, residents and local politicians have campaigned for the construction of a third access route (or "third road") to ease the island's congestion at rush hour and as a viable means of evacuation from flooding or industrial accidents at the petrochemical facilities.Canvey: Island in Prescott's £59 billion road plan. (24 July 2000). Evening Echo. Newsquest Media Group Ltd. Retrieved 2009-01-09. In 2008, the congestion and failure to secure the construction of such a route or significant improvements has had the island at "breaking point" and on the verge of "civil unrest". Plans for the third access route have included a tunnel to Kent, and road bridges to places such as Leigh-on-Sea and Coryton. Opposition to the route cite the enormous cost, the environmental damage, and the increase of vehicles to districts with already overburdened traffic systems. The island's access congestion was partially addressed by Essex Council in December 2011 with its completion of the £12.1 million Roscommon Way Extension. The road runs from Northwick Road to Haven Road, providing a bypass for small numbers of traffic and adding a new entrance to Charfleet Industrial Estate while also remaining navigable in the case of flooding. However, the road did not gain public support, and the extension has become known as 'The Road to Nowhere'. This road is used by boy racers to do drifting in cars. As such, there are talks about putting speed restrictions in place such as road humps. Bus and rail Bus services have been running on Canvey since 1906. From 1934, the services ran from the island's local bus depot at Leigh Beck by the Canvey & District Bus Co, later to be incorporated into the Eastern National Omnibus Company. The depot closed in 1978, but the building re-opened a year later as the Castle Point Transport Museum. The museum currently houses a collection of buses, commercial, military and emergency vehicles, and general items related to public road transport. Organised by volunteers, the museum's annual show and open days coincide with a classic vehicle cruise that convenes at the car parks of the seafront. The current bus services on the island are operated by First Essex from the Hadleigh bus depot, and NIBS Buses based in Wickford. First Essex is the main operator providing the island's internal services via the town centre, and provides services to places such as Southend, Basildon and Bournes Green. NIBS Buses run the 21C bus from Canvey to Hadleigh via Essex Way. Both bus companies provide services to Benfleet railway station, which is located close to Canvey Bridge, just north of the island. The railway station has a taxi rank. Train services are provided by c2c between London Fenchurch Street and Southend Central/Shoeburyness. Education Canvey Island has two comprehensive schools: the Cornelius Vermuyden School and Castle View School. Both were rebuilt in 2012 as replacements for the island's three ageing comprehensives, and as a response to the island's decreasing numbers of 11- to 16-year-olds. Cornelius Vermuyden occupies the same site as its predecessor near Waterside Farm, while Castle View School – within the town centre and centre of the island – has replaced Furtherwick Park School, having previously existed within the island's north/central Winter Gardens Ward, overlooked by Hadleigh Castle. Furtherwick Park School shut in 2010, remaining pupils were then moved to Castle View School to finish their education. This site is now the location of Canvey Skills Campus which was built in 2013 and provides vocational education for 14- to 19-year-olds, and adult learning and is run by PROCAT. Culture Folklore The island has only been populated since the 17th century when the Dutch including reputedly Cornelius Vermuyden made the marshlands habitable. There are local legends of a Dutchman carrying a sack wandering the northern parts of the island. Canvey has its own 'lady of the lake' in the form of a woman who was drowned there many years ago. Though the stories about her are inconsistent, some even saying that it was a man who drowned, the majority speak of a female ghost who has wandered the area since her horse-drawn carriage plummeted into the lake. A recent clean-up of the lake found remains of two horses and fragments of a wooden carriage. The story of 'The Black Man' and 'The White Lady' is believed to be a mythical tale conjured up by smugglers to stop people wandering onto the 'saltings' and finding their smuggled goods. It was said that 'The Black Man' offered a price for your soul, while the 'White Woman' would tempt you to dance with her. Men often spoke of trying to chase away the figures, only to watch them vanish before their eyes. Many night fishermen have reported seeing a tall, burly Viking standing on the mudflats at The Point, on the far eastern side of the island. It is believed that he was left behind by his fleet and waited for his ship to return; only to drown in the rising tide. According to an urban legend, a female farmhand at the now demolished Knightswick Farm watched a nun approach the farm from the fields one afternoon from the porch of the farmhouse. Puzzled as to why the nun had walked across the muddy fields, the girl left the porch and walked towards the nun intending to greet her. Allegedly the nun began to vanish into the ground as she walked. According to local legend a tunnel used to run from the Lobster Smack to Hadleigh Castle, and was said to be used by smugglers bringing in French wines. Music Canvey Island was an influential destination in the 1970s for artists of the pub rock genre of music such as Graham Parker, Elvis Costello, Eddie and the Hot Rods, Nick Lowe, and The Kursaal Flyers, while also being home to "Canvey Island's finest" band Dr. Feelgood. During the 1970s The Goldmine opened in the former Bay Country Club and the name became synonymous with the Brit funk movement with regular DJ Chris Hill. The island continues to be a source of inspiration for artists such as British Sea Power who included a song entitled "Canvey Island" on their 2008 album Do You Like Rock Music?Peter Green, founding member of Fleetwood Mac, lived on Canvey after leaving the band. Cultural references Canvey Island is the setting for the British author Nicola Barker's 2002 novel Behindlings. The island was also the subject of 2006 Turner Prize nominee Rebecca Warren's 2003 painted clay sculpture titled Canvey Island. Canvey was also home to a Prada fashion shoot in 2014 starring James McAvoy, and featured in BBC's Silent Witness shown on 2 and 3 February 2015. Sport Canvey Island has two senior semi-professional football teams in Canvey Island F.C. ('The Gulls') and Concord Rangers F.C. ('The Beachboys'). The older of the two clubs, Canvey Island F.C. (founded in 1926) currently play two steps lower than their newer rivals Concord Rangers F.C. (founded in 1967) in the Isthmian League, whilst 'The Beachboys' compete in National League South. Despite Canvey Island F.C. having historical successes reaching the National League in 2004 and winning the FA Trophy in 2001, it is Concord Rangers F.C. who are currently more successful, being crowned Essex Senior Cup champions consecutively between 2013 and 2016. Amateur participation in sport is popular on the island, with sports such as rugby union, cricket, and martial arts represented by clubs and corresponding facilities. The Castle Point Golf Course is situated on Canvey, and the Waterside Farm Sports Centre (recently refurbished 2013) provides members of Castle Point district with access to a swimming pool, an athletics track, general purpose sports halls, and a full size artificial surface football pitch. It is also the headquarters of Canvey Island Swimming Club, which provides coaching for children ages 4 and upwards from beginners to competitive swimming through to national standard. Water sports are also popular recreational pursuits. Canvey has two sailing clubs, the Island Yacht Club and the Chapman Sands Sailing Club, with Benfleet Yacht Club and slipway also situated on the island at Benfleet Creek in the north. A region between Thorney bay and Labworth beach is designated by the Port of London Authority as an approved windsurfing area. The Canvey Island Swimming Club provides lessons and training and is based at Waterside Farm Leisure Centre. The British record for the largest shore-caught angler fish (Lophius piscatorius'') is from Canvey Island, caught by H. Legerton in 1967. During 1953 and 1954 two unusual fish were washed up the shoreline and are known as Canvey Island Monster. Notable people Lee Brilleaux, vocalist and founder of influential 1970s rhythm and blues group Dr. Feelgood, moved to Canvey Island with his family when he was 13. Robert Denmark, Olympic and Commonwealth (gold) 5,000 metres athlete, attended Furtherwick Park School Ty Gooden, who played between 1992 and 2005 for teams including Arsenal and Swindon Town F.C., was sold in 2003 to non-league Canvey Island. Peter Green, founding member of Fleetwood Mac, lived on Canvey after leaving the band. Clara James, one of the founding members in 1889 of The Women's Trade Union Association (WTUA), established a holiday home on the island and served from 1925 as a parish councillor. She died on Canvey in 1956. Wilko Johnson, guitarist and composer best known for his work with Dr. Feelgood, who also played with The Blockheads, The Wilko Johnson Band and Roger Daltrey, was born on Canvey. Jessica Judd, middle-distance runner for UK Athletics, grew up on the island and was educated at Castle View. Lew Lewis, harmonica player with Eddie and the Hot Rods who later had his own group, and guested with The Stranglers and The Clash. was brought up in the same street as Lee Brilleaux. Dominic Lyne, author, was born and lived on Canvey until the age of 4. Dean Marney, currently playing for Fleetwood Town F.C., is a former St Katherine's Primary School pupil. Dean Macey, Olympic decathlete, was born and raised on the island. Ebenezer Joseph Mather, the founder of Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, spent his retirement on the island. He died on 23 December 1927 and was buried in the grounds of St Nicholas church. Ashley George Old, war artist, lived on Canvey from the mid-1960s until his death in 2001. Geoffrey Prout, boat builder and author Frank Saul, FA Cup winner in 1967 with Tottenham Hotspur F.C., was born on Canvey. Bill Sparks, DCM survivor of Operation Franckton aka "The Cockleshell Heroes", lived on Canvey Island before the war and was a pupil of William Read. Peter Taylor, temporary manager of the England football team in 2000, went to school at Furtherwick Park School and started his youth career at Canvey Island F.C. Arms See also Islands in the River Thames List of places on land with elevations below sea level Notes References Barsby, Geoff. (1992). Canvey Island. Phillimore & Co. LTD. . Bettley, James. (2007). Essex. (p. 192). Yale University Press. . Bills, Leslie Wm. (2004). Canvey Island – A Rising Tide. Cavenham Marine. . Castree, Noel. (2005). Nature. Strange Natures: Britain's rainforest. Routledge. . Cornish, C. J. (2004). The Naturalist on the Thames. Canvey Island. (p. 123). Kessinger Publishing. . Crowe, Ken. The Early Medieval Settlement of Canvey Island. (p. 12–17). Essex Jnl 31.1. Darby, H. C. (1986). Domesday England. Pasture for sheep in Essex. Cambridge University Press. . English Place-Name Society. (1926). Survey of English Place-names. Cambridge University press. Holland, Julian. (2007). Exploring the Islands of England and Wales. Canvey Island. (p. 88). Frances Lincoln ltd. . Kelly's Directory of Essex. (1933). Canvey Island. (londonpublichouse.com) Retrieved: 2008-03-27. Long, Bob and Gardner, Bob. (2004). Guide to Storage Tanks and Equipment. John Wiley and Sons. . MacBean, Alexander & Johnson, Samuel. (1773). A Dictionary of Ancient Geography. CR: Counos, Ptolemy. Pub. G. Robinson [etc.]. Pigot's Essex 1832–3 Trade Directory. Canvey Island. (londonpublichouse.com) Retrieved: 2008-03-27. Post Office Directory of Essex. (1871). Canvey Island. (londonpublichouse.com) Retrieved: 2008-03-27. Rodwell, W. J. (1966). The excavation of a Red Hill on Canvey Island. Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society. Stratton, Michael. (2000). Twentieth Century Industrial Archaeology. Taylor & Francis. . Thayer, Bill. (2003). Reproduction of a section of The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy published by Dover Publications, 1991. Walton, John K. (2000). The British Seaside: Holidays and Resorts in the Twentieth Century. Manchester University Press. . White, Susan. (1994). The History of Canvey Island: Five Generations. The Bookshop Canvey Island (pub). . Wilson, John Marius. (1866). The Imperial Gazetteer of England & Wales. Canvey Island. Pub. Edinburgh, A. Fullarton. External links Canvey History – Photographic Archives, Memories and Stories about the history of Canvey Island The Canvey Community Archive website Islands of Essex Islands of the River Thames Towns in Essex Seaside resorts in England Populated coastal places in Essex Seaside resorts in Essex Castle Point Polders Port of London Populated places on the River Thames Port cities and towns of the North Sea

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose%20Bay%2C%20New%20South%20Wales

Rose Bay, New South Wales

Rose Bay is a harbourside, eastern suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Rose Bay is located seven kilometres east of the Sydney central business district, in the local government areas of Waverley Council (east of Old South Head Road) and Municipality of Woollahra (on its western side towards the bay). Geography Rose Bay has views of both the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge together. Lyne Park abuts Sydney Harbour on its west. Shark Island is located in Sydney Harbour, just north of Rose Bay. History Rose Bay was named after the Right Honourable George Rose, who was joint Secretary to the British Treasury with Thomas Steele, after whom Steel(e) Point at Nielsen Park was named. The name Rose Bay was used as early as 1788 by Captain John Hunter. HMAS Tingira, named after an Aboriginal word for 'open sea' was moored in Rose Bay from 1912 to 1927. It was used to train over 3,000 Australian sailors, many for service in World War I. There is a small park on the Rose Bay waterfront which commemorates Tingira. From 1938, seaplane flights to and from London began and terminated in Sydney Harbour on Rose Bay, making it Sydney's first international airport, and what is now Rose Bay Water Airport. On 14 September 1945, nine Catalina flying boats landed and moored at the Rose Bay wharf, repatriating Australian prisoners of war who were survivors of Japanese camps. Sydneysiders looked on in silence, aghast at the emaciated state of the returning soldiers. There is a nearby restaurant called Catalina, referencing the aircraft of the same name. From the 1950s, Ansett Flying Boat Services operated regular scheduled flights to Lord Howe Island from a small seaplane terminal and jetty on the Rose Bay foreshore. Later the flights were operated by four-engined Short Sandringhams. The service was discontinued in 1974 when the island's new airport was completed. Currently three different seaplane carriers, two of which are operated as trading names of Krug Agencies Pty Ltd, offer scenic flights around Sydney Harbour and up to Palm Beach. Also popular are lunch packages to several water front restaurants on the Hawkesbury River. The Wintergarden Cinema was a landmark building which housed the Sydney Film Festival from 1968 to 1973, but which was demolished to make way for exclusive apartments in the late 1980s. Heritage listings Rose Bay has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: 3-4 Fernleigh Gardens: Site of Ficus superba var. henneana tree New South Head Road: Rose Bay Sea Wall 1-7 Salisbury Road: Salisbury Court (Rose Bay) Rose Bay Cottage Rose Bay Cottage and also known as Salisbury Court, located in Salisbury Road, was built in 1834 by the important colonial architect, John Verge, for James Holt who, at the time, managed the 'Cooper Estate'. When built, it was the only house on the 'Estate', with the possible exception of Henrietta Villa, Captain Piper's previous home on Point Piper. The house was built as a single-storey residence of about with a verandah, over a similar sized stone cellar. Adjacent to it was an earlier structure (s) which was apparently adopted as a kitchen. The house was significantly enlarged by sympathetic additions between 1837 and 1850 and the kitchen wing was joined to the main house forming a courtyard. By the end of this period the house had more than doubled in size. From 1861 until 1911, the house was usually known as Rose Bay Lodge; it has also been known as Salisbury Court. It was surrounded by extensive gardens embellished by five working fountains fed from a water source above on the slopes of Bellevue Hill which later fed Woollahra House, built in 1883 on Point Piper. One of the fountains still remains. Prominent occupiers of the house included Sir Daniel Cooper, Walter Lamb and John Hay - they were all noted businessmen and parliamentarians. In 1911, the property, then of , was sub-divided and surrounded by other houses. During the next fifty years the old house suffered extensive unsympathetic additions including a second storey over the original Verge cottage which converted the house to twelve flats. It has subsequently been restored according to strict conservation standards and the unsympathetic additions removed. The house is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register. Fernleigh Castle Fernleigh Castle was built in 1892, incorporating part of a sandstone cottage that dated back to 1874. Aptly named, it resembles a castle with its turrets, castellated towers and square Norman tower. Its sandstone structure contains thirty rooms and a number of stained-glass windows. Fernleigh Castle is on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate. A fig tree, Ficus superba var. henneana, planted in , located in the former castle grounds is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register. Rose Bay Police Station This police station originally started life as the gatekeeper's lodge in the estate of Woollahra House, a nineteenth-century mansion that has long gone. The surviving building was designed in a Victorian Classical Revival style which is attributed to 'Hilly and Mansfield' and which probably tells us what Woollahra House looked like. It was built in 1871 and features rendered walls punctuated with pilasters. Sympathetically restored, it is now on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate. Educational facilities and history Rose Bay is home to two independent schools: Kambala (1887), an Anglican, day and boarding school for girls from Pre-school to Year 12; and Kincoppal - Rose Bay (1882), a Catholic, day and boarding school with a co-educational primary school and girls-only high school. Kincoppal - Rose Bay was originally Rose Bay Convent but amalgamated with Kincoppal Elizabeth Bay in the late 1970s to become "Kincoppal - Rose Bay School of the Sacred Heart". The prep school campus of Cranbrook School (1918) is also located in the suburb. McAuley Primary School is a Catholic school for Kindergarten to Year 6. It was opened in 1967 on the site that had been a Christian Brothers High School from 1935 to 1966. Public schools in the suburb are Rose Bay Secondary College (2004) and Rose Bay Public School (1891). Rose Bay Secondary College was formed by the amalgamation of Vaucluse High School and Dover Heights High School. Originally these schools were known as Vaucluse Boys High, Dover Heights Boys High and Dover Heights Girls High. The cost of improving the public school facilities at Rose Bay was linked to the sale of the campus at Vaucluse. Despite a surge in enrolments and an unmet demand for public high school places in the area, the Vaucluse campus was sold in February 2007 by the Government of New South Wales for $30M to become a seniors community development site. The Convent of the Sacred Heart overlooks the bay and can be seen from many vantage points around Sydney Harbour. The site was originally occupied by a house called Claremont, which was built in 1852. The convent incorporated this house when it was built in 1888. Designed by John Horbury Hunt, the new building was of five storeys in height and made of sandstone that was quarried at the site. It included a Gothic Revival Chapel and is regarded as one of Hunt's most successful creations. It now houses the Kincoppal-Rose Bay school for girls. The building has a Federal heritage listing. Transport The Rose Bay ferry wharf provides access to the Watsons Bay ferry services. There are frequent State Transit buses to and from the centre of Sydney via Kings Cross as well as other points and out to Watsons Bay and the coast. Seaplane operators offer scenic flights over Sydney itself as well as a number of excursions along the coast as well as some scheduled services to Newcastle with aircraft operating out of the seaplane terminal near Rose Bay ferry terminal. Sport and recreation In 1902 a reserve named in honour of Sir William Lyne was reclaimed from tidal sand flats at Rose Bay. In 1904 harbour baths were built in a design by the architect Thomas Tidswell. The baths have since been removed. Since 1908, Rose Bay has been represented in one of Australia's most popular sporting competitions, the National Rugby League, by the Sydney Roosters, officially known as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club. There are two golf courses located in Rose Bay. Woollahra Golf Club is a public 9-hole course and Royal Sydney Golf Club is a private 27-hole championship course, not open to the public. The 3rd Rose Bay Rovers group is an active Rovers group based in the Scouts Hall located in Vickery Avenue, opposite Woollahra Sailing Club. Rose Bay is home to the Waverley Amateur Radio Society, Australia's longest continuously licensed amateur radio club. The club meets on a regular basis at the Scouts Hall located in Vickery Avenue. Rose Bay beach (also known locally as Dog Beach) is at the far eastern end of the bay and as the name suggests is a popular beach for dog owners and also a safe place to swim. Population Demographics According to the , the population of Rose Bay (including Vaucluse) was 10,053. 54.0% of people in Rose Bay are Australian-born, compared to 59.9% for the wider Sydney area. Of the immigrants, most are from South Africa (8.7%), then England (5.3%), New Zealand (2.4%), Israel (1.7%) and China (1.3%). Of Rose Bay's population, 27.3% stated they were Jewish, 24.0% said they had no religion, 17.2% said they were Catholic, 11.6% did not state a religion and 9.7% said they were Anglican. The median weekly household income was $2,272, compared to the Australian median of $1,438. Data released by Sensis showed that in 2015 the Hebrew surname Cohen (i.e. Priest) was Rose Bay's top-ranked surname, followed second by the Anglo surname Smith, and third the European (mostly Ashkenazi Jewish) surname Kaplan (i.e. Priest). The first and third top-ranking surnames reflecting the Jewish population plurality of the suburb. Religion Rose Bay has been the centre of Sydney's Jewish community, including all over the Eastern Suburbs. It is still a strong centre for the Jewish population of Sydney, and has attracted a sizeable number of immigrants from Israel, South Africa and Russia. Housing According to the , there are 2,645 flats in Rose Bay, or 68.5% of all dwellings, compared to an Australian average of 13.1%. There are also 852 separate houses (22.1%) and 321 semi/terraces (8.3%). Of these, 43.2% are rented, 30.1% are fully owned and 22.7% are being purchased. In popular culture Elizabeth Harrower's debut novel, Down in the City, begins in Rose Bay. It depicts the character Esther Prescott, who is transported from a sheltered, genteel life in the harbourside suburb to a Kings Cross apartment with her moody, unpredictable husband Stan. Notable residents Timothy Conigrave, actor and writer Russell Crowe, actor and film producer Russell Drysdale, painter Jodhi Meares, fashion designer and model Maggie Moore, actress Peter Overton, television journalist and news presenter Jessica Rowe, television news presenter and media personality Robert Towns, Member of the Legislative Council and founder of Townsville, Queensland Gallery References External links [CC-By-SA] 3rd Rose Bay Rovers Website Jews and Judaism in Sydney Suburbs of Sydney Bays of New South Wales New South Head Road, Sydney Waverley Council Municipality of Woollahra

495806

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darrell%20Hammond

Darrell Hammond

Darrell Clayton Hammond (born October 8, 1955) is an American actor, stand-up comedian and impressionist. He was a regular cast member on Saturday Night Live from 1995 to 2009, and has been its announcer since 2014. Upon his departure, Hammond, at age 53, was the oldest cast member in the show's history. Hammond has made more SNL appearances than any other cast member and impersonated more than 107 celebrities, with Bill Clinton as his most frequent impression. On September 19, 2014, Hammond was announced as the new announcer of SNL, replacing Don Pardo, who had died the month before. Early life Hammond was born in Melbourne, Florida, the son of Margaret and Max Hammond. Hammond was severely abused by his mother, contributing to his lifelong struggles with depression and substance abuse; his father, dealing with his own psychological issues resulting from his military service during World War II, often drank heavily and acted out violently. Hammond found as a child that doing impressions was the only thing he did his mother liked. He played baseball in high school and at Brevard Community College. In high school, he was a teammate of future San Diego Padres and San Francisco Giants manager Bruce Bochy. He went on to attend the University of Florida, where he graduated in 1978 with a degree in advertising and a 2.1 GPA. He credits UF theater professor David Shelton for encouraging his work. After completing college, Hammond moved to New York City where he worked as a waiter, studied at HB Studio, played roles in theater productions, performed one set at a comedy club at age 26, and then returned to Florida, where he became a voiceover artist in the Orlando area. Career Saturday Night Live Hammond was a cast member on Saturday Night Live from 1995 to 2009. He previously held the record for the longest consecutive tenure of any SNL cast member in the show's history (14 seasons), until he was surpassed by Kenan Thompson in 2017. He also holds SNL records for the second most impressions by a single cast member (107, as of the Zac Efron/Yeah Yeah Yeahs episode), beat only by Thompson, and also for the most times saying the show's catchphrase "Live from New York, it's Saturday Night!" to start the show (70 times, beating out Dana Carvey). He is best known on the show for impersonating Bill Clinton, as well as Al Gore, Donald Trump, John McCain, Regis Philbin, Dick Cheney, Chris Matthews, Phil Donahue, Phil McGraw, Ted Koppel, John Travolta, Jesse Jackson, Geraldo Rivera, Dan Rather, and Sean Connery, in the recurring "Celebrity Jeopardy!" skits. His impression of Clinton is currently the most frequent SNL impression of all time, appearing in 87 sketches over 14 years in the cast and numerous cameos. Hammond also impersonated SNL announcer Don Pardo, filling in for Pardo on occasions when the announcer was unavailable. After the end of the 34th season, Hammond retired from the show after a record-breaking 14 years as a repertory player. Hammond was the last SNL cast member from the 1990s to leave the show. After leaving the show, he has made multiple cameo appearances. In 2014 Hammond took over the announcer role on SNL starting with the 40th-season premiere, replacing Pardo, who had died that August. Since he began as announcer, he has also appeared in skits numerous times reprising his Clinton and Trump impersonations. The following season Hammond reappeared on the show, doing his impression of Trump just as the real Trump began performing well in the Republican primaries. Hammond moved back to New York in 2016 after Trump won the nomination, expecting to be appearing on a weekly basis during the election. However, SNL producer Lorne Michaels decided instead to go with Alec Baldwin's impression, believing that it more effectively captured the contemporary Trump. Other work In the late 1980s, Hammond gained fame for his impersonations of Elmer Fudd and other Looney Tunes characters in the comedy single "Wappin'." The song was popular enough with Dr. Demento listeners to be included on the show's 20th-anniversary compilation. Hammond is a frequent guest on The Howard Stern Show. He has also guest-starred in episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and Law & Order: Criminal Intent;. He had his own stand-up comedy special on Comedy Central: Comedy Central Presents Darrell Hammond. Hammond can frequently be seen at The Comedy Cellar in New York City. In the summer of 2007, Hammond made his Broadway theatre debut, playing the role of Vice Principal Douglas Panch in The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee. In 2009, Hammond had a guest starring role on the FX drama Damages. The same summer, Hammond appeared with Eli Manning, Peyton Manning, and Donald Trump in an Oreo commercial, where he does an impression of Trump. Beginning in May 2015, Hammond began playing the role of fast-food mascot Colonel Sanders in an ad campaign for KFC, until Norm Macdonald replaced him on August 17, 2015. Since returning to Los Angeles in 2017, Hammond has appeared in episodes of Criminal Minds, At Home with Amy Sedaris, and a Friday Night Lights spoof series on sports website The Kicker. Personal life Hammond married his wife, Elizabeth, on May 9, 1990. The couple divorced in the early 1990s, then remarried in 1997. They have one daughter together, Mia, born in 1998. Hammond was seen with another woman several times in May and June 2011, prompting speculation about their marriage. During a 2012 appearance on the Imus in the Morning radio program, Hammond revealed that the couple was in the process of divorcing and shortly later that same year the divorce became final. Hammond has admitted to struggling with alcoholism and cocaine addiction. The death of a close friend in 1991 led to a relapse of drug and alcohol abuse. Hammond regularly wears all black when not performing as an homage to another friend who committed suicide in 1992. After suffering another relapse in 2009, Hammond went to rehab. In August 2011, Hammond filed a lawsuit against Jose Mendez and Dona Monteleone after a car accident in which he was the passenger. Monteleone, who was driving Hammond's vehicle at the time of the accident, is a Manhattan real estate agent. During an October 2011 interview with CNN, Hammond revealed that his mother had abused him during his childhood. His anxiety from abuse led to cutting, several hospitalizations due to psychiatric issues, and diagnoses which initially included bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and borderline personality disorder. Hammond says that he was medicated throughout his tenure on Saturday Night Live, and that he cut himself backstage and was once taken from the studio to a psychiatric ward. The incident helped him come to terms with what he and the doctor who treated him realized was his fundamental issue, the posttraumatic stress disorder stemmed from his abusive childhood. Just prior to his 2000 appearance as Al Gore in a sketch parodying that year's first presidential debate, he had a panic attack due to forgetting his lines. However, he gave a performance so effective that Gore's campaign staff made him watch it to understand why he had aroused negative reactions in some viewers. Harper Collins published Hammond's memoir, God, If You're Not Up There, I'm F*cked, in 2011. It is an account of his abusive childhood, psychiatric issues, struggles with substance abuse, and experiences on Saturday Night Live. In 2015 he adapted it into a one-man play starring himself, directed by Christopher Ashley, which debuted in San Diego's La Jolla Playhouse to positive reviews. The director has expressed plans for a Broadway residency, although Hammond stated he would prefer an actor to play him instead, as he found the tour so stressful he had to be hospitalized twice during the Los Angeles run. In 2015 Hammond revived his Trump impression on SNL, after Taran Killam's attempt failed to gain public interest. The following year he returned to New York after five years, expecting that with Trump having received the Republican presidential nomination that year, he would be appearing on the show more in the fall. When Alec Baldwin replaced him, he fell into a deep depression and was prescribed Antabuse and a beta blocker to prevent a relapse of his addiction issues. Hammond and his girlfriend eventually moved back to Los Angeles, where reminders of Baldwin's Trump impression were less advertised. Entrapment incident In the late 1980s, Hammond said that he worked briefly as a stand-up comedian on Premier Cruise Line ships. One evening, while the ship was docked in the Bahamas, Hammond says he visited a restaurant, where he consumed the equivalent of 16 shots of rum. He claimed that a man repeatedly asked him throughout the evening to take a dollar bill with trace amounts of cocaine on it. When he left the bar to use the restroom, the man followed him into the stall and told him, "I think you should take this with you." Believing he was about to be mugged, he relented, and the man placed the bill inside Hammond's pocket. Local police were waiting outside the restroom and quickly arrested him. According to Hammond, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration later told him that the episode had been a setup, and that local authorities regularly entrap American tourists; he spent a weekend in jail. Hammond was released after his father traveled to the Bahamas and paid $3,000 for his son's release. Hammond first publicly mentioned his incarceration in the Bahamas as a guest on a 1998 episode of the radio show Loveline; and again when he returned to Loveline in 2000 and 2004, as well as during an appearance on the Opie & Anthony show in 2012. Filmography Film Television References External links Darrell Hammond: 12 years on SNL 1955 births 20th-century American comedians 21st-century American comedians 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American impressionists (entertainers) American male comedians American male film actors American male television actors American sketch comedians American stand-up comedians Eastern Florida State College people Living people Male actors from Florida Melbourne High School alumni People from Melbourne, Florida People with bipolar disorder People with borderline personality disorder People with schizophrenia People with post-traumatic stress disorder University of Florida alumni

501699

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monokini

Monokini

The monokini, designed by Rudi Gernreich in 1964, consisting of only a brief, close-fitting bottom and two thin straps, was the first women's topless swimsuit. His revolutionary and controversial design included a bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh" and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck." Some credit Gernreich's design with initiating, or describe it as a symbol of, the sexual revolution. Gernreich designed the monokini as a protest against a repressive society. He didn't initially intend to produce the monokini commercially, but was persuaded by Susanne Kirtland of Look to make it available to the public. When the first photograph of a frontal view of Peggy Moffitt wearing the design was published in Women's Wear Daily on June 3, 1964, it generated a great deal of controversy in the United States and other countries. Gernreich sold about 3000 suits, but only two were worn in public. The first was worn publicly on June 22, 1964, by Carol Doda in San Francisco at the Condor Nightclub, ushering in the era of topless nightclubs in the United States, and the second at North Avenue beach in Chicago in July 1964 by artist's model Toni Lee Shelley, who was arrested. Some manufacturers and retailers refer to modern monokini swimsuit designs as a topless swimsuit, topless bikini, or unikini. Etymology Gernreich may have chosen his use of the word monokini (mono meaning 'single') through back-formation by interpreting the bi of bikini as the Latin prefix bi- ('two'), denoting a two-piece swimsuit. But in fact the bikini swimsuit design was named by its inventor Louis Réard after the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific, five days after Operation Crossroads, the first peace-time test of nuclear weapons, took place there. Réard hoped his design would have a similarly explosive effect. Background Austrian-American fashion designer, co-founder of the Mattachine Society, and nudist Rudi Gernreich had strong feelings about society's sexualization of the human body and disagreed with religious and social beliefs that the body was essentially shameful. Gernreich developed a reputation as an avant-garde designer who broke many of the rules, and his swimsuit designs were unconventional. In its December 1962 issue, Sports Illustrated remarked, "He has turned the dancer's leotard into a swimsuit that frees the body. In the process, he has ripped out the boning and wiring that made American swimsuits seagoing corsets." That month he first envisioned creating a topless swimsuit which he called a monokini. Origins At the end of 1963, editor Susanne Kirtland of Look called Gernreich and asked him to submit a design for the suit to accompany a trend story along futuristic lines. He resisted the idea at first, but said, "It was my prediction. For the sake of history, I didn't want Pucci to do it first. Gernreich found the design more difficult than the expected. His initial designs looked like trunks or boxer shorts. He felt the swimsuit ought to just be bikini bottoms, but realized that this wouldn't constitute a unique design. He initially designed a Balinese sarong that began just under the breasts, but Kirtland didn't feel the design was bold enough and needed to make more of a statement. Gernreich finally chose a design that ended around mid-torso and then added two straps that rose between the breasts and were tied around the neck. The first two initial attempts to cut the design failed. When a photo shoot was arranged on Montego Bay in the Bahamas, all five models hired for the session refused to wear the design. The photographer finally persuaded an adventurous local to model it. To avoid letting others sensationalize the swimsuit and to retain some control of the design, Gernreich asked William Claxton, the husband of Gernreich's usually sole model Peggy Moffitt, to take pictures of his wife in the yellow wool swimsuit. Claxton, Moffitt, and Gernreich wanted to publish their own pictures for the fashion press and news media, and Gernreich gave pictures of Moffit modeling the monokini to a carefully selected handful of news organizations. Moffitt was initially resistant to the idea of posing topless. She said, "I didn't want to do it when he asked me. I am a puritanical descendent of the Mayflower. I carried that goddamned Plymouth Rock on my back. When I did give in, I did so with a lot of rules. I would not show myself on the runway that way. I'd do it only with Bill. Since Rudi would never ever have enough money to do this, I did it for free. But I had final say on everywhere it went photographically." Look published a rear view, of an adventurous local from Montego Bay, modeling the swimsuit on June 2, 1964. Claxton took his pictures of Moffit to Life but they said they could only print pictures of naked breasts "if the woman is an aborigine." Claxton took additional pictures of Moffit especially for Life with her arms covering her breasts. The picture was one of several images of Moffit in a story about the historical evolution of the breast in fashion history from 1954 to 1964. Moffit said, "The photograph of me in that issue—hiding my breasts with my arms—is dirty. If you are wearing a fashion that does not have a top as part of its design and hold your arms over your bosom, you're going along with the whole prudish, teasey thing like a Playboy bunny." The following day columnist Carol Bjorkman of Women's Wear Daily published Claxton's frontal view of Moffitt wearing the suit. It became a celebrated image of the extremism of 1960s designs. Moffit later said, "It was a political statement. It wasn't meant to be worn in public." On June 12, 1964 the San Francisco Chronicle featured a photo of a woman in a monokini with her exposed breasts clearly visible on its front page. Claxton's frontal image of Moffit modeling the swimsuit was subsequently published by Life and numerous other publications. Life writer Shana Alexander noted, "One funny thing about toplessness is that it really doesn't have much to do with breasts. Breasts of course are not absurd; topless swimsuits are. Lately people keep getting the two things mixed up." She mocked the swimsuit design as a "joke". The photo catapulted Moffitt into instant celebrity, reportedly resulting in her receiving everything from marriage proposals to death threats. Moffitt and Claxton later wrote The Rudy Gernreich Book, described as an aesthetic biography of the fashion revolutionary. "I thought we'd sell only six or seven, but I decided to design it anyway." But when the design got worldwide notice, orders for the non-existent suit poured in until over 1,000 orders were pending. Despite the reaction of fashion critics and church officials, Harmon Knitwear made over 3,000 monokinis. Gernreich first sold the suit to the Joseph Magnin department store in San Francisco, where it was an instant hit. In New York City, leading stores like B. Altman & Company, Lord & Taylor, Henri Bendel, Splendiferous and Parisette placed orders. On June 16, 1964, Gernreich's topless swimsuit went on sale in New York City. The suit was priced at $24 each. Moffit said in 1985 that she had been offered $17,000 in 1964 () by Playboy to publish Claxton's photograph of her wearing the suit, but refused. "I turned it down as unthinkable. And I don't want to exploit women any more now than I did in 1964. The statement hasn't changed. The suit still is about freedom and not display." On August 13, 1985, Los Angeles Fashion Group produced a gala at the Wiltern Theatre to benefit the Rudi Gernreich Design Scholarship Fund. Moffit was a member of the committee. When the group considered showing the Monokini suit during the benefit, Moffitt strongly objected. She told the Los Angeles Times, The regional director of the Fashion Group, Sarah Worman, believed that the swimsuit was "the single most important idea he ever had—the one that changed the way women dressed all over the Western world." She said Moffitt's refusal to show it on a model didn't make sense when the benefit was modeling everything else he ever did on live models. Monokini as a statement Gernreich did not originally intend to produce the swimsuit commercially. It had more meaning to Gernreich as an idea than as a reality. Gernreich had Moffitt model the suit in person for Diana Vreeland of Vogue, who asked him why he conceived of the design. Gernreich told her he felt it was time for "freedom-in fashion as well as every other facet of life," but that the swimsuit was just a statement. He said, “[Women] drop their bikini tops already,” he said, “so it seemed like the natural next step.” She told him, "If there's a picture of it, it's an actuality. You must make it." Gerenrich said in television interview, "It may well be a bit much now. But, just wait. In a couple of years topless bikinis will be a reality and regarded as perfectly natural." Gernreich purposefully used his designs to advance his socio-political views. He wanted to reduce the stigma of a naked body, to “cure our society of its sex hang up,” as he put it. Gernreich stated, "To me, the only respect you can give to a woman is to make her a human being. A totally emancipated woman who is totally free." Gernreich said, "Baring the breasts seemed logical in a period of freer attitudes, freer minds, the emancipation of women." Gernreich told Time magazine in 1969, the monokini "is a natural development growing out of all the loosening up, the re-evaluation of values that's going on. There is now an honesty hangup, and part of this is not hiding the body—it stands for freedom." In January, 1965, he told Gloria Steinem in an interview that despite the criticism he'd do it again. Moffitt said the design was a logical evolution of Gernreich's avant-garde ideas in swimwear design as much as a scandalous symbol of the permissive society. She said, "He was trying to take away the prurience, the whole perverse side of sex." She said his design was "prophetic." "It had to do with more than what to wear to the beach. It was about a changing culture throughout all society, about freedom and emancipation. It was also a reaction against something particularly American: the little boy snickering that women had breasts." Los Angeles Times staff writer Bettijane Levine wrote, "His topless was an artistic statement against women as sex objects, much as Pablo Picasso painted Guernica as a statement against war." Over the next few weeks, his design was covered in more than 20,000 press articles. History There was a strong public reaction to the original swimsuit design. The Soviet Union denounced the suit, saying it was "barbarism" and indicated "capitalistic decay". The Vatican denounced the swimsuit, and the L'Osservatore Romano said the "industrial-erotic adventure" of the topless bathing suit "negates moral sense." Many of Rudi's contemporaries in the fashion industry reacted negatively. In the US, some Republicans tried to blame the suit on the Democrats' stance on moral issues. Gernreich introduced the monokini at a time when U.S. nudists were trying to establish a public persona. The United States Postmaster General had banned nudist publications from the mail until 1958, when the Supreme Court of the United States declared that the naked body in and of itself could not be deemed obscene. Use of the word monokini was first recorded in English that year. In the 1960s, the monokini influenced the sexual revolution by emphasizing a woman's personal freedom of dress, even when her attire was provocative and exposed more skin than had been the norm during the more conservative 1950s. Quickly renamed a "topless swimsuit", the design was never successful in the United States, although the issue of allowing both genders equal exposure above the waist has been raised as a feminist issue from time to time. As the suit gained notoriety, the New York City Police Department was strictly instructed by the commissioner of parks to arrest any woman wearing a monokini. In Dallas, Texas, when a local store featured the suit in a window display, members of the Carroll Avenue Baptist Mission picketed until they removed the display. Copious coverage of the event helped to send the image of exposed breasts across the world. Women's clubs and the Catholic church actively condemned the design. In Italy and Spain, the Catholic Church warned against the topless fashion. France In France in 1964, Roger Frey led the prosecution of the use of the monokini, describing it as: "a public offense against the sense of decency, punishable according to article 330 of the penal code. Consequently, the police chiefs must employ the services of the police so that the women who wear this bathing suit in public places are prosecuted." At St. Tropez on the French Riviera, where toplessness later became the norm, the mayor ordered police to ban toplessness and to watch over the beach via helicopter. Jean-Luc Godard, a founding mover of French New Wave cinema, incorporated monokini footage shot by Jacques Rozier in Riviera into his film A Married Woman, but it was edited out by the censors. A few defended Gernreich's design. Fashion designers Geraldine Stutz, president of Henri Bendel, said, "I only wish I were young enough to be one of the pioneers myself." Carol Bjorkman, a columnist at Women's Wear-Daily's wrote, "What's the matter with the front? After all, it is here to stay, and it is awfully nice being a girl." Chicago When Toni Lee Shelley, a 19-year-old artists model, wore the topless bathing suit to the North Avenue beach in Chicago, 12 police officers responded, 11 to control and disperse the public and photographers, and one to arrest her. She was charged with disorderly conduct, indecent exposure, and appearing on a public beach without suitable attire. At her arraignment she asked for an all-male jury. She told the press that the swimsuit was "certainly more comfortable." Shelley was fined US$100 for wearing the swimsuit on a public beach. San Francisco On 12 June 1964, San Francisco Chronicle, published on its front page. a photo of a woman with clearly visible, exposed breasts wearing a monokini. On 19 June 1964, Davey Rosenberg saw an Joseph Magnin ad for the Monokini in a newspaper. By June 22, 1964, Davey Rosenberg, the publicist of the Condor Club in San Francisco's North Beach district had bought Gernreich's monokini from Joseph Magnin, and had given it to former prune picker, file clerk, and waitress Carol Doda to wear for her act. That night, Doda became the first modern topless dancer in the United States, renewing the burlesque era of the early Twentieth Century in the U.S. San Francisco Mayor John Shelley said, "topless is at the bottom of porn." Within a few days, women were baring their breasts in many of the clubs lining San Francisco's Broadway St., ushering in the era of the topless bar. Her debut as a topless dancer was featured in Playboy magazine in April 1965. San Francisco public officials tolerated the topless bars until April 22, 1965, when the San Francisco Police Department arrested Doda on indecency charges. Hundreds of protesters gathered outside the police department, calling for release of both Doda and free speech activist Mario Savio, held in the same station. Doda rapidly became a symbol of sexual freedom, while topless restaurants, shoeshine parlors, ice-cream stands and girl bands proliferated in San Francisco and elsewhere. Journalist Earl Wilson wrote in his syndicated column, "Are we ready for girls in topless gowns? Heck, we may not even notice them." English designers created topless evening gowns inspired by the idea. The San Francisco Examiner published a real estate advertisement that promised "bare top swimsuits are possible here". Later designs Going topless reached its highest popularity during the 1970s. In the early 1980s monokini designs that were simply a bikini-bottom (also known as the unikini) became popular. , some swimsuit designers continue to produce a variety of monokini or topless swimsuits that women can wear in private settings or in places where topless swimsuits are allowed. Unlike Gernreich's original design exposing the women's breasts, current designs are one-piece swimsuits that cover the women's breasts but typically include large cut-outs on the sides, back, or front. The cutouts are connected with varying fabrics, including mesh, chain, and other materials to link the top and bottom sections together. From the back the monokini looks like a two-piece swimsuit. The design may not be functional but aesthetic. Some suits are designed with a g-string style back and others offer full coverage. Pubikini In 1985, four weeks before his death, Gernreich unveiled the lesser-known pubikini, a topless bathing suit that exposed the wearer's mons pubis. It was a thin, V-shaped, thong-style bottom that in the front featured a tiny strip of fabric that exposed the wearer's pubic hair. The pubikini was described as a pièce de résistance totally freeing the human body. See also Bikini variants Maillot Nude beach Nude swimming One-piece swimsuit Topfreedom Toplessness References Bikinis

508593

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rip%20Torn

Rip Torn

Elmore Rual "Rip" Torn Jr. (February 6, 1931 – July 9, 2019) was an American actor whose career spanned more than 60 years. He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his part as Marsh Turner in Cross Creek (1983). He portrayed Artie the producer on The Larry Sanders Show, for which he was nominated for six Emmy Awards, winning in 1996. He also won an American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Male in a Series, and two CableACE Awards for his work on the show, and for his roles as Zed in the Men in Black franchise (1997–2002) and Patches O'Houlihan in Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story (2004). Early life Elmore Rual Torn Jr. was born on February 6, 1931 in Temple, Texas, the son of Elmore Rual "Tiger" Torn, Sr. and Thelma Mary Torn (née Spacek). The senior Elmore (1906–1971) was an agriculturalist and economist who worked to promote the consumption of black-eyed peas, particularly as a custom on New Year's Day. Thelma was an aunt of actress Sissy Spacek. The family is of German, Austrian, and Czech/Moravian ancestry. The nickname "Rip" is a family tradition among men in the Torn family. Torn graduated from Taylor High School in Taylor, Texas, in 1948. Torn was a member of the Texas A&M University Corps of Cadets, although he graduated from the University of Texas where he studied acting under the Shakespeare professor B. Iden Payne, and was a member of the Alpha Nu chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity. After graduation, he served in the military police in the United States Army. Career Film and television After moving to Hollywood, Torn made his film debut in the 1956 film Baby Doll. Torn then studied at the Actors Studio in New York under Lee Strasberg, becoming a prolific stage actor, appearing in the original cast of Tennessee Williams' play Sweet Bird of Youth, and reprising the role in the film and television adaptations. Torn later helped his younger cousin Sissy Spacek enroll in the Actors Studio. He also appeared in the first production of his friend James Baldwin's Blues For Mister Charlie. Along with Baldwin and numerous mutual friends he was active in the Civil Rights movement from the '50s forward, as Baldwin's biographer David Leeming relates. One of Torn's earliest roles was in Pork Chop Hill, portraying the brother-in-law of Gregory Peck's character. He also had an uncredited role in A Face in the Crowd as Barry Mills. In 1957, Torn portrayed Jody in an early episode of The Restless Gun. In 1957, he starred as incarcerated Steve Morgan in the Alfred Hitchcock Presents episode "Number Twenty-Two", and on the same series in 1961, he played a recently released prisoner, Ernie Walters, in the Alfred Hitchcock Presents episode "The Kiss-Off". After portraying Judas, betrayer of Jesus, in 1961 epic film King of Kings, Torn appeared as a graduate student with multiple degrees in 1963 television series Channing, and as Roy Kendall in the Breaking Point episode "Millions of Faces". In 1964, Torn appeared as Eddie Sanderson in the episode "The Secret in the Stone" in The Eleventh Hour and in the premiere of The Reporter. More military roles followed, as a Marine drill instructor in an episode of The Lieutenant in 1963 and as a GI in an episode of Combat! the next year. In 1965, in the film The Cincinnati Kid, he played Slade, a corrupt New Orleans millionaire, who pressures Steve McQueen during a high-stakes poker game. On television that year, Torn portrayed Colonel Royce in the episode "The Lorelei" of Twelve O'Clock High. Following these roles, he had turns as a character actor in numerous subsequent films. The part of George Hanson in Easy Rider was written for Torn by Terry Southern, but according to Southern's biographer Lee Hill, Torn withdrew from the project after co-director Dennis Hopper and he got into a bitter argument in a New York restaurant. Jack Nicholson played Hanson, instead, in a career-launching performance. In 1972, Torn won rave reviews for his portrayal of a country and western singer in the cult film Payday. He co-starred with singer David Bowie in the 1976 science-fiction film, The Man Who Fell to Earth. He portrayed a Southern senator in 1979's The Seduction of Joe Tynan, opposite Alan Alda and Meryl Streep, and a music producer in Paul Simon's 1980 film One-Trick Pony. In 1982, Torn played a role as a black magic cult leader in the sword-and-sorcery movie The Beastmaster. He also co-starred in Jinxed!, a comedy with Bette Midler, and appeared as an airline executive in Airplane II: The Sequel. He played a sheriff opposite Treat Williams and Kris Kristofferson in the 1984 thriller Flashpoint. Torn received an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actor for his role in 1983's Cross Creek as a poor neighbor of Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings in the orange groves of Florida. He was nominated for the CableACE Award for his portrayal of Big Daddy in the 1984 Showtime production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. He co-starred with John Candy as a man who helps a tourist win a sailboat race in the 1985 comedy Summer Rental. He had a brief role as Sheriff Hank Pearson in Extreme Prejudice. In 1988, he ventured into directing with The Telephone. The screenplay was written by Terry Southern and Harry Nilsson, and the film was produced by their company, Hawkeye. The story, which concerned an unhinged, out-of-work actor, had been written with Robin Williams in mind. After he turned it down, Whoopi Goldberg expressed a strong interest, but when production began, Torn reportedly had to contend with Goldberg constantly digressing and improvising, and he had to plead with her to perform takes that stuck to the script. Goldberg was backed by the studio, which also allowed her to replace Torn's chosen DP, veteran cinematographer John A. Alonzo, with her then-husband. As a result of the power struggle, Torn, Southern, and Nilsson cut their own version of the film, using the takes that adhered to the script and this was screened at the Sundance Film Festival, but the studio put together a rival version using other takes and it was poorly reviewed when it premiered in January 1988. In 1990, he portrayed Colonel Fargo in By Dawn's Early Light, a film from HBO about a fictional world war. In 1991, he portrayed Albert Brooks' character's celestial defense attorney in Defending Your Life. He was a jeweler who murdered his own nephew to steal a winning lottery ticket in an episode of Columbo that year on TV, "Death Hits the Jackpot". In 1993, Torn portrayed the OCP CEO in RoboCop 3 and starred opposite Tantoo Cardinal in Where the Rivers Flow North. This is the same year that Torn played the owner of a fictional battery company in a series of Energizer commercials in which the owner of a rival battery company hires various fictional villains to assault the Energizer Bunny and eliminate the competition. He was a naval officer presiding over a wargame in the Kelsey Grammer submarine comedy Down Periscope in 1996. In 1997, Torn appeared in the Disney film Hercules, in which he voiced the god Zeus. Torn played MIB agency boss Zed in the 1997 hit film Men in Black, starring Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones, a role he reprised in the 2002 sequel Men in Black II. In 2001, Torn portrayed James "Jim" Brody in the comedy film Freddy Got Fingered. In 2004, he played the iconic wrench-tossing coach Patches O'Houlihan in DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story. Stage career Broadway Torn appeared in ten Broadway plays and directed one. In 1959, he made his feature Broadway debut when he played Tom Junior in Sweet Bird of Youth, for which he won a Theatre World Award and also received a Tony Award nomination. He returned next in 1962 in the play Daughter of Silence as Carlo, following that with a role in the 1963 production of Strange Interlude. In 1964, he played Lyle Britten in Blues for Mister Charlie, and four years later, he was Roberto in The Cuban Thing for its only performance on September 24, 1968. In 1971, he portrayed Edgar in Dance of Death, and directed his first Broadway play in 1973: Look Away. In 1975, he portrayed the Son in the Broadway revival of The Glass Menagerie and 5 years later, portrayed Don in Mixed Couples. For 13 years, Torn was absent from Broadway, but returned in 1993 to portray Chris Christopherson in Anna Christie. In his last Broadway appearance in 1997, Torn portrayed Will Kidder in The Young Man from Atlanta. Off-Broadway Torn made his feature off-Broadway acting debut as Eben Cabot in the play Desire Under the Elms, followed by Peter in The Kitchen at the 81st Street Theatre. His third off-Broadway role was Marion-Faye-A-Pimp in The Deer Park, for which he won the 1967 Obie Award for Distinguished Performance. He performed at the Lucille Lortel Theatre in the play Dream of a Blacklisted Actor, and later at the Joseph Papp Public Theater's Anspacher Theater as William McLeod in Barbary Shore. He last acted off-Broadway at the American Place Theatre as Henry Hackamore in Sam Shepard's 1979 play Seduced: a Play in Two Acts. Torn's off-Broadway debut as director was for the Evergreen Theater with the play The Beard; he won the 1968 Obie for Distinguished Direction for that work. He next directed The Honest-to-God Schnozzia at the Gramercy Arts Theater, followed by August Strindberg's Creditors and The Stronger—in which he acted beside his wife at the time, Geraldine Page for the Joseph Papp Public Theater. Torn and Page also co-produced that production, and had previously presented the two plays along with Miss Julie at the off-off-Broadway Hudson Guild Theatre the year before. The Larry Sanders Show From 1992 to 1998, Torn portrayed Artie in The Larry Sanders Show. For his work, Torn received six consecutive Emmy Award nominations as Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series and won the award once (1996). Torn was the only actor in the series who won an Emmy Award for his work. Other than the Emmy nominations and win, he received two American Comedy Awards nominations for Funniest Male Performance in a Series, winning once, and two CableACE Awards for his work on the series. Later career Following The Larry Sanders Show, Torn appeared in many comedic roles in films. He was also known for his voice work and did voice-overs for many animated films. In 2007 and 2008, he made five guest appearances on 30 Rock as the fictional chief executive officer of General Electric, Don Geiss. He was nominated for an Emmy Award in the category for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series, but lost to Tim Conway, who guest-starred in the same sitcom. Torn's character was reportedly killed off as a direct result of his 2010 arrest, though Tina Fey denied this in a DVD commentary. Torn voiced the character of Hephaestus in the 2010 video game, God of War III. Torn also appears in the music video for the They Might Be Giants song "Can't Keep Johnny Down", from their 2011 album Join Us. In 2015, he reprised his role as Zed in a Men in Black safety video for Air New Zealand with rugby player Israel Dagg and singer Stan Walker. Personal life Family Torn was married three times, and had six children and four grandchildren. His first marriage to actress Ann Wedgeworth lasted from 1956 to 1961. They had a daughter, Danae Torn. In 1963, Torn married Geraldine Page, and they remained married until her death in 1987. They had a daughter, actress Angelica Page, and twin sons: actor Tony Torn, and Jon Torn (an associate professor of electronic media and film at Northern Arizona University). Torn apparently delighted in the fact that the doorbell of their New York townhouse read Torn Page. Torn married actress Amy Wright in 1989. They had two children, Katie and Claire Torn. Legal issues On January 29, 2010, Torn was arrested after breaking into a Litchfield Bancorp branch office in Lakeville, Connecticut, where he maintained a residence. He was charged with carrying a firearm without a permit, carrying a firearm while intoxicated, first-degree burglary, second-degree criminal trespassing, and third-degree criminal mischief. The Connecticut State Police said Torn broke into the bank thinking it was his home. In court, his lawyer told the judge his client needed help with alcohol abuse and that he could start treatment immediately in New York. Torn was released on $100,000 bail. As a condition of his release, Torn had to be evaluated for substance abuse. On August 11, 2010, Torn was denied special probation, which would have allowed his name to be cleared of charges. The judge in the case cited Torn's history of alcohol abuse and the possession of a loaded weapon while intoxicated, which carries a minimum one-year sentence. On December 14, 2010, Torn pleaded guilty to reckless endangerment, criminal trespass, criminal mischief, and possession of a firearm, and was given a two-and-a-half-year suspended jail sentence, and three years' probation. On-set conflicts Appearing as an interview subject in Studs Terkel's 1974 oral-history book Working, Torn confessed, "I have certain flaws in my make-up. Something called irascibility. I get angry easily. I get saddened by things easily." While filming Maidstone (1968), Torn struck director and star Norman Mailer in the head with a hammer. With the camera rolling, Mailer bit Torn's ear and they wrestled to the ground. The fight continued until it was broken up by cast and crew members. The fight is featured in the film. Although the scene may have been planned by Torn, the blood shed by both actors was real, and Torn was reportedly outraged by Mailer's direction. In 1994, he filed a defamation lawsuit against Dennis Hopper over a story Hopper told on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Hopper claimed that Torn pulled a knife on him during pre-production of the film Easy Rider (1969). According to Hopper, Torn was originally cast in the film, but was replaced with Jack Nicholson after the incident. Torn claimed in his lawsuit that Hopper pulled the knife on him. A trial court judge ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was ordered to pay $475,000 in compensatory damages, but denied Torn's request for punitive damages, ruling Hopper had not acted with malice. Hopper appealed. On April 1, 1998, a California appellate court upheld the ruling for compensatory damages, and reversed the ruling for the punitive damages, requiring Hopper to pay another $475,000. Death Torn died on July 9, 2019, at his home in Lakeville, Connecticut, at the age of 88 due to complications from Alzheimer's disease. He is buried at the Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery in Poughkeepsie, New York. Filmography Film Television Video games References External links Rip Torn | PlaybillVault.com Rip Torn at The TV IV Rip Torn at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection Production: Anna Christie—Working in the Theater Seminar video at American Theatre Wing, January 1993 Rip Torn obituary: talent got trouble Sight & Sound, July 2019 1931 births 2019 deaths 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors Actors Studio alumni American anti–Vietnam War activists American male film actors American male stage actors American male television actors American male voice actors American people of Austrian descent American people of Czech descent American people of German descent American people of Moravian-German descent Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Neurological disease deaths in Connecticut Film directors from Texas Male actors from New York City Male actors from Texas Military personnel from Texas Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Lakeville, Connecticut People from Taylor, Texas People from Temple, Texas Texas A&M University alumni United States Army officers University of Texas at Austin alumni

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Tasmania

History of Tasmania

The history of Tasmania begins at the end of the most recent ice age (approximately 10,000 years ago) when it is believed that the island was joined to the Australian mainland. Little is known of the human history of the island until the British colonisation in the 19th century. Indigenous people Tasmania was inhabited by an Indigenous population, the Aboriginal Tasmanians, and evidence indicates their presence in the territory, later to become an island, at least 35,000 years ago. At the time of the British occupation and colonisation in 1803 the Indigenous population was estimated at between 3000 and 10,000. Historian Lyndall Ryan's analysis of population studies led her to conclude that there were about 7000 spread throughout the island's nine nations; Nicholas Clements, citing research by N.J.B. Plomley and Rhys Jones, settled on a figure of 3000 to 4000. The combination of the so-called Black War, internecine conflict and, from the late 1820s, the spread of infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, reduced the population to about 300 by 1833. Almost all of the Indigenous population was relocated to Flinders Island by George Augustus Robinson. Until the 1970s, most people thought that the last surviving Tasmanian Aboriginal person was Truganini, who died in 1876. However, this "extinction" was a myth, as documented by Lyndall Ryan in 1991. European arrival The first reported sighting of Tasmania by a European was on 24 November 1642 by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who named the island Anthoonij van Diemenslandt, after his sponsor, the Governor of the Dutch East Indies. The name was later shortened to Van Diemen's Land by the British. In 1772, a French expedition led by Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne landed on the island. Captain James Cook also sighted the island in 1777, and numerous other European seafarers made landfalls, adding a colourful array to the names of topographical features. The first settlement was by the British at Risdon Cove on the eastern bank of the Derwent estuary in 1803, by a small party sent from Sydney, under Lt. John Bowen. An alternative settlement was established by Capt. David Collins 5 km to the south in 1804 in Sullivans Cove on the western side of the Derwent, where fresh water was more plentiful. The latter settlement became known as Hobart Town, later shortened to Hobart, after the British Colonial Secretary of the time, Lord Hobart. The settlement at Risdon was later abandoned. The early settlers were mostly convicts and their military guards, with the task of developing agriculture and other industries. Numerous other convict settlements were made in Van Diemens Land, including secondary prisons, such as the particularly harsh penal colonies at Port Arthur in the south-east and Macquarie Harbour on the West Coast. The Aboriginal resistance to this invasion was so strong, that troops were deployed across much of Tasmania to drive the Aboriginal people into captivity on nearby islands. Timeline Pre-1800 Date unknown (BC): Mouheneener band of South-East Tasmanian Aboriginal peoples settle in what is now the Hobart area 1642: Abel Tasman, of the Dutch East India Company, becomes first European to sight Tasmanian mainland; he names it Van Diemen's Land after fellow Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) Governor-General Anthony van Diemen 1792: Captain William Bligh anchors in Adventure Bay for a second time and names Table Mountain (now Mount Wellington) 1793: French explorer Bruni d'Entrecasteaux surveys Derwent, naming it Riviere du Nord 1793: John Hayes, of British East India Company, unaware of the French visit, sails up the river, which he names Derwent 1798: Explorers George Bass and Matthew Flinders visit Derwent as part of circumnavigation of Van Diemen's Land; Bass climbs at least part of Mount Wellington (then known as Table Mountain) on Christmas Day 1798: Adventure Bay became the site of a whaling station, then later on a Timber station. 1800–1809 1802: French explorer Nicolas Baudin surveys Derwent during month-long visit to South-East Tasmania, on which his party makes extensive notes on Aboriginal people, plants and animals. 1803: Lieutenant John Bowen's 49-member party, with the ships and Albion, starts first British settlement of Tasmania at Risdon Cove, naming it Hobart. 1804: Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins' 262-member party lands at Sullivans Cove in February; the settlement, which becomes known as Hobart Town, grows to 433 with arrival in June of rest of his Port Phillip party. 1804: Soldiers temporarily refuse guard duties at Risdon amid fears of convict rebellion. 1804: Aboriginal people killed in Risdon affray and settlement there abandoned. 1804: Church of England clergyman Robert Knopwood conducts first divine service at Sullivans Cove. 1804: Hobart's first cemetery opens, later St David's Park. 1804: Colonel William Paterson establishes Port Dalrymple (Tamar River) settlement, first at George Town, then at York Town on river's western side. 1805: After supply ships fail to arrive on time, famine forces David Collins to cut rations by one-third 1805: Collins leaves tent home to take up residence in first Government House, a wooden cottage. 1805: Harbourmaster William Collins establishes Australia's first whaling station at Ralphs Bay. 1805: First land grants include 10 acres (40,000 m2) to Robert Knopwood 1806: Colonel William Paterson begins transfer of York Town settlement to site of modern Launceston 1807: First Norfolk Island settlers arrive in Hobart in the and settle at New Norfolk 1807: Lieutenant Thomas Laycock leads five-man party on first overland journey from Launceston to Hobart, taking nine days, mainly to seek supplies for the northern settlement. 1809: Deposed New South Wales Governor William Bligh arrives in Hobart and temporarily disrupts David Collins' authority as lieutenant-governor. 1809: Floods in Derwent 1810–1819 1810: David Collins dies suddenly, Lieutenant Edward Lord takes over and first of three administrators pending appointment of second lieutenant-governor. 1810: First church, St David's, built 1810: Colony's first flour mill built beside Rivulet between Murray St and Elizabeth St, operated by Edward Lord and William Collins 1810: Administration launches colony's first newspaper, the Derwent Star and Van Diemen's Land Intelligencer 1810: Sealing expedition discovers Macquarie Island 1811: After arriving from Sydney, Governor Lachlan Macquarie draws up plan for Hobart streets and orders construction of public buildings and Mount Nelson signal station. 1812: Michael Howe (later bushranging gang leader) among first convicts to arrive directly from England in HMS Indefatigable 1812: Northern Tasmania's lieutenant-governorship ceases, Government House in Hobart takes control of whole island 1813: Schooner Unity not heard of again after convicts seize it in Derwent 1813: First Post Office opens in postmaster's house on corner of Argyle St and Macquarie St 1814: Work starts on Anglesea Barracks, Australia's longest continuously occupied military building 1814: Colony's first horse races believed to have taken place at New Town 1814: Lieutenant-governor's court created to deal with small personal financial disputes. 1814: Governor Lachlan Macquarie offers amnesty to bushrangers 1814: Ship Argo disappears after seizure by convicts in Derwent 1815: Michael Howe's bushranging gang kills two settlers in New Norfolk raid 1815: Lieutenant-Governor Thomas Davey declares martial law against all bushrangers, mainly escaped convicts, with some military deserters; Governor Lachlan Macquarie later revokes order. 1815: Captain James Kelly circumnavigates island in whaleboat 1815: First Van Diemen's Land wheat shipment to Sydney. 1816: First emigrant ship arrives with free settlers from England 1817: Weekly mail service begins between Hobart and Launceston 1817: Work starts on new St David's Church, replacing earlier structure blown down in storm 1817: First convict ships arrive directly from England 1817: New Government House occupied in Macquarie St, on site of present Town Hall, lower Elizabeth St and Franklin Square. 1818: Government opens flour mill in Hobart 1818: Soldiers and convict kill bushranger Michael Howe on banks of Shannon River 1818: Government establishes nucleus of Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens 1819: First proper hospital opens 1819: Hobart-New Norfolk road built 1819: St David's Church opens 1820–1829 In 1820, Tasmanian roads were first macadamised and carthorses began to replace bullocks. In the same year, the first substantial jail was completed on the corner of Macquarie Street and Murray Street and merino sheep arrived from John Macarthur's stud in New South Wales. 1820 also saw the first Wesleyan (Methodist) meeting in the colony. The following year marked the arrival of first Catholic clergyman, Father Phillip Conolly and on his second visit, Governor Lachlan Macquarie chooses sites for Perth, Campbell Town, Ross, Oatlands, Sorell and Brighton. In 1821, officials and convicts left Port Dalrymple to establish Macquarie Harbour penal settlement at Sarah Island. 1822 was the first year Van Diemen's Land Agricultural Society held a meeting in Hobart. In 1823 the Presbyterian Church's first official ministry in Australia occurred in Hobart and the first Tasmanian bank, Bank of Van Diemen's Land, was established. The inauguration of the Supreme Court occurred in 1824, as did the opening of Cascade Brewery, Australia's longest continuously operating Brewery. Cannibal convict Alexander Pearce was hanged after escaping twice from Macquarie Harbour who survived by eating his companions and convict Matthew Brady begins his bushranging career after escaping from Macquarie Harbour. On 3 December 1825, Van Diemen's Land became an independent colony from New South Wales with an appointed Executive Council, its own judicial establishment, and Legislative Council. Also in that year, the Richmond Bridge, Australia's oldest existing bridge, was opened and a party of soldiers and convicts establishes Maria Island penal settlement In 1826, Van Diemen's Land Company launches North-West pastoral and agricultural development at Circular Head and the Tasmanian Turf Club was established. Settler John Batman, later one of Melbourne's founders, helped capture bushranger Matthew Brady near Launceston. Hobart experienced a disease epidemic which was blamed on rivulet pollution. A courthouse was built on the corner of Macquarie Street and Murray Street and street lighting with oil lamps was introduced. 1826 was also the year that the Legislative Council met formally for the first time. 1827 saw the first regatta-style events on Derwent River and Van Diemen's Land Company began settlement at Emu Bay (now Burnie). A proclamation made in 1828 by Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur excluded Aboriginal people from settled areas and was the year of the Cape Grim massacre. In 1828, martial law was also declared against Aboriginal people in settled areas after Van Diemen's Land Company shepherds killed 30 Aboriginal people at Cape Grim and regular mail services with Sydney began. That year also saw widespread floods. The following year a jail for women convicts ("female factory") opened at Cascades, "Protector" George Augustus Robinson starts an Aboriginal mission at Bruny Island, convicts seized the brig Cyprus at Recherche Bay and sail to China, Van Diemen's Land Scientific Society formed under patronage of Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur and a Hobart-New Norfolk coach service began. 1830–1839 1830: George Augustus Robinson starts reconciliation efforts with Aboriginal people by visiting west coast 1830: Samuel Anderson, Pioneer Settler, arrives in Hobart aboard the Lang, employed as book keeper with Van Diemens Land Co. Will go on to establish the third permanent settlement in Victoria at Westernport. 1830: Administration launches "Black Line" military campaign across most of colony to round up Aboriginal people; in seven weeks two are shot and two are captured 1830: Port Arthur penal settlement established 1830: Convict chain gang starts work on causeway across Derwent at Bridgewater John Glover English landscape painter, arrives in Van Diemen's Land on his 64th birthday 1831: Australia's first novel, Quintus Servinton, by Henry Savery, published in Hobart 1831: New land regulations discontinue free land grants, replacing them with sales 1832: George Augustus Robinson arrives in Hobart with Aboriginal people from Oyster Bay and Big River tribes, the last Aboriginal people removed from European-settled areas; Wybalenna, Flinders Island, chosen for Aboriginal resettlement site. 1832: Ends of martial law against Aboriginal people 1832: Work starts on Cascade Brewery 1832: Regular Hobart-Launceston coach service begins 1832: Maria Island penal settlement closes 1832: Derwent Light ("Iron Pot") lit for first time 1833: Robert Massie arrives in Tasmania takes up position as Engineer with Van Diemens Land Co. 1833: First professional theatrical performance in Hobart 1833: Macquarie Harbour penal settlement closes, convicts transferred to Port Arthur 1834: Convicts evacuating Macquarie Harbour capture brig Frederick and sail to Chile 1834: Stagecoaches begin daily Hobart-New Norfolk, weekly Hobart-Launceston services 1834: Daily Hobart-New Norfolk steamship trips begin 1834: Launceston "female factory" completed 1834: Point Puer boys' convict establishment opens at Port Arthur 1834: First coal shipment leaves convict mines on Tasman Peninsula 1834: Jury trial system for all civil cases begins 1834: Horse-drawn coaches begin taxi-style service 1834: Henty brothers leave Launceston for Portland Bay to make first European settlement in Victoria 1835: Nearly all remaining Tasmanian Aboriginal people surrender to George Augustus Robinson and are moved to Flinders Island 1835: Transport George III sinks in D'Entrecasteaux Channel with loss of 139 male convicts of 220 aboard 1835: In separate expeditions, John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner leave Launceston to launch first European settlements at Port Phillip, which developed into Melbourne. 1835: Samuel Anderson leaves Launceston to establish third permanent Victorian settlement at Bass in Western Port. 1835: Colonial artist John Glover sends 35 paintings of Van Diemen's Land to London exhibition. 1835: First meeting to establish Launceston Bank for Savings. 1836: First Catholic Church was built—St John the Evangelist's Church in Richmond. It is the oldest running Catholic Church in Australia. 1836: Charles Darwin visits Hobart during round-the-world voyage in 1836: Hobart Post office moves to premises on corner of Elizabeth Street and Collins Street 1836: Eleven counties, and some parishes therein, proclaimed; establishing the cadastral divisions of the colony 1837: Theatre Royal opens 1837: Lieutenant Governor Sir John Franklin founds Tasmanian Society for the Study of Natural Science 1837: Police office built on corner of Macquarie Street and Murray Street 1838: The first secular register of births, deaths and marriages in the British colonies established 1838: First annual Hobart Regatta on Derwent 1838: Work begins on old Customs House, which becomes Parliament House at start of responsible self-government in 1856 1838: Sir John Franklin establishes board of education to introduce non-denominational schools 1838: Bruny Island lighthouse completed 1840–1849 1840: Economic depression starts, continues until 1845 1840: Captain James Ross arrives with Antarctic expedition in HMS Erebus and HMS Terror 1840: Sir John Franklin establishes Ross Bank meteorological observatory site, named after explorer, near present Government House site 1840: Dr William Bedford founds first Hobart private hospital (in house near Theatre Royal) after dispute at government hospital 1840: Transportation from Britain to NSW ends, causing heavier influx of convicts to Tasmania 1842: Colony's first official census, population 57,471 1842: The Weekly Examiner begins publication in Launceston 1842: Hobart proclaimed a city 1842: Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, first Australian scientific journal, begins publication 1842: Peak year for convict arrivals (5329) 1842: Maria Island's Darlington penitentiary reopened 1843: Arrival of Tasmania's first Anglican bishop, Francis Russell Nixon 1843: Bushranger Martin Cash captured in Hobart, his death sentence was commuted and he was later pardoned 1844: First Catholic bishop, Robert Willson, arrives 1844: Formation of Royal Society of Tasmania, first branch outside Britain, as development of society founded in 1837 by Sir John Franklin; society branch takes over botanical gardens 1844: Norfolk Island, formerly administered by NSW, comes under Tasmanian control 1845: Emigrant ship Cataraqui wrecked near King Island, 406 lives lost 1845: Hobart Savings Bank opens 1845: Jewish community consecrates Hobart Synagogue, Australia's oldest 1845: Artist John Skinner Prout organises first known Australian exhibition of pictures in Hobart 1846: Absconding Act introduced to detain escaping convicts. 1846: Foundation of the Hutchins School and Launceston Grammar School 1846: Lieutenant-governor Sir John Eardley-Wilmot dismissed, allegedly for failure to suppress convict homosexuality 1846: Convict transportation to Tasmania suspended until 1848 1846: Tasmania becomes first Australian colony to enact legislation to protect native animals 1847: Britain orders closure of NSW convict establishment and transfer of remaining prisoners to Tasmania 1847: Big Hobart meeting petitions Queen Victoria for end to transportation 1847: Wybalenna Aboriginal settlement at Flinders Island closes and surviving 47 Aboriginal people move to Oyster Cove 1847: News of Sir John Franklin's death during Arctic exploration reaches Hobart 1847: Charles Davis founds hardware business 1847: Launceston doctor W. R. Pugh uses ether as general anaesthetic for first time in Tasmania 1848: Hobart peaks as whaling port, with 1046 men aboard 37 ships 1848: Colony now only place of transportation in British Empire 1849: "Young Irelanders" (Irish political prisoners), including William Smith O'Brien, arrive at Port Arthur 1849: Anti-transportation league formed after Launceston public meeting 1849: Tasmania gets first public library 1849: Tasmanian apple growers export to the United States of America and New Zealand 1850–1859 1850: Prisoner Patrick O'Donoghue starts publishing 'The Irish Exile', first Irish Nationalist paper in Australia. 1850: First secular high school built at Domain 1850: Constitution Dock officially opened 1851: O'Donoghue sent to a chain-gang, released, restarts his paper and sent again to a chain-gang. 1851: Black Thursday bushfires in February 1851: Influenza epidemic 1851: First election for 16 non-appointed members of Legislative Council 1851: Hobart Chamber of Commerce established 1851: Launceston host for first intercolonial cricket match (Van Diemen's Land v Port Phillip district) 1851: Maria Island's Darlington penitentiary abandoned 1852: Elections for first Hobart and Launceston municipal councils 1852: Payable gold discovered near Fingal 1853: Jubilee festival in Hobart celebrates end of convict transportation after arrival of last ship, the St Vincent 1853: First Tasmanian adhesive postage stamp issued 1854: Severe floods, fires hit city 1854: The Mercury founded as bi-weekly publication 1855: Horse-drawn "buses" (large carts) begin services, mainly on city–New Town route; they later become enclosed vehicles 1855: Henry Young becomes first vice-regal representative to have title of Governor 1856: Name of Van Diemen's Land officially changed to Tasmania after grant of responsible self-government 1856: New two-house Parliament opens after elections, William Champ becomes colony's first Premier 1856: Norfolk Island transferred from Tasmanian to NSW control 1857: Hobart's municipal Incorporation 1857: Hobart-Launceston telegraph line opens 1857: Hobart customers start using coal gas, streets get gas lighting 1858: First meeting of Hobarts Marine Board, Australia's oldest port authority 1858: Hobart and Launceston councils form municipal police forces 1858: Council of Education established 1858: Hobart Savings Bank founded 1858: Parliament passes Rural Municipalities Act 1859: Worries about public health prompt Hobart Town Council to appoint health officer 1859: New Government House at Domain occupied for first time, by Governor Henry Young and Lady Young 1860–1869 1860: British troops sail from Hobart for Māori war in New Zealand 1860: Volunteer corps of infantry, cavalry and artillery formed 1860: Economic depression 1860: The Mercury begins daily publication 1862: Tasmania adopts Torrens title land-conveyancing and registration system 1862: Serious Derwent flooding 1862: Hobart's post office moves to rebuilt courthouse on corner of Macquarie St and Murray St 1863: Opening of Tasmanian Museum on present site 1864: First shipment of trout and salmon ova arrives from England 1866: Hobart Town Hall opened 1866: Hobart Philharmonic Society formed 1867: George Peacock launches one of Australia's first jam factories in Hobart (later operated by Henry Jones and Co under the name IXL) 1868: First royal visit, during which Prince Alfred (Duke of Edinburgh) lays foundation stone for St David's Cathedral and turns first sod for Tasmania's first railway, Launceston-Deloraine line, built by a private company. 1868: With Education Act, Tasmania becomes first Australian colony to have compulsory state education system, administered by local school boards 1869: Death of William Lanne ("King Billy"), reputedly the last full blood Tasmanian Aboriginal man; whose remains were disrespected horribly after disagreement over who should have his remains. 1869: Submarine communications cable successfully establishes link between Tasmania and Melbourne. 1870–1879 1870: British troops leave 1870: Tasmanian Public Library formally constituted 1871: Opening of Launceston–Deloraine railway, Tasmania's first—() 1871: James "Philosopher" Smith discovers tin at Mount Bischoff 1872: Direct telegraphic communication begins between Tasmania and England 1873: Work begins on private operated Hobart–Launceston rail link—() 1873: Government takes over Launceston-Deloraine line 1874: St David's Cathedral consecrated 1874: Tasmanian Racing Club established 1874: Launceston rioters protest against rates levy for Deloraine railway 1874: First book publication of Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life, set mainly in Tasmania 1875: Hobart Hospital begins professional training of nurses 1875: Widespread flooding 1876: Truganini, described as last Tasmanian full blooded Aboriginal person, dies in Hobart 1876: Hobart-Launceston railway opens 1877: Port Arthur penal settlement closed 1877: Gold discovered at Beaconsfield 1878: Mount Heemskirk tin mining begins 1880–1889 1880: Earthquake hits Hobart 1880: Tasmania gets first telephone with line from city centre to Mount Nelson signal station 1880: Start of Derwent Sailing Boat Club (later Royal Yacht Club of Tasmania) 1880: Gold discovered at Pieman River on West Coast, Tasmania 1881: William Shoobridge organises first trial shipment of apples from Hobart to Britain 1881: Hobart officially replaces 'Hobart Town' as capital's name 1882: Married Women's Property Act allows wives to own property in their own right 1882: Silver-lead discovered at Zeehan 1882: Hobart Stock Exchange opens 1883: Typhoid and diphtheria epidemic prompt public health legislation 1883: Government opens first Hobart and Launceston telephone exchanges 1883: Trades and Labor Council formed 1883: Discovery of gold at "Iron Blow" at Mount Lyell amidst increased West Coast, Tasmania mineral prospecting 1885: Education Department created, centralising control of schools 1885: Mersey and Deloraine Railway opened—4′6″ gauge 1885: Oatlands to Parattah Railway opened 1885: Formation of the Mt Lyell Prospecting Association 1886: Copper found at Mount Lyell 1886: Government takes over Tasmanian Museum and Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens 1886: Federal Council of Australasia discusses Federation at its first assembly held in Hobart 1886: Public Health Act creates local boards of health 1887: Derwent Valley railway line to New Norfolk opens, extended to Glenora within a year 1887: Establishment of The Friends School in Hobart by the Society of Friends (Quakers). 1887: Italian entrepreneur Diego Bernacchi floats company to develop Maria Island 1888: Hobart gets first technical school 1888: Reservoir water supply opened 1888: Launceston proclaimed a city 1889: Launceston Post Office built 1890–1899 1890: University of Tasmania opens at the Domain 1890: Government takes over Hobart-Launceston railway 1890: Legislation provides for payment of Tasmanian parliamentarians 1891: Bank of Van Diemen's Land collapses, economic depression follows 1891: Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery opens in Launceston 1891: Apsley Railway opened 1892: George FitzGerald founds FitzGeralds department store chain, now owned by Harris Scarfe 1893: Private company begins electric tramway in Hobart, first in an Australian capital city 1893: Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company formed 1893: Government establishes Tasmanian Tourist Association 1894: Hobart international exhibition opens 1894: Government introduces flat-rate income tax system 1895: The premiers conference in Hobart discusses proposals for federal constitution and plebiscite. 1895: Launceston becomes first southern hemisphere city to get electric light after first Tasmanian hydro-electric station opens at Duck Reach on South Esk River 1895: All Tasmanian districts move to Australian Eastern Standard Time, ending different time zones in colony 1896: Entrepreneur George Adams launches Tattersalls lottery venture in Hobart; first lottery held to dispose of assets of failed Bank of Van Diemen's Land 1896: Ore smelting begins at Mount Lyell 1897: Hare-Clark voting system used on trial basis for state polls in Hobart and Launceston 1897: Formation of Southern Tasmania Football Association 1897: Serious bushfires start on New Year's Eve, end with six lives lost 1898: Tasmanians vote four to one in favor of referendum on federation with mainland colonies 1898: Municipal police forces become part of new statewide government force 1898: Electric street lighting begins in Hobart 1898: Norwegian-born Carsten Borchgrevink's Antarctic expedition arrives in Hobart on way south; Tasmanian Louis Bernacchi joins as physicist 1899: First Tasmanian troops leave for Second Boer War in South Africa 1899: Federation of Australia wins overwhelming Tasmanian approval in the second referendum 1900–1909 1900: More Tasmanian troops leave for Second Boer War 1900: Adult male suffrage for House of Assembly adopted, with property qualifications abolished 1900: End of whaling operations from Hobart 1900: Bubonic plague scare grips Tasmania 1900: Macquarie Island becomes a Tasmanian dependency 1901: Administrator Sir John Dodds reads proclamation of Commonwealth of Australia from Tasmanian Supreme Court steps 1901: Visit by Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (future King George V and Queen Mary) 1901: First elections for Federal Parliament 1901: Zeehan conference leads to formation of Tasmanian Workers Political League (forerunner to Labor Party) 1902: Last Tasmanian troops return from the Boer War 1902: Robert Carl Sticht completes world's first successful pyritic smelting at Mount Lyell 1903: Women get House of Assembly voting right (the already had it for federal polls) 1903: Hobart-Launceston telephone line opens 1903: Two ships leave Hobart on relief expedition to free British explorer Robert Scott's Discovery from Antarctic ice 1903: Launceston smallpox epidemic forces cancellation of Tasmanian centenary celebrations, some festivities a year later 1904: Legislation allows Tasmanian women to become lawyers 1904: Formation of Tasmanian National Association (forerunner to Liberal Party) 1904: Native flora and fauna reserve declared at Schouten Island and Freycinet Peninsula 1905: Wireless telegraphy experiments between Hobart and Tasman Island and between state and mainland 1905: Hobart General Post Office building opens 1906: Marconi Co. demonstrated a wireless telegraphy service between Devonport and Queenscliff, Victoria 1906: Tasman Lighthouse first lit 1907: New public library, built with money from American philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, opens in Hobart 1907: Hare-Clark voting system extended to all of Tasmania 1908: State school fees abolished 1908: Queen Alexandra Maternity Hospital opens in Hobart 1908: First Scout troops formed 1909: Guy Fawkes Day (5 November) fire destroy Hobart market, City Hall later built on site 1909: First statewide use of Hare-Clark voting system elects first Labor government, led by John Earle; government lasts only one week, with return of conservatives 1909: Irish blight wipes out potato crop 1910–1919 1910: Carters' wage strike paralyses Hobart for a week, ends with win for workers 1910: Legislation sets maximum 48-hour working week and minimum wages in several trades 1910: Great Lake hydro-electric project starts 1911: The Christian Brothers founded and opened the St. Virgil's College School in what is now, Barrack Street in Hobart. 1911: Douglas Mawson's ship Aurora docks in Hobart on way to Antarctic 1911: Philip Smith teachers' college opens at Domain, Electric trams begin running in Launceston 1912: Mount Lyell fire traps miners underground, 42 die 1912: Norwegian Roald Amundsen, first man to reach South Pole, arrives in Hobart on return from Antarctic expedition 1912: Hobart City Council takes over tramway service 1912: First Tasmanian Girl Guide company formed 1913: First government high schools open in Hobart and Launceston 1913: Hobart City Council buys tram service 1913: Term "free by servitude" referring to ex-convicts, appears for last time in official documents, after use for more than 100 years 1914: A. Delfosse Badgery makes Tasmania's first flight from Elwick in a plane he built himself 1914: First Tasmanian troops leave to fight in World War I 1914: The town of Bismarck is renamed Collinsvale due to anti-German sentiment inflamed by the war 1914: State government buys hydro-electric company 1915: Tasmanian legislation establishes Australia's first special authority to create and manage parks and reserves 1915: Serious bushfires 1916: In Tasmania's worst rail disaster, driver and six passengers die, 31 survive injuries, after Launceston-Hobart express crashes near Campania 1916: First all-Tasmanian battalion (the 40th) leaves for World War I 1916: Opening of Great Lakes hydro scheme's first stage, Waddamana power station 1916: State's first national parks declared at Mount Field and Freycinet 1916: Daylight saving time first introduced as temporary wartime measure 1917: Electrolytic Zinc Company works at Risdon and Australian Commonwealth Carbide's plant at Electrona established 1917: Ridgeway reservoir completed 1919: Worldwide Spanish influenza epidemic reaches Tasmania, affecting one-third of the population and claiming 171 lives 1919: Ex-World War I airman A. L. Long makes first flight over Bass Strait 1919: Frozen Tasmanian meat exported for the first time 1920–1929 1920: Visit by Prince of Wales, future King Edward VIII 1920: Miena dam completed 1920: Launceston-born Hudson Fysh helps found Qantas 1922: Legislation enables women to stand in state elections 1922: Legacy movement starts with founding of Remembrance Club in Hobart by Major-General Sir John Gellibrand 1922: Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park proclaimed 1923: First concert by Hobart Symphony Orchestra 1923: Severe flooding in Hobart 1923: Labor's Joseph Lyons, a future prime minister, becomes state premier 1924: Private company starts first Tasmanian radio station, 7ZL (now part of ABC), with regular broadcasts from The Mercury building 1924: Electrolytic Zinc Co makes first superphosphate at Risdon 1925: Workmen open David Collins' grave during conversion of old St David's Cemetery into St David's Park 1925: Osmiridium fields discovered at Adamsfield in south-west 1927: Inquiry into proposed bridge linking Hobart city with eastern shore 1927: Visit by Duke and Duchess of York (future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth) 1928: Cadbury's Claremont factory makes first chocolate 1928: Voting in Tasmanian state elections becomes compulsory (federal voting became compulsory in 1924) 1929: Disastrous floods, mainly in Northern Tasmania, take 22 lives; dam burst damages Derby township and tin mines 1929: Hobart gets automatic telephone system 1929: Great Depression begins 1929: Legislation creates Hydro-Electric Commission, replacing government department 1930–1939 1931: Tasmanian Harold Gatty and American Wiley Post make record round-the-world flight (eight days, 15 hours) 1932: Ivan and Victor Holyman start air service between Launceston and Flinders Island 1932: Lyell Highway opens, linking Hobart with West Coast 1932: Former premier Joseph Lyons becomes prime minister, only Tasmanian to hold that office 1933: Commonwealth Grants Commission appointed to inquire into affairs of claimant states, including Tasmania 1934: Holyman Airways (a forerunner of Ansett) launches Launceston–Melbourne service, within months, company plane Miss Hobart disappears over Bass Strait with loss of 12 people, including proprietor Victor Holyman 1934: Election of government led by Albert Ogilvie starts 35 years of continuous Labor governments 1935: Five die when Holyman Airways plane Loina crashes off Flinders Island. 1935: Hobart gets first electric trolley buses 1935: Legislation for three-year state parliament terms 1936: SS Paringa sinks in Bass Strait while towing tanker, 31 die 1936: ABC forms orchestra 1936 (7 September): Last known Tasmanian tiger (thylacine) dies at Hobart's Beaumaris Zoo 1936: First commercial flights use federal aerodrome at Cambridge 1936: Submarine telephone cable service begins between Tasmania and Victoria via King Island 1936: First two area schools (renamed district schools in 1973) open at Sheffield and Hagley 1937: Open of Mount Wellington summit road, built as Depression relief work project 1937: Poliomyelitis epidemic 1937: Five-year state parliamentary terms return 1938: Production starts at APPM's Burnie mill 1938: Work begins on a floating arch bridge across Derwent in Hobart 1939: World War II begins 1939: Death in office of prime minister Joseph Lyons 1939: Royal Hobart Hospital opens on present site 1940–1949 1940: Tasmanian soldiers leave for North African campaign with Australian 6th Division 1940: German naval raiders Pinguin and Atlantis lay mines off Hobart and other Australian areas. Hobart closed to shipping because of mine threat; Bass Strait closed after mine sinks British steamer Cambridge. 1941: Tasmanian soldiers leave for Malaya with Australian 8th Division 1941: Australian Newsprint Mills' Boyer plant becomes first in world to produce newsprint from hardwood 1942 (January–March): daylight saving time introduced as wartime measure 1942: Women 18 to 30 called up for war work 1943: Floating-arch pontoon bridge Hobart Bridge opens 1943: Enid Lyons (later Dame Enid), widow of Joseph Lyons, elected first woman member of House of Representatives, winning seat of Darwin (now Braddon). 1944: University of Tasmania begins transfer to Sandy Bay site 1944: State Library established 1945: Rani wins first Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race 1946: Australian National Airways plane crashes at Seven Mile Beach, killing 25 1946: Last horse-drawn Hobart cab ceases operation 1946: Poliomyelitis epidemic 1947: War-affected migrants begin arriving from Europe to work for Hydro-Electric Commission 1947: Edward Brooker takes over as Labor premier after Robert Cosgrove's resignation to face corruption and bribery charges 1947: Major flooding in south of state 1948: Margaret McIntyre wins Legislative Council seat in May, becoming the first woman member of Tasmanian Parliament; airliner crash in NSW in September kills her and 12 others. 1948: Robert Cosgrove resumes premiership after acquittal on corruption and bribery charges 1948: ABC forms Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra on permanent basis 1948: Fire destroys Ocean Pier 1948: Antarctic research station established on Macquarie Island 1949: Poliomyelitis epidemic 1949: Government introduces compulsory X-rays in fight against tuberculosis 1949: Tasmanian politician Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former prime minister Joseph Lyons, becomes first woman to reach federal ministry rank, as Executive Council vice-president 1949: Government buys Theatre Royal 1950–1959 1951: Brighton army camp gets first intake of national service trainees 1951: Hartz Mountains National Park proclaimed 1951: Tasmanian Historical Research Association commences 1951: Serious bushfires 1951: Italian and German migrants arrive to work under contract for Hydro-Electric Commission 1952: First woman elected to Hobart City Council 1952: Severe floods 1952: Government ends free hospital scheme 1952: Single state licensing body formed for hotels and clubs 1953: Tasman Limited diesel train service begins between Hobart and northern towns 1953: Housing Department created to manage public housing 1953: Beaconsfield becomes first Australian centre to get fluoridated water 1954: Queen Elizabeth II becomes first reigning monarch to visit state, accompanied by Prince Philip. As part of 150th anniversary celebrations, she unveils monument to pioneer British settlers 1954: Hobart Rivulet area damaged as severe floods affect southern and eastern Tasmania 1954: Metropolitan Transport Trust formed 1954: Tattersalls Lotteries moves headquarters from Hobart to Melbourne 1954: Spouses of property owners get right to vote in Legislative Council elections 1955: Royal commission appointed to inquire into University of Tasmania after request by Professor Sydney Orr 1955: House of Assembly gets first two women members, Liberals Mabel Miller and Amelia Best 1955: Hobart becomes first Australian city to get parking meters 1955: Proclamation of Lake Pedder National Park (later extended to form Southwest National Park). 1955: First ingot poured at Bell Bay aluminium refinery 1955: Labor Party's federal conference in Hobart brings Australian Labor Party split over industrial groups to head, leading to formation of Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist), later Democratic Labor Party 1955: Lactos cheese factory opens at Burnie 1956: University of Tasmania Council dismisses Professor Sydney Orr, alleging improper conduct by him with female student; Orr launches unsuccessful court action against university for wrongful dismissal 1956: Tasmania gets first woman mayor, Dorothy Edwards of Launceston 1957: Water Act establishes Rivers and Water Supply Commission 1958: Hobart waterside works block two Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist) members, father Frank Hursey and son Denis, from working in dispute over their objection to paying union levy that would partly go to ALP; police guard Hurseys after court order; Supreme Court awards them damages 1959: MG Car Club of Tasmania formed 1959: Princess of Tasmania becomes first roll-on/roll-off passenger ferry on Bass Strait run 1959: High Court verdict in Hursey case upholds unions' right to levy members for political purposes, expel those who refuse to pay 1959: Federal Government reduces claimant states to two, Tasmania and Western Australia 1960–1969 1960: Severe floods in Derwent Valley and Hobart, with business basements under water and houses washed away 1960: Television stations ABT-2 (ABC) and TVT-6 (now WIN) start programs from Mount Wellington transmitters 1960: New jail opens at Risdon 1960: Hobart trams cease, succeeded by electric trolley buses 1960: First meeting of Inland Fisheries Commission 1960: Opening of new State Library headquarters 1960: First city parking station opens in Argyle Street 1961: Construction of Hobart-Sydney ferry terminal begins 1962: Australian Paper Makers Ltd's Port Huon mill opens 1962: TEMCO's Bell Bay ferro-manganese plant begins production 1962: Government subsidises municipal fluoridation schemes 1963: University of Tasmania completes move to Sandy Bay site; Universities Commission recommends medical school 1964: Tasman Bridge opens for traffic, old pontoon bridge towed away 1964: Hobart's water supply fluoridated 1964: Glenorchy proclaimed city 1965: First Tasmanians leave for Vietnam War under national service scheme 1965: Ferry Empress of Australia makes first Sydney–Hobart voyage 1965: Official opening of Tasmanian Conservatorium of Music 1965: Bass Strait oil drilling begins 1966: Huge copper reserves found in Mount Lyell area 1966: Savage River iron ore agreements involving $62 million signed 1967 (February): Black Tuesday bushfires claim 62 lives—53 in Hobart area—and destroy more than 1300 homes 1967: Tasmanian joins other states in approving full constitutional rights for Aboriginal people 1967: Hydro-Electric Commission tables plans in State Parliament to dam Lake Pedder in South-West 1967: Daylight saving time and breathalyser tests introduced 1968: Full adult franchise introduced for Legislative Council elections 1968: Hobart trolley buses cease, replaced by diesel vehicles 1968: State abolishes death penalty 1968: Savage River iron ore project officially opens 1968: Batman Bridge across lower Tamar River opens 1969: Tasmanians vote Labor Party out after 35 years in office, Liberal-Centre Party forms coalition government 1969: Worst floods in 40 years hit Launceston 1970–1979 1970: Parliament legislates for permanent daylight saving time 1970: State marine research laboratories at Taroona open 1970: Electrolytic Zinc Company opens $6 million residue treatment plant 1971: First woodchip shipment leaves Tasmanian Pulp and Forest Holdings' mill at Triabunna 1971: APPM Ltd's Wesley Vale paper plant opens 1971: First state Aboriginal conference held in Launceston 1972: Conservationists lose battle to prevent flooding of Lake Pedder in South-West for hydro-electric scheme 1972: Liberal-Centre Party coalition government collapses 1972: Tasmanian College of Advanced Education opens in Hobart 1972: Ferry Princess of Tasmania makes last Tasmanian voyage 1972: Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre opens at Tasmanian Aboriginal Information Centre 1973: Coastal freighter Blythe Star sinks with loss of three men, seven survivors spend eight days adrift in lifeboat before coming ashore on Forestier Peninsula 1973: Australia's first legal casino opens at Wrest Point Hotel Casino 1973: Sir Stanley Burbury, formerly chief justice, becomes first Australian-born governor of Tasmania 1974: Three die when boiler explosion demolishes laundry at Mt St Canice Convent, Sandy Bay 1974: Tasmanian workers under state wages board awards get four weeks annual leave; woman awarded equal pay 1974: Hobart suburban rail services cease 1975: Freighter MV Lake Illawarra crashes into Tasman Bridge, causing 12 deaths and bringing down part of bridge; temporary Bailey bridge put across Derwent 1975: Police academy completed at Rokeby 1975: Hotels allowed to open for Sunday trading 1975: Totalizator Agency Board begins operating 1976: Members of Aboriginal community ritually cremate Truganini's remains, scatter ashes in D'Entrecasteaux Channel 1976: Tasmanian Wilderness Society formed 1976: Freight equalisation scheme subsidises sea cargo to and from state 1977: Repaired Tasman Bridge reopens to traffic 1977: Royal visit, during which Aboriginal activist Michael Mansell presents the Queen with land rights claim 1977: Tasmanian Film Corporation launched 1978: Australian National Railways takes over Tasmanian rail system; Tasman Limited ceases operations, ending regular passenger train services in state 1978: Hydro-Electric Commission proposes power scheme involving Gordon, Franklin and King rivers 1979: Tasmanian College of Advanced Education moves to Launceston 1979: State's first ombudsman begins duties 1979: Hobart gets increased Saturday morning shopping 1979: Government expands South-West conservation area to more than one-fifth of state's total area 1980–1989 1980: Australian Antarctic Division headquarters completed at Kingston 1980: Labor MHA Gillian James becomes first woman to become State Government minister 1980: Australian Maritime College opens at Beauty Point 1980: Australian Heritage Commission includes Tasmania on National Estate register 1981: Plebiscite on preferred new hydro-electric power development scheme shows 47% of voters favour Gordon-below-Franklin development, 8% prefer Gordon-above-Olga, with 45% casting informal votes, including 'no dams' write-ins. 1981: Devonport proclaimed city 1981: Bushfires destroy 40 Zeehan homes 1982: Proclamation of Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, including South-West, Franklin-Lower Gordon Wild Rivers and Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair national parks; conservationists blockade Gordon-below-Franklin hydro-electric dam work 1982: Tasmanians elect Liberals as government in their own right for first time in state's history 1983: Federal regulations block Franklin Dam construction; High Court rules in favour of federal sovereignty, ending the proposed Gordon-below-Franklin scheme 1983: Tasmanian Aboriginal Land Council established 1983: Visit by The Prince and Princess of Wales 1984: Official opening of Bowen Bridge 1984: Official opening of Wrest Point Convention Centre 1984: Fire damages Theatre Royal 1984: Atlantic salmon eggs introduced to Tasmania 1985: Four-day cremation ceremony at Oyster Cove, south of Hobart, for Aboriginal remains recovered from museums 1985: CSIRO Marine Laboratories open in Hobart 1985: Last voyage by ferry Empress of Australia before replacement by Abel Tasman 1985: Last Tasmanian drive-in theatres close in Hobart and Launceston 1985: Municipal rationalisation advances with Launceston taking over St Leonards and Lilydale 1986: Pope John Paul II holds mass for 32,000 people at Elwick racecourse during Hobart visit 1986: Archaeologists discover Aboriginal rock paintings in South-West believed to be 20,000 years old 1987: Launching of Lady Nelson replica ship 1987: High Court decision bans logging in Lemonthyme, southern forests 1987: Antarctic supply ship Nella Dan sinks off Macquarie Island 1988: International fleet of about 200 sailing, cruise and naval ships from about 20 countries calls at Hobart as part of Australian Bicentennial celebrations; more than 150 leave on race to Sydney 1988: Clarence and Burnie proclaimed cities 1988: Tasmanian Sporting Hall of Fame opens 1989: State election ends with Labor-Green accord involving five independents; their no-confidence vote in Robin Gray's minority Liberal government gives Labor's Michael Field premiership 1990–1999 1990: Sea Cat Tasmania, built in Hobart by Incat, begins summer crossings of Bass Strait 1990: King Island scheelite mine closes 1990: World Rowing Championships held on Lake Barrington, near Sheffield 1991: Savings Bank of Tasmania and Tasmanian Bank amalgamate as Trust Bank 1991: Port Huon paper mill, Electrona silicon smelter, Renison tin mine and Devonport Ovaltine factory close 1992: Aboriginal people occupy Risdon Cove in protest over land claims 1992: Royal Hobart Hospital nursing school closes, ending hospital-based nursing training in Tasmania 1992: Seven women ordained as Anglican priests at St David's Cathedral 1992: State's unemployment rate reaches 12.2% as jobs decline in public and private sectors; rallies of angry workers force temporary closure of House of Assembly 1993: Christine Milne (Tasmanian Greens) becomes first female leader of a Tasmanian political party 1993: Spirit of Tasmania replaces Abel Tasman on Bass Strait ferry service 1993: Tasmania's unemployment rate reaches 13.4% 1993: State Government reduces total of municipalities from 46 to 29, number of departments from 17 to 12 1994: End to 80 years of dam building as state's last power station, Tribute, opens near Tullah 1994: HMAS Huon naval base decommissioned 1995: All-day Saturday shop trading begins 1995: Government announces legislation to transfer 38 km2 of culturally significant land to Aboriginal community, including Risdon Cove and Oyster Cove 1995: States unemployment rate falls to 9.6% as number of Tasmanians in work sets record 1996 (28 April): Gunman Martin Bryant kills 35 people and injures 20 more in shooting rampage at Port Arthur historic site; Supreme Court sentences him to life imprisonment' 1996: Former federal Liberal minister Peter Nixon heads Commonwealth state inquiry into Tasmanian economy 1997: Tasmania becomes first state to formally apologise to Aboriginal community for past actions connected with the 'stolen generation'. 1997: Hobart Ports Corporation succeeds marine board 1997: State Parliament repeals two century-old laws that together made all male homosexual activity criminal 1997: Royal Hobart Hospital announces part privatisation 1997: Official opening of Hobart's Aquatic Centre 1997: Nixon report recommendations include single chamber State Parliament with 27 members, government asset sales 1997: About 800 gaming machines introduced into 55 Tasmanian hotels, clubs amid predictions of major social problems 1998: Federal Government sells Hobart and Launceston airports 1998: Subsidiary Kendell Airlines takes over Ansett's Tasmanian services 1998: Parliament reduced from 54 members to 40–25 Members of the House of Assembly and 15 Members of the Legislative Council 1998: Legislation passed to separate Hydro-Electric Commission into three bodies: Aurora Energy, Transend Networks and Hydro Tasmania. 1998: Bushfires destroy six houses in Hobart suburbs, burn out 30 km2 1998 (December): Storms and massive seas claim six lives in Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race 1999: Wild winds and heavy rain caused chaos across Tasmania, one casualty being the Ferris Wheel at the Royal Hobart Regatta which blew over onto the Gee Whizzer ride. 113 km/h winds in Hobart, 158 km/h winds on Mount Wellington. 1999: Tasmanian cricketer David Boon announced his retirement from Sheffield Shield cricket March 1999: Tasmania is almost booked out for the millennium New Year's Eve party—a once-in-1000-year event for Tasmania's key resorts, hotels, motels and restaurants 1999: Albanian refugees from Kosovo housed at Brighton military camp, renamed Tasmanian Peace Haven 1999: Legislation passed to give Aboriginal community control of Wybalenna, Flinders Island 1999: Colonial State Bank of NSW takes over Trust Bank 1999: Official opening of Port Arthur Visitor Centre 1999: Queen Alexandra Hospital building leased to private operators 1999 (25 October): Labor part stalwart Eric Reece, hailed as Tasmania's greatest premier, died in Hobart, aged 90 1999: Proclamation of Tasmanian Seamounts Marine Reserve, Australia's first deep-sea reserve 1999: Tasmania voted the best temperate island in the world by the world's largest travel magazine, Conde Nast Traveler2000–present 2000 (1 January): Tasmania beamed to 43 television networks around the world to herald the new millennium 2000: Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia visits Hobart 2000: Tasmania hosts its first Sorry Day at Risdon Cove 2000: Olympic Torch comes to Tasmania 2000: New Federation Concert Hall opens in Hobart 2001 (10 May): Centenary of Federation celebrated 2001: For the first time in 120 years, Tasmanian Australian rules football clubs take the national stage playing home and away VFL games 2001: Tasmanian company Gunns clinches $335 million deal to become one of the giants of the Australian forestry industry 2001: Impulse Airlines begins, cutting one way Hobart-Melbourne fares to $40, but is subsumed by Qantas 2001: 10 Days on the Island begins. It is Tasmania's biggest cultural festival in a century 2001: State Government announces $53 million jail to replace the old Risdon Jail 2001: New traffic laws introduced, drivers face automatic disqualification if travelling 38 km/h over the limit 2001: Meningoccocal hits Tasmania with the first of many deaths 2002: House and land boom begins with East Coast blocks selling for almost three times the town's previous record 2002 (May): : Tasmania's suburban street speed limit dropped to 50 km/h in a bid to increase road safety 2002: Tasmania hit by drought 2002 (16 May): Death of Australia's last ANZAC, Tasmania's Alec Campbell, aged 103. 2002 (3 August): Tasmanian boxer Daniel Geale wins Tasmania's only gold medal at the Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England. 2002: Virgin Blue begins operating in Tasmania offering introductory $66 one-way fares to Melbourne 2002 (1 September): Tasmania's fast ferries Spirit of Tasmania I and II replace original Spirit of Tasmania on Bass Strait trade. 2002 (12 October): Tasmanian Tim Hawkins killed in Bali bombing 2002: Deregulated shop trading hours begin 2003 (January): People urged by Tasmanian Fire Service to abandon their Australia Day long-weekend plans and prepare their homes for a potential firestorm as a number of fires pose the worst fire threat in 30 years 2003: Official opening of the restored Queenstown to Regatta Point railway line West Coast Wilderness Railway. () 2003: Attempted hijack of a Qantas flight from Melbourne to Launceston 2003: Federal Hotels gets exclusive control of state's gaming machines for 15 years with a further 5-year option 2003: Richard Butler becomes Tasmania's new governor 2003: Regina Bird wins reality-TV show Big Brother, becomes first Tasmanian to do so 2003: Tasmania passed some of the most progressive relationship laws in the world including same-sex adoptions and registration of 'significant' relationships 2003: Engagement of Tasmania's Mary Donaldson to Denmark's Prince Frederik 2004 (13 January): Spirit of Tasmania III makes its first voyage from Sydney to Devonport 2004: State Government announces legislation to legalise brothels; leading to a back flip in 2005 when the government chose to ban brothels altogether. 2004 (14 May): Wedding of Tasmania's Mary Donaldson to Denmark's Prince Frederik in Copenhagen. 2004 (20 May): Premier Jim Bacon dies in Hobart of lung cancer 2004 (8 August): Tasmanian governor Richard Butler resigns at the request the premier, who agreed to pay "compensation" of $600,000 in lost salary 2005 (15 October): Tasmanian Mary Donaldson and Prince Frederik give birth to a male infant Prince Christian who will be in the line of succession to the Danish throne 2006 (26 April): Beaconsfield mine collapse—One miner killed, two trapped underground for a fortnight. 2006 (27 August): Final crossing of the Spirit of Tasmania III from Sydney to Devonport 2011 (22 January) : The Museum of Old and New Art (MONA) opens to the public. 2012 : Tasmania's largest company, Gunns, enters voluntary administration. See also History of Hobart Historical bibliographies of Tasmania References and sources References Sources Robson, L. L. (1983). A History of Tasmania. Volume I. Van Diemen's Land From the Earliest Times to 1855. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. . Robson, L. L. (1991). A History of Tasmania. Volume II. Colony and State From 1856 to the 1980s''. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. . Articles containing video clips Tasmanian timelines

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stornoway

Stornoway

Stornoway (; ; ) is the main town of the Western Isles and the capital of Lewis and Harris in Scotland. The town's population is around 6,953, making it by far the largest town in the Outer Hebrides, as well as the third largest island town in Scotland after Kirkwall in Orkney and Lerwick in Shetland. The traditional civil parish of Stornoway, which includes various nearby villages, has a combined population of just over 10,000. The Comhairle nan Eilean Siar measures population in different area: the Stornoway settlement area, Laxdale, Sandwick and Newmarket; in 2019, the estimated population for this area was 6,953. Stornoway is an important port and the major town and administrative centre of the Outer Hebrides. It is home to Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (the Western Isles Council) and a variety of educational, sporting and media establishments. Until relatively recently, observance of the Christian Sabbath (Sunday) has been associated with Hebridean culture. Recent changes mean that Sundays on Lewis now more closely resemble those in the most parts of the Southern Isles, i.e., Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, and Vatersay, or on mainland Scotland. History The town was founded by Vikings in the early 9th century, with the Old Norse name Stjórnavágr. The settlement grew up around a sheltered natural harbour and became a hub for people from all over the island, who travelled to Stornoway either by family boat or by horse-drawn coach, for onward travel to and trade with the rest of Scotland and further afield. At some point in the mid 1500s, the already ancient MacLeod castle in Stornoway 'fell victim to the cannons of the Duke of Argyle'. By the early 1600s rumbling trade wars came to a head, and all further government attempts to curtail traditional shipping rights were firmly resisted by the islanders, as was an attempt by James VI, King of Scotland, to establish on the island the Scottish trading company known as the Fife Adventurers around 1598. As a result, James VI transferred Lewis to the MacKenzies of Seaforth in 1610. In 1844, the MacKenzies sold Stornoway, and the Isle of Lewis as a whole, to Sir James Matheson (and his descendants) who built the present Lews Castle on a hill overlooking the bay of Stornoway. Fragmentary ruins of the old Stornoway Castle had survived in the bay until that time, and can even be seen in Victorian photographs, but Matheson destroyed them in 1882, in order to expand the harbour; a few remains of Stornoway Castle still remain, hidden beneath pier number 1, close to the shore, slightly west of centre. By 1863, the town had become a police burgh. In 1918, Matheson sold the island to William Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme. Lord Leverhulme held the island for a short time. His economic plans for the island (together with various business setbacks) overstretched his finances. Faced with failure in Lewis, he gave Stornoway parish to the people of the town. The Stornoway Trust was formed and continues to administer the parish for the people. During World War II the Stornoway aerodrome was used by the military and the town was the base for anti-submarine planes and a fuelling station for other aircraft. The castle was used as a hospital and living quarters for the personnel of 700 Naval Air Squadron. Between 1986 and 1993, the airport was employed as a "NATO Forward Operating Base for Air Defence aircraft protecting the fleet" for six weeks each year. Stornoway Town Hall was officially re-opened for community use in March 2012. Economy The Isle of Lewis web site states that the town's "economy is a mix of traditional businesses like fishing, Harris Tweed and farming, with more recent influences like Tourism, the oil industry and commerce". The sheltered harbour has been important for centuries; it was named Steering Bay by Vikings who often visited. A 2018 report states that the fishing industry's primary focus is on aquaculture - fish farming. A conventional fishery still existed, "composed solely of inshore shellfish vessels targeting prawns, crabs and lobsters around the islands and throughout the Minch". Harbour and maritime industry Today, the harbour hosts a fishing fleet (and associated shoreside services) somewhat reduced from its heyday, a small marina and moorings for pleasure craft, a small shipyard and slipway, three larger piers for commercial traffic and Stornoway Lifeboat Station, run by the RNLI and home to a , Tom Sanderson. Her Majesty's Coastguard operates a Maritime Rescue Sub Centre from a building near the harbour. A lighthouse, seaweed processing plant and a renewable energy manufacturing yard are situated on Arnish Point at the mouth of the harbour and visually dominate the approaches. Arnish Point is also earmarked by AMEC as the landfall for its proposed private sub-sea cable which would export the electricity generated from the Lewis Windpower wind farm with a planning application for 181 turbines submitted to the Scottish Executive. In 2008, the Scottish Government rejected the plans. Since then Lewis Windpower has obtained planning consent for a maximum of 36 wind turbines to be sited to the west of Stornoway on land held by community-owned Stornoway Trust Estate. The Arnish area was also surveyed by SSE for a second sub-sea cable but lost out in favour of Gravir to the south as the preferred site. SSE prefers Arnish Point as of 2016. The manufacturing yard was originally established in the 1970s as a fabrication plant for the oil industry but suffered regular boom and bust cycles. The downturn in business from the North Sea oil industry in recent years led to a move away from serving this market. The yard is now earmarked as a key business in the development of the whole Arnish Point industrial estate and has received large amounts of funding in recent years. In 2007, the Arnish yard was taken over by its third tenant in as many years. Cambrian Engineering fell into liquidation as did Aberdeen-owned Camcal Ltd with relatively large-scale redundancies. Both firms were affected by the absence of a regular stream of orders and left a chain of large debts impacting upon local suppliers. Altissimo Ltd is a new firm backed by a group of Swiss and Dutch investors, and has purchased the Camcal name from the previous operator. In December 2007, the yard won a contract to construct 49 towers for wind turbines in Turkey. This will ensure employment for around 70 employees for over six months. As of 2021, the yard is now operated by Harland and Wolff. On 1 January 1919, the Iolaire sank at the entrance of the harbour, one of the worst maritime disasters in Scottish or UK waters, with a death toll of 205 men, who were returning home from World War I. In September 2020, Stornoway Port Authority announced that development of a new £49 million deep water terminal was to go ahead following the approval of marine licences by Marine Scotland. The new multi-purpose terminal will provide berthing for vessels up to 360m long with a water depth of 10m below Chart Datum, a ferry berth, and 6.5 hectares of land for unloading, storage and industrial uses. Wind farm The UK's largest community-owned wind farm, the 9MW Beinn Ghrideag, is located outside Stornoway and is operated by Point and Sandwick Trust (PST). In February 2021, that organisation was shortlisted for the title of Best Community Energy Project at the Scottish Highlands and Islands Renewable Energy Awards. A February 2021 report stated that this operation "already has a number of awards and multiple nominations". Point and Sandwick Trust helps fund community activities "because of the revenue created at our wind farm, Beinn Ghrideag. The 3 turbine, 9MW scheme is built on common grazings land on the Isle of Lewis". Climate Like much of the British Isles, Stornoway has an oceanic climate, with relatively little variation of temperature and damp conditions throughout the year. Winters are exceptionally mild for such a northerly location; average nighttime low temperatures in January and February, the coldest months, are above , while daytime high temperatures average about . Summers are cool, due to influence from the Atlantic Ocean; average daytime high temperatures in July and August are just over . Precipitation falls mostly as rain (though snow occasionally falls in winter), and October through January are the wettest months due to frequent, sometimes intense storms from the North Atlantic, which can bring heavy rain and high winds. April through July represents a markedly drier season, when storm frequency and intensity diminish markedly. June is the driest month in Stornoway, averaging at of precipitation, while January is the wettest month, averaging at . Transport The Caledonian MacBrayne-operated ferry has been sailing since 2015, from Stornoway harbour to Ullapool on the Scottish mainland, taking 2 hours 30 minutes. There are an average of two return crossings a day: more in summer than in winter. The former main ship on the route, (1995), used to carry the freight crossing; however, she has now been reassigned elsewhere by CalMac. This means that MV Loch Seaforth is often heavily congested, particularly during the summer months. The idea of an undersea tunnel linking Lewis and Harris to the Scottish mainland was raised in early 2007. One of the possible routes, between Stornoway and Ullapool, would be over long: the longest road tunnel in the world. Stornoway is the hub of bus routes in Lewis: buses run to Point, Ness, Back and Tolsta, Uig, the West Side, Lochs and Tarbert, Harris. These buses are operated by Comhairle nan Eilean Siar and several private operators. Stornoway Airport is located next to the village of Melbost, east of the town; there are flights to Benbecula, Edinburgh, Inverness and Glasgow, all operated by Loganair. The airport is also the base of an HM Coastguard Search & Rescue Sikorsky S-92 helicopter, and was previously home to RAF Stornoway. In 1898, the Hebridean Light Railway Company was proposed, with a terminus at Stornoway, but the line was never constructed. Cruise ships visit the town and anchor in the bay, with passengers coming ashore on tenders. Education Stornoway is home to the Nicolson Institute: founded in 1873, it is the largest school in the Western Isles and the only secondary school in Lewis providing a six-year course. It has a roll of around 1,000 pupils. After a two-year rebuilding project costing £29 million, the new school building was formally opened in October 2012. Primary education in Stornoway is in Stornoway Primary School, which opened in August 1969. The school is on Jamieson Drive and has around 400 pupils. The head teacher is Annette Murray. There is a further education college, Lews Castle College, which was founded in 1953 and is now part of the University of the Highlands and Islands. Lews Castle College runs over 140 courses and has around 2700 students. There is also a small campus of the University of Stirling in Stornoway, teaching nursing, based in the Western Isles Hospital. It provides undergraduate degree programmes for adult nursing and supports postgraduate students, who can choose from various higher-level courses. Sport Football is the most popular amateur sport and Goathill Park is the home ground of Stornoway United, with a capacity of 1,000. Stornoway United play in the Lewis and Harris Football League. Shinty is making a resurgence thanks to the Lewis Camanachd team who are based in the town. Rugby Union is also popular, and Stornoway RFC men and women's teams competes regularly in national leagues and cups. The town also has a very popular gymnastics group which competes annually in sports festivals. Stornoway Golf Club (the only 18-hole golf course in the Outer Hebrides), meanwhile, is set in the undulating slopes of the Lews Castle Grounds. Very near to the Nicolson Institute is the Lewis Sports Centre (Ionad Spors Leòdhas), which has a sports hall, fitness suite, climbing wall, swimming pool and various other facilities. It has a running track and an AstroTurf Football pitch. There is also the Stornoway Karate Club, a member of the International Japan Karate Association. Culture and media According to the 2011 Census, there are 5,492 Scottish Gaelic speakers (43%) in the greater Stornoway area. The annual Hebridean Celtic Festival is a 4-day community-led festival which attracts over 10,000 visitors during July of each year. The Royal National Mòd has been held in Stornoway on a number of occasions, most recently in 2005, 2011 and 2016. Large influxes of visitors such as for these events can strain the town's accommodation capacity. Stornoway is a sister town of Pendleton, in Anderson County, South Carolina, United States. An Lanntair An Lanntair (The Lantern) is a multi-purpose arts centre on Stornoway's seafront. The purpose-built facility opened in October 2005 after the arts centre was initially housed upstairs in Stornoway Town Hall. The venue comprises an art gallery, theatre, cinema, dance studio, concert hall, and acts as a performance space for poetry and literature. Broadcasting The radio station Isles FM is based in Stornoway and broadcasts on 103FM, featuring a mixture of Gaelic and English programming. It is also home to a studio operated by BBC Radio nan Gàidheal. The Gaelic-language public service broadcaster BBC Alba launched on 19 September 2008, is based in Stornoway. Stornoway Public Library Stornoway Library in Cromwell Street operates a four-day opening service. The library is closed Sunday, Monday, and Wednesday. On other days it is open 10 am to 3 pm, except Saturday when it is open 10 am to 12 pm and 1 pm to 3 pm. The library offers book borrowing services as well as free access to WiFi and computer access to the internet. As part of its collections, the library offers access to a wide range of Gaelic materials, with a large collection of books and periodicals such as Gairm, Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, Scottish Gaelic Studies and Guth, as well as out of print publications An Gaidheal and Guth na Bliadhna. In their newspaper section, the library holds copies of Alba and Mac-Talla as well as Sruth, Scotland's only bilingual newspaper from the 1960s. Through the library membership, it is also possible to access An Stòr-dàta Stuthan Gàidhlig, a database of Gaelic educational resources. Stornoway Library also holds an extensive local studies collection for research purposes. As part of those collections, the library holds an archive of local newspaper back editions including the Stornoway Gazette from 1917, the Highland News from 1883, the West Highland Free Press from 1972, the Oban Times from 1861, the Inverness Courier from 1817, the Inverness Advertiser from 1849 and the Inverness Courier and Advertiser from 1885. Other resources include a collection of Ordnance Survey maps and Admiralty charts for the local area, old parochial registers, 19th century Census returns, minutes of the former Stornoway Town Council as well as current Comhairle nan Eilean Siar and school log books. The library also holds the Seaforth Muniments (Seaforth Estate Papers), local croft histories and rental and valuation rolls dated as far back as the 18th century. In 2018, Stornoway Library announced plans to transform their coffee shop into a makerspace available to the general public where they run educational activities on topics including 3D printing and virtual reality. Newspapers The main local newspapers based in Stornoway are the Stornoway Gazette, and EVENTS. Stornoway Media Centre The Stornoway Media Centre is the base for Intermedia Services Ltd. and its various titles, including the free monthly magazine, EVENTS, founded in 2005. The company was formerly based in Rigs Road but took over a converted church on James Street.  ND Macleod's Electrical had formerly occupied the building for many years. The Church House building, originally a United Presbyterian church dating back to the late 19th Century, is now a media hub that spans print, websites, advertising, and latterly signage. Food and drink Stornoway black pudding (Scots Gaelic - marag dhubh) is a gourmet black pudding, and was granted PGI status in 2013 by the European Commission to prevent inferior puddings produced elsewhere being marketed as "Stornoway" or "Stornoway Style". Stornoway kippers and Stornoway smoked salmon are produced in town. They have one of the last working brick kilns in the UK, at the establishment of Stornoway Fish Smokers, Shell Street. Notable buildings Notable buildings in Stornoway include: Stornoway Town Hall The Lewis War Memorial The neo-Gothic Lews Castle Lewis Loom Centre Stornoway in popular media and culture Stornoway became immortalised in the song "Lovely Stornoway" by Calum Kennedy and Bob Halfin, the song has recently been covered in by Hebridean rock band Peat and Diesel. The now defunct 4AD Records folk-rock band Stornoway took their name from the town, after seeing it on the BBC weather report. They signed their record deal outside the Woodlands Centre in Lews Castle Grounds, Stornoway, after performing in the town for the first time in April 2010. Their second concert there was as headliners on the main stage of the Hebridean Celtic Festival on 13 July 2011. "Stornoway" is the name of the official residence of the Leader of the Opposition in Canada's Parliament. It was built in 1913 by wholesale grocery magnate, Ascanio Joseph Major. He commissioned architect, Alan Keefer to design the 'country house.' Stornoway was bought by the local Perley-Robertson family in 1923 and they extended the property over the next few years. The novel The Stornoway Way by Lewisman Kevin MacNeil tells of one man's attempts to escape his hometown, the novel was later adapted for the stage and premiered at An Lanntair, Stornoway on August 30, 2019 RAF Stornoway is featured in the Tom Clancy novel Red Storm Rising as a base for Allied air operations over the North Atlantic and against Soviet-held Iceland. In the motion picture Latitude Zero by Toho Productions (1969), Stornoway Harbour is featured on a wall plaque as the construction site of the submarine "Alpha". In 2007, the British car manufacturer Land Rover introduced Stornoway Grey as a colour choice for its vehicle line-up. In response, Stornoway's councillor Angus Nicolson appealed to Land Rover to relabel the colour as Silvery Stornoway, fearing that the association of grey with dull and boring would hurt the image of the town with tourists. Mr Nicolson said: "This is deeply insulting and is offensive, inaccurate and inherently degrading. This will hit tourism as it subliminally implants adverse connotations in the minds of those who have never experienced the reality of these beautiful islands." Land Rover replied that the colour in question is one of the most popular ones and the use of Stornoway in its name will instead "keep it on the map". In 2011, Scottish author Peter May published The Blackhouse, the first of The Lewis Trilogy of thrillers based on Lewis, where the primary police murder investigation is based in Stornoway. Religion Stornoway has several churches of various Christian and non Christian denominations. In May 2018, the first mosque of the Western Isles opened to serve a small Muslim population. Travel There are daily ferry routes between Ullapool and Stornoway. It was not until July 2009 that Caledonian MacBrayne began to operate Sunday sailings from Stornoway. There are flights leaving from Stornoway Airport daily to Inverness, Edinburgh and Glasgow. Despite a large number of offshore oil workers living in Stornoway, there is no longer a direct Stornoway to Aberdeen route. Notable people Alasdair Smith - Professor of Economics at the University of Sussex Alice Starmore - (née Alice Matheson), a professional needleworker, photographer & author of books on needlework Anne Lundon - TV presenter Aeneas MacKenzie - screenwriter Alexander MacKenzie - explorer, after whom the Mackenzie River in Canada is named Anne MacKenzie, BBC - current affairs presenter and radio presenter Alexander Munro - Olympic tug-of-war medalist and wrestler Astrid (band) - band from the Western Isles Calum Kennedy - singer and entertainer Sheilagh M. Kesting - first woman minister to be nominated to be Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland Calum MacDonald - politician Cathy MacDonald -TV presenter Malcolm Mackay - Scottish crime writer Colin Mackenzie - first Surveyor-General of India Donny MacLeod (Donny B) - former TV presenter on Pebble Mill Ken MacLeod - science fiction writer Kevin MacNeil - novelist, poet and playwright Hans Matheson - actor Linda Norgrove - aid worker from the Western Isles Peat and Diesel - band from the Western Isles Donald Stewart - politician Janet Everett - Activist and scourge of plastics producers everywhere Areas of the town Stornoway Town centre Goathill Manor Park Plasterfield Lews Castle Grounds The Cearns Marybank Laxdale Sandwick Stornoway Airport Newvalley, Lewis Steinish Newmarket Gallery References External links Stornoway Trust - the largest community owned estate in Lewis Stornoway Aerodrome - history of the airport Point and Sandwick Trust - award-winning operators of a wind farm outside Stornoway Lewis Sports Centre - modern sports centre in Stornoway Stornoway Golf Club Stornoway Library EVENTS - one of the two publications based in the town Lovely Stornoway - video of Calum Kennedy singing his co-written ode to Stornoway Stornoway Historical Society Stornoway Port Authority External links Stornoway information by Explore Scotland Stornoway Historical Society Disabled access to Stornoway shops, public buildings, transport and visitor attractions A Guide to visiting Stornoway Towns in the Outer Hebrides Isle of Lewis Community buyouts in Scotland Ports and harbours of Scotland Port cities and towns in Scotland Fishing communities in Scotland Towns on Scottish islands

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod%20Woodson

Rod Woodson

Roderick Kevin Woodson (born March 10, 1965) is an American former professional football player in the National Football League (NFL) for 17 seasons. He had a 10-year stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers and was a key member of the Baltimore Ravens' Super Bowl XXXV championship team that beat the New York Giants. He also played for the San Francisco 49ers and Oakland Raiders, wearing the jersey number 26 throughout his career. Widely considered one of the game's all-time greatest defensive players, Woodson holds the NFL record for fumble recoveries (32) by a defensive player, and interceptions returned for touchdown (12), and was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Year in 1993. His 71 career interceptions is the third-most in NFL history. He was an inductee of the Class of 2009 of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio on August 8, 2009. Woodson was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2016. Rod played most of his career as a cornerback then switched to safety during the later part of his career. From his retirement in 2003 to February 2011, Woodson worked as an analyst for the NFL Network (on NFL Total Access and Thursday Night Football) and for the Big Ten Network. He spent the 2011 season as the Raiders' cornerbacks coach. He then returned to broadcasting, working for Westwood One as an analyst on college football (2012) and the NFL (2013) before resuming his coaching career in 2014. College career Woodson accepted a full scholarship to play football at Purdue University, in part because of a desire to pursue a degree in electrical engineering. He played primarily as a cornerback and kick returner, but also saw time on offense as a running back and wide receiver. He was named an All-American defensive back in 1985 and 1986; he was named an All-American returner in 1986 and was a three time All-Big Ten first team selection. In his final collegiate game, Woodson gained over 150 combined rushing and receiving yards, in addition to making ten tackles and forcing a fumble, leading Purdue to a victory over arch-rival Indiana. Woodson left Purdue with 13 individual records, tying the school record with 11 career interceptions. He currently is ranked in the top ten in career interceptions, solo tackles, total tackles, passes deflected, and kickoff return yardage as a Boilermaker. Woodson was inducted into the Purdue Intercollegiate Athletics Hall of Fame in 2003. On December 11, 2014, the Big Ten Network included Woodson on "The Mount Rushmore of Purdue Football", as chosen by online fan voting. Woodson was joined in the honor by Drew Brees, Bob Griese, and Leroy Keyes. On January 8, 2016, Woodson was selected for induction in the College Football Hall of Fame Track and field In addition to his exploits on the gridiron, Woodson was also an accomplished track and field athlete at Purdue, and was twice awarded All-America honors. He finished second at the 1985 NCAA championships in the 55 meter hurdles and third at the 1987 NCAA championships in the 55 meter hurdles. Woodson held the NCAA 60 meter hurdles record for 10 years. As of January 2009, he still holds the school records in both the 60 and 110 meter hurdles. He earned five Big Ten championships while at Purdue. In 1984, he qualified for the Olympic Trials in the 110 meter hurdles, but elected to continue his football career in the NFL after graduating from Purdue with a degree in criminal justice. Personal bests Professional career Pittsburgh Steelers The Pittsburgh Steelers selected Woodson in the first round (10th overall) of the 1987 NFL Draft. Although the Steelers wanted to draft Woodson to help rebuild their secondary, the team expected Woodson to be drafted before their turn at tenth overall. Head coach Chuck Noll instructed defensive coordinator Tony Dungy not to bother with a scouting report on Woodson due to his expected unavailability. However, the Pittsburgh Steelers were able to draft Woodson after the Cleveland Browns traded for the San Diego Chargers' fifth overall pick and subsequently used selection to draft linebacker Mike Junkin. The St. Louis Cardinals drafted Kelly Stouffer (sixth overall) who ultimately never played for the Cardinals due to a contract dispute. The Buffalo Bills were the last likely team to draft Woodson, but instead used the eighth overall pick to draft linebacker Shane Conlan. 1987 Woodson missed training camp due to a contract holdout that lasted 95 days after he was unable to come to terms on a contract with the Steelers. Woodson was a World-Class 110-meter hurdler and ran track on the European track circuit during his contract holdout. Woodson had the fourth fastest 110-meter hurdle time in the world. He won the bronze medal at the 1987 USA Olympic festival, and won medals in several IAAF Grand Prix meetings in Europe. Woodson is one of only two athletes in history to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame and also earn a world ranking in the high hurdles. On October 28, 1987, the Pittsburgh Steelers signed Woodson to a four-year, $1.80 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $700,000. Woodson's contract holdout was the longest in the Pittsburgh Steelers' franchise history, until Le'veon Bell withheld the entire 2018 NFL season. On November 8, 1987, Woodson made his professional regular season debut in the Pittsburgh Steelers' 17–16 victory at the Kansas City Chiefs in Week 8. He finished his debut with two kick returns for 48-yards and two punt returns for 12-yards. On November 22, 1987, Woodson made his first career interception off a pass Bengals' quarterback Boomer Esiason and returned it for a 45-yard touchdown during the Steelers' 30–16 win in Week 11. He finished his rookie season in 1987 with 20 combined tackles in eight games and no starts. Woodson also returned 13 kicks for 290-yards (22.3 YPR) and made 16 punt returns for 135-yards (8.4 YPR). 1988 Woodson entered training camp in 1988 slated as the starting cornerback. Head coach Chuck Noll named Woodson a starting cornerback to begin the regular season, opposite fellow cornerbacks Dwayne Woodruff. Woodson also retained kick and punt return duties in 1988. On October 9, 1988, Woodson returned a kick for a 92-yard touchdown during a 31–14 loss to the Phoenix Cardinals in Week 6. The touchdown was the first kick return touchdown of his career. In Week 12, Woodson made his first career sack on Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar in the Steelers' 27–7 loss to the Cleveland Browns. Woodson started in all 16 games in 1988 and recorded 88 combined tackles, four interceptions, and was credited with half a sack. He also returned 37 kicks for 850-yards and a touchdown (22.9 YPR) and 33 punts for 281-yards (8.5 YPR). 1989 On January 3, 1989, Pittsburgh Steelers' defensive coordinator Tony Dungy announced his resignation after they finished with a 5-11 record the previous season. The Steelers also fired four assistant coaches. Woodson and Dwayne Woodruff returned as the Steelers' starting cornerback tandem in 1989. On November 19, 1989, Woodson returned a kickoff for an 84-yard touchdown during a 20–17 win against the San Diego Chargers. Woodson started 15 games in 1989 and recorded 80 combined tackles and three interceptions. He also returned 36 kickoffs for 982-yards (27.2 YPR) and one touchdown and had 29 punt returns for 207-yards (7.1 YPR). The Pittsburgh Steelers finished the season third in the AFC Central with a 9–7 record and earned a wildcard berth. On December 31, 1989, Woodson started in his first career playoff game and had four kick returns for 74-yards during a 26–23 victory at the Houston Oilers in the AFC Wildcard Game. The following week, the Steelers were eliminated from the playoffs after losing 24–23 to the Denver Broncos in the AFC Divisional Round. 1990 The Pittsburgh Steelers promoted linebackers coach Dave Brazil to defensive coordinator after Rod Rust accepted the head coaching position with the New England Patriots. Head coach Chuck Noll retained Woodson as a starting cornerback in 1990, opposite D.J. Johnson. On September 16, 1990, Woodson returned a punt from Oilers' punter Greg Montgomery for a 52-yard touchdown during a 20–9 victory against the Houston Oilers, marking the first punt return for a touchdown in his career. On December 6, 1990, the Pittsburgh Steelers reportedly offered Woodson a three-year, $3 million contract extension. That contract would make Woodson the highest paid player in team history. On December 20, 1990, it was announced that Woodson was selected to play in the 1991 Pro Bowl. Woodson started in all 16 games in 1990 and recorded 66 combined tackles and five interceptions. He was voted first-team All-Pro in 1990. Woodson had 35 kick returns for 764 return yards (21.8 YPR) and 38 punt returns for 398 return yards and a touchdown (10.4 YPR). 1991 Woodson and D.J. Johnson returned as the starting cornerback tandem in 1991. Woodson was inactive for the Steelers' Week 13 victory against the Houston Oilers due to an injury. On November 28, 1991, Woodson recorded his first career solo sack on Cowboys' quarterback Steve Beuerlein in the Steelers' 20–10 loss to the Dallas Cowboys. On December 27, 1991, Pittsburgh Steelers' head coach Chuck Noll announced his decision to retire after the Steelers finished with a 7–9 record in 1991. He started in 15 games in 1991 and recorded 73 combined tackles, an interception, and a sack. He also returned 44 kicks for 880 return yards (22.0 YPR) and had 28 punt returns for 320-yards (11.4 YPR). 1992 On January 21, 1992, the Pittsburgh Steelers announced the hiring of former Kansas City Chiefs' defensive coordinator Bill Cowher as their new head coach. On January 31, 1992, Cowher announced the hiring of former New Orleans Saints' secondary coach Dom Capers as their new defensive coordinator. On May 19, 1992, it was reported that Woodson was one of nine NFL players to sue the National Football League for unrestricted free agency. Other players included Steve Beuerlein (Cowboys), Bobby Hebert (Saints), D. J. Dozier (Lions), Scott Mitchell (Dolphins), Jeff Dellenbach (Dolphins), Seth Joyner (Eagles), Clyde Simmons (Eagles), and Kevin Ross (Chiefs). Head coach Bill Cowher retained Woodson and D.J. Johnson as the starting cornerback tandem in 1992. He started in the Pittsburgh Steelers' season-opener against the Houston Oilers and made two interceptions off pass attempts by Oilers' quarterback Warren Moon in their 29–24 victory. On October 25, 1992, Woodson returned a punt for an 80-yard touchdown as the Steelers defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 27–3. On November 1, 1992, Woodson delivered a hit to Oilers' quarterback Warren Moon on a cornerback blitz during a 21–20 win against the Houston Oilers in Week 8. The hit gave Moon a concussion and forced him to leave the game. In Week 14, he made a career-high two sacks on Bears' quarterback Jim Harbaugh during a 30–6 loss to the Chicago Bears. On December 24, 1992, it was announced that Woodson was selected to play in the 1993 Pro Bowl. He started in all 16 games in 1992 and recorded 100 combined tackles, a career-high six sacks, and four interceptions. 1993 On March 1, 1993, the NFL implemented unrestricted free agency. Woodson received an $1.11 million settlement from the league after being one of 15 plaintiffs to sue the league in a class action antitrust lawsuit. Woodson and D.J. Johnson returned as the starting cornerback tandem for the fourth consecutive season and started alongside safeties Darren Perry and Carnell Lake. He started in the Pittsburgh Steelers' season-opener at the San Francisco 49ers and intercepted two passes by quarterback Steve Young in their 24–13 victory. On September 18, 1993, the Pittsburgh Steelers signed Woodson to a four-year, $12 million contract. The contract made Woodson the NFL's highest paid defensive back. In Week 4, he made two interceptions off passes by Falcons' quarterbacks Bobby Hebert and Billy Joe Tolliver during a 45–17 victory against the Atlanta Falcons. On October 17, 1993, Woodson intercepted two passes by Saints' quarterback Wade Wilson and returned one for a 63-yard touchdown in the Steelers' 37–14 win against the New Orleans Saints. Woodson started in all 16 games in 1993 and recorded 95 combined tackles, a career-high eight interceptions, two sacks, and a touchdown. He also made 15 kick returns for 294 return yards (19.6 YPR) and 42 punt returns for 338 return yards (8.0 YPR). 1994 Woodson returned as the No. 1 starting cornerback in 1994, opposite Deon Figures. He played under defensive coordinator Dom Capers and assistant coaches Dick LeBeau and Marvin Lewis. On November 14, 1994, Woodson intercepted pass by Bills' quarterback Jim Kelly and returned it for a 37-yard touchdown in the first quarter of the Steelers' 23–10 win against the Buffalo Bills in Week 11. Woodson started in 15 games in 1994 and recorded 67 tackles, four interceptions, three sacks, and a touchdown. He also made 15 kick returns for a total of 365 return yards (24.3 YPR) and 39 punt returns for 319 return yards (8.1 YPR). 1995 On January 26, 1995, the Pittsburgh Steelers promoted defensive backs coach Dick LeBeau to defensive coordinator after Dom Capers accepted the head coaching position with the Carolina Panthers. Woodson started as the No.1 cornerbacks to begin the 1995 regular season, alongside Willie Williams. On September 3, 1995, Woodson sustained a torn ACL when his foot got caught in the artificial turf at Three Rivers Stadium when he attempted to change direction and arm tackle Detroit Lions' running back Barry Sanders in the first quarter of the Pittsburgh Steelers' season-opening 23–20 victory against the Detroit Lions. Steelers' safety Carnell Lake replaced Woodson at cornerback during his injury hiatus. On September 11, 1995, Woodson underwent reconstructive surgery and had his ACL in his left knee replaced with a petella tendon from his right knee. The Pittsburgh Steelers finished first in the AFC Central with an 11–5 record and earned a first round bye. They defeated the Buffalo Bills 40–21 in the AFC Divisional Round and defeated the Indianapolis Colts 20–16 in the AFC Championship Game. On January 28, 1996, Woodson made his return from injury and played in Super Bowl XXX as the Steelers lost 27–17 to the Dallas Cowboys. Woodson became the first player to return from reconstructive knee surgery in the same season and returned after only 19 weeks. Woodson was limited to 12 snaps in Super Bowl XXX and was primarily used on third down. During the game, he broke up a pass intended for Michael Irvin and immediately hopped up and pointed at his reconstructed knee. 1996 On August 12, 1996, Woodson declined the Pittsburgh Steelers' three-year, $9 million contract extension offer and requested a long-term contract for four or five-years. They went on to offer Woodson a five-year, $10 million contract extension and a five-year, $13.5 million incentive-laden contract with a signing bonus of $500,000 included. Woodson returned as the starting cornerback alongside Willie Williams, but was relieved of kick and punt return duties. He started in the Pittsburgh Steelers' season-opener at the Jacksonville Jaguars and collected a season-high eight combined tackles and made an interception in their 24–9 loss. On September 8, 1996, Woodson recorded five combined tackles and returned an interception by Ravens' quarterback Vinny Testaverde during a 31–17 win against the Baltimore Ravens in Week 2. In Week 11, Woodson recorded five combined tackles and made a season-high two interceptions off pass attempts by Bengals' quarterback Jeff Blake during a 34–24 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. He started in all 16 games in 1996 and recorded 71 combined tackles, six interceptions, a touchdown, and a sack. The Pittsburgh Steelers finished atop the AFC Central with a 10–6 record. On January 5, 1997, Woodson recorded seven combined tackles in his last appearance as a member of the Pittsburgh Steelers. They went on to lose 28–3 to the New England Patriots in the AFC Divisional Round. Free agency After the 1996 NFL season, the Pittsburgh Steelers offered Woodson a four-year, $7.2 million contract with a signing bonus of $1 million. Woodson became an unrestricted free agent in 1997 after he was unable to agree to a contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers. Woodson was plagued by injuries in 1996, including a strained Achilles tendon, a sprained knee, and an injury to his back that substantially hurt his value on the free agent market. On April 19, 1997, Woodson declined a four-year, $7 million contract offer from the Pittsburgh Steelers hours before the 1997 NFL Draft. The Steelers subsequently drafted Maryland cornerback Chad Scott in the first round (24th overall) of the 1997 NFL Draft and ended negotiations with Woodson. During the offseason, Woodson held a workout at Purdue that was attended by ten teams interested in signing him, including the San Francisco 49ers, Chicago Bears, Cincinnati Bengals, and Jacksonville Jaguars. The Cincinnati Bengals offered Woodson a three-year contract reportedly worth between $1.5 million and $2 million per season. San Francisco 49ers 1997 On July 17, 1997, the San Francisco 49ers signed Woodson to a three-year contract. Head coach Steve Mariucci named Woodson a starting cornerback on the 49ers' depth chart to begin the regular season, opposite Darnell Walker. On September 14, 1997, Woodson recorded two combined tackles, forced a fumble, and made a career-high three interceptions off passes by Saints' quarterback Danny Wuerffel during a 33–7 victory against the New Orleans Saints in Week 2. In Week 10, he collected a season-high eight combined tackles in the 49ers' 17–10 victory against the Dallas Cowboys. He started in all 16 games in 1997 and recorded 46 combined tackles, three interceptions, and a forced fumble. The San Francisco 49ers finished first in the NFC West with a 13–3 record and earned a first round bye. They defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38–22 in the NFC Divisional Round. The following week, Woodson made four combined tackles as the 49ers were defeated by the Green Bay Packers 23–10. On February 9, 1998, the San Francisco 49ers cut Woodson and former Steelers' teammate Kevin Greene in an effort to free up salary cap space. Baltimore Ravens 1998 On February 21, 1998, the Baltimore Ravens signed Woodson to a three-year, $5.70 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $3 million. Woodson was reunited with Ravens' defensive coordinator Marvin Lewis who was a linebacker coach for the Pittsburgh Steelers. Head coach Ted Marchibroda named Woodson a starting cornerback to begin the regular season, alongside Duane Starks. On September 4, 1998, it was reported that Woodson entered stage 1 of the league's substance abuse program after refusing to take a drug test the previous month. It was reported that Woodson became infuriated after he was randomly selected to take a drug test on two consecutive days. His refusal automatically counted as a failed test although he subsequently relented and passed the test the next day. On September 13, 1998, Woodson recorded a season-high 11 combined tackles, made two interceptions, and returned one for a touchdown during a 24–10 win at the New York Jets in Week 2. Woodson intercepted a pass by Jets'quarterback Glenn Foley, that was intended for wide receiver Dedric Ward, and returned it for a 60-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter. On November 8, 1998, Woodson made five combined tackles and returned an interception for a touchdown during the Ravens' 13–10 win against the Oakland Raiders. Woodson intercepted a pass by Raiders' quarterback Donald Hollas, that was intended for wide receiver Tim Brown, and returned it for an 18-yard touchdown in the first quarter. He started in all 16 games in 1998 and recorded 88 combined tackles, six interceptions, and two touchdowns. On December 28, 1998, the Baltimore Ravens fired head coach Ted Marchibroda after the Ravens finished the season with a 6–10 record. 1999 On January 19, 1999, the Baltimore Ravens hired former Minnesota Vikings' offensive coordinator Brian Billick as their new head coach. Billick retained Marvin Lewis as the Baltimore Ravens' defensive coordinator and hired Mike Smith, Jack Del Rio, and Rex Ryan as defensive position coaches. Defensive coordinator Marvin Lewis opted to move Woodson to free safety after the Baltimore Ravens drafted cornerback Chris McAlister in the first round (10th overall) of the 1999 NFL Draft. Woodson was named the starting free safety and was used to make checks in coverage and help stabilize a young secondary that also included cornerbacks Duane Starks and strong safety Kim Herring. On November 7, 1999, Woodson recorded two combined tackles and returned an interception for a touchdown during a 41–9 win at the Cleveland Browns. Woodson intercepted a pass by Browns' backup quarterback Ty Detmer and returned it for a 66-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter. In Week 11, he made four combined tackles and made his 50th career interception off a pass by Bengals' quarterback Jeff Blake during a 34–31 victory at the Cincinnati Bengals. On December 5, 1999, Woodson made eight combined tackles and returned an interception for a touchdown in the Ravens' 41-14 win against the Tennessee Titans. Woodson intercepted a pass by Titans' quarterback Steve McNair, that was intended for wide receiver Kevin Dyson, and returned it for a 47-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter. In Week 14, he collected a season-high nine combined tackles during a 31–24 win at the Pittsburgh Steelers. He started in all 16 games in 1999 and recorded 66 combined tackles, seven interceptions, and two touchdowns. 2000 Woodson and Kim Herring returned as the starting safety tandem in 2000. Woodson became the veteran presence and a mentor to a young secondary. In Week 6, he made three tackles and an interception during a 15–10 win at the Jacksonville Jaguars. It became his third consecutive game with an interception. In Week 17, he collected a season-high 11 combined tackles and forced a fumble in the Ravens' 34–20 win against the New York Jets. On December 14, 2000, Woodson was selected to the 2001 Pro Bowl, marking the 10th Pro Bowl selection of his career. Woodson started in all 16 games in 2000 and recorded 74 combined tackles, four interceptions, and two forced fumbles. The Baltimore Ravens finished second in the AFC Central with a 12–4 record and defeated the Denver Broncos 21–3 in the AFC Wild Card Round. On January 7, 2001, Woodson recorded 11 combined tackles in the Ravens' 24–10 win at the Tennessee Titans in the AFC Divisional Round. The following week, the Ravens went on to defeat the Oakland Raiders 16–3 in the AFC Championship Game. On January 28, 2001, Woodson recorded six combined tackles as the Ravens defeated the New York Giants 34–7 in Super Bowl XXXV. 2001 On March 1, 2001, Woodson was one of seven players released by the Baltimore Ravens. He became an unrestricted free agent after the Baltimore Ravens declined an option to retain him. On May 7, 2001, the Baltimore Ravens signed Woodson to a five-year contract. Head coach Brian Billick retained Woodson as the starting free safety. Woodson started alongside strong safety Corey Harris in 2001. In Week 4, he collected a season-high ten combined tackles and made an interception during a 26–7 win against the Tennessee Titans. On December 2, 2001, Woodson made two combined tackles and returned an interception for a touchdown in the Ravens' 39–27 win against the Indianapolis Colts in Week 12. Woodson intercepted a pass by Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning, that was intended for wide receiver Marvin Harrison, and returned it for a 47-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter. He started in all 16 games in 2001 and recorded 74 combined tackles, three interceptions, forced a fumble, and scored a touchdown. The Baltimore Ravens finished second in their division with a 10–6 record, but were eliminated from the playoffs after a 27–10 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Divisional Round. Woodson finished the game with ten combined tackles (eight solo) and a pass deflection against his former team. 2002 On February 29, 2002, the Baltimore Ravens released Woodson in a salary cap related maneuver. Oakland Raiders On May 1, 2002, the Oakland Raiders signed Woodson to a six-year contract. Head coach Bill Callahan named Woodson the starting free safety to begin the regular season, alongside strong safety Derrick Gibson. On September 28, 2002, Woodson recorded four combined tackles, made a career-high three interceptions, and returned one for a touchdown in the Raiders' 52–25 win against the Tennessee Titans. He intercepted a pass by Titans' quarterback Steve McNair, that was intended for tight end Frank Wycheck, and returned it for an 82-yard touchdown in the third quarter. On November 11, 2002, Woodson recorded four combined tackles, deflected a pass, and returned an interception for the final touchdown of his career in the Raiders' 34–10 win at the Denver Broncos in Week 9. Woodson intercepted a pass by Broncos' quarterback Brian Griese, that was originally intended for running back Clinton Portis, and returned it for a 98-yard touchdown in the second quarter. He started in all 16 games in 2002 and recorded 82 combined tackles (70 solo), a career-high eight interceptions, seven pass deflections, and a touchdown. On January 2, 2002, it was announced that Woodson was selected to play in the 2002 Pro Bowl. The Oakland Raiders finished first in the AFC West with an 11–5 record and earned a first round bye. They reached Super Bowl XXXVII after defeating the New York Jets 30–10 in the AFC Divisional Round and defeating the Tennessee Titans 41–24 in the AFC Championship Game. On January 26, 2003, Woodson recorded eight combined tackles and deflected a pass as the Raiders lost Super Bowl XXXVII 48–21 to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. 2003 Woodson and Derrick Gibson returned as the starting safety duo in 2003. In Week 3, he collected a season-high nine combined tackles during a 31–10 loss at the Denver Broncos. On November 16, 2003, Woodson made five combined tackles, deflected two passes, and made the last interception of his career during a 28–18 win against the Minnesota Vikings. His final interception came off a pass by Vikings' quarterback Daunte Culpepper. On November 26, 2003, the Oakland Raiders placed Woodson on injured reserve due to a chronic injury to his left knee. He underwent surgery the following month. Woodson finished the season with 51 combined tackles (40 solo), two interceptions, and a pass deflection in ten games and ten starts. 2004 On July 28, 2004, the Oakland Raiders released Woodson after he failed a physical after undergoing knee surgery. NFL records and accomplishments Woodson is among the NFL's all-time leaders in games played as a defensive back. In his 17 NFL seasons, Woodson recorded 71 interceptions, 1,483 interception return yards, 32 fumble recoveries (15 offensive and 17 defensive), 137 fumble return yards, 4,894 kickoff return yards, 2,362 punt return yards, and 17 touchdowns (12 interception returns, 1 fumble return, 2 kickoff returns, 2 punt returns). He holds the league record for interceptions returned for touchdown with 12, and is tied with 11 other players for the record for most fumble recoveries in a single game (3). His 1,483 interception return yards is the second most in NFL history (Ed Reed has 1,590 yards). His 32 fumble recoveries are a record among defensive players. His 71 interceptions rank third all time. Woodson was named to the Pro Bowl 11 times, a record for his position. He was also the first player to earn trips to the Pro Bowl at cornerback, safety and kick returner. He was named 1993's NFL Defensive Player of the Year by the Associated Press. He was also a 7-time All-Pro selection. Woodson finished second to Darrell Green in the 1988 NFL Fastest Man Contest. In 1994, he was named to the NFL's 75th Anniversary Team, one of only five active players to be named to the team. The others were Jerry Rice, Joe Montana, Reggie White and Ronnie Lott. In 1999, he was ranked number 87 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players. The College Football News also honored him as one of the 100 greatest players of the 20th century. In 2007, he was ranked number 22 on USA Today'' list of the 25 best NFL players of the past 25 years. On January 31, 2009, Woodson was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility. Woodson named his friend and business associate Tracy Foster as his presenter. Foster runs Woodson's car dealership in Pittsburgh. Coaching career Woodson coached the defense at Valley Christian Senior High in Dublin, California along with former Raider John Parrella. He was also the head coach of the women's Varsity Basketball team. The Raiders hired Woodson as their cornerbacks coach on February 14, 2011. He (along with most of Hue Jackson's Raiders staff) was not retained following the 2011 season. On June 12, 2013, the Pittsburgh Steelers announced that Woodson would be serving as an intern coach. On February 9, 2015, it was announced that Woodson would be returning to the Raiders as an assistant defensive backs coach under head coach Jack Del Rio, defensive coordinator Ken Norton Jr and defensive backs coach Marcus Robertson. On March 9, 2017, following Robertson's firing earlier that offseason, Woodson was promoted back to cornerbacks coach alongside new safeties coach Brent Vieselmeyer. Woodson was fired following the 2017 season, after Jon Gruden was hired as head coach. NFL career statistics Regular season Personal life Woodson was born in Fort Wayne, Indiana and was the youngest of three siblings, with whom he had close relationships. His father, the late James Woodson, was African-American, and his mother, Linda Jo Doerflein, was Caucasian, of German descent. His father was a laborer from Tennessee and his mother worked with the handicapped in Fort Wayne. Woodson attended R. Nelson Snider High School in Fort Wayne, Indiana. His parents married in 1960 and had three sons, Joe, Jamie, and Rod. Woodson was raised in a two-story home in a predominantly black neighborhood. His family experienced harassment through his youth due to their mixed-race. From 1994 until 2008 Woodson held an annual youth football camp and activities, the Rod Woodson Youth Week, on the grounds of his former high school. This week-long camp featured current and former NFL players mentoring kids on football skills and the importance of education. There was a cheer camp, basketball game and concert. Woodson funded the majority of the week that also provided academic awards for camp goers and saw hundreds of kids throughout its existence. Woodson was also an outspoken Christian. Woodson used to split his time between NFL Network studios in Los Angeles, his home in Pleasanton, and a cottage in Coldwater, Michigan. He was also part of the studio team for BBC Sport's NFL coverage in 2007, including Super Bowl XLII and Super Bowl XLIII. In February 2011 he accepted the role as the defensive backs coach of the NFL's Oakland Raiders (his former team). He played defensive back and a variety of offensive skill positions and was named Parade and USA Today All-American, all-state his junior and senior seasons. Woodson was named Indiana "Mr. Football" in 1982. In addition to football, he won both the high and low hurdles state championships in both his junior and senior seasons; and played varsity basketball his junior and senior seasons, making all-conference his senior year. Woodson resides in Pleasanton, California with his wife, Nikki, who he married in 1992. The couple have five children; two sons and three daughters. Incidents On April 25, 1988, it was reported that Woodson was one of three men arrested for stealing $70 in a tip jar from McCaw's restaurant-bar in West Lafayette, Indiana. Charges were not filed. On September 23, 1988, Woodson and teammate Delton Hall were involved in a bar fight with another man in Moon Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Police were called to Sessions Bar at 2:34AM due to a fight involving Woodson, Hall, and a man identified as Derrick Wilson. Hall stated the fight began over criticism about football. The rear window of Wilson's vehicle was broken during the altercation, but Woodson agreed to pay for damages. On September 29, 1988, the Pittsburgh Steelers stated both players had been privately reprimanded for their involvement. On June 13, 1989, Woodson was charged with misdemeanor battery on a police officer after an altercation outside of a bar in Fort Wayne, Indiana. On May 19, 1992, Woodson was arrested in his hometown of Fort Wayne, Indiana for battery due to an altercation with his brother, Jamie Woodson. On March 24, 1993, Woodson was found not guilty of battery by a jury. References External links Oakland Raiders profile 1965 births Living people African-American players of American football African-American sports announcers African-American sports journalists All-American college football players Alliance of American Football announcers American Conference Pro Bowl players American football cornerbacks American football return specialists American football safeties Baltimore Ravens players College football announcers National Football League announcers National Football League Defensive Player of the Year Award winners Oakland Raiders coaches Oakland Raiders players Pittsburgh Steelers players Players of American football from Fort Wayne, Indiana Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Purdue Boilermakers football players San Francisco 49ers players Sportspeople from Fort Wayne, Indiana

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche%20Bank

Deutsche Bank

Deutsche Bank AG () is a German multinational investment bank and financial services company headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany, and dual-listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange. The bank's network spans 58 countries with a large presence in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. As of 2020, Deutsche Bank was the 21st largest bank in the world by total assets and 63rd in the world by market capitalization. As the largest German banking institution, it is a component of the DAX stock market index. It is considered a systemically important bank by the Financial Stability Board. The company is a universal bank with four major divisions: Investment Bank, Corporate Bank, Private Bank and Asset Management (DWS). Its investment banking operations often command substantial deal flow. History 1870–1919 Deutsche Bank was founded in Berlin in 1870 as a specialist bank for financing foreign trade and promoting German exports. It subsequently played a large part in developing Germany's industry, as its business model focused on providing finance to industrial customers. The bank's statute was adopted on 22 January 1870, and on 10 March 1870 the Prussian government granted it a banking licence. The statute laid great stress on foreign business: Three of the founders were Georg Siemens, whose father's cousin had founded Siemens and Halske; Adelbert Delbrück and Ludwig Bamberger. Prior to the founding of Deutsche Bank, German importers and exporters were dependent upon British and French banking institutions in the world markets—a serious handicap in that German bills were almost unknown in international commerce, generally disliked and subject to a higher rate of a discount than English or French bills. Founding members Hermann Zwicker (Bankhaus Gebr. Schickler, Berlin) Anton Adelssen (Bankhaus Adelssen & Co., Berlin) Adelbert Delbrück (Bankhaus Delbrück, Leo & Co.) Heinrich von Hardt (Hardt & Co., Berlin, New York) Ludwig Bamberger (politician, former chairman of Bischoffsheim, Goldschmidt & Co) Victor Freiherr von Magnus (Bankhaus F. Mart Magnus) (Bankhaus Deichmann & Co., Cologne) Gustav Kutter (Bankhaus Gebrüder Sulzbach, Frankfurt) Gustav Müller (Württembergische Vereinsbank, Stuttgart) First directors Wilhelm Platenius, Georg Siemens and Hermann Wallich The bank's first domestic branches, inaugurated in 1871 and 1872, were opened in Bremen and Hamburg. Its first oversea-offices opened in Shanghai in 1872 and London in 1873 followed by South American offices between 1874 and 1886. The branch opening in London, after one failure and another partially successful attempt, was a prime necessity for the establishment of credit for the German trade in what was then the world's money centre. Major projects in the early years of the bank included the Northern Pacific Railroad in the US and the Baghdad Railway (1888). In Germany, the bank was instrumental in the financing of bond offerings of steel company Krupp (1879) and introduced the chemical company Bayer to the Berlin stock market. The second half of the 1890s saw the beginning of a new period of expansion at Deutsche Bank. The bank formed alliances with large regional banks, giving itself an entrée into Germany's main industrial regions. Joint ventures were symptomatic of the concentration then under way in the German banking industry. For Deutsche Bank, domestic branches of its own were still something of a rarity at the time; the Frankfurt branch dated from 1886 and the Munich branch from 1892, while further branches were established in Dresden and Leipzig in 1901. In addition, the bank rapidly perceived the value of specialist institutions for the promotion of foreign business. Gentle pressure from the Foreign Ministry played a part in the establishment of Deutsche Ueberseeische Bank in 1886 and the stake taken in the newly established Deutsch-Asiatische Bank three years later, but the success of those companies showed that their existence made sound commercial sense. 1919–1933 In 1919, the bank purchased the state's share of Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft (Ufa). In 1926, the bank assisted in the merger of Daimler and Benz. The bank merged with other local banks in 1929 to create Deutsche Bank and Disconto-Gesellschaft. In 1937, the company name changed back to Deutsche Bank. 1933–1945 After Adolf Hitler came to power, instituting the Third Reich, Deutsche Bank dismissed its three Jewish board members in 1933. In subsequent years, Deutsche Bank took part in the aryanization of Jewish-owned businesses, provided the owners of “aryanized” businesses were in the know about their Jewish status beforehand; according to its own historians, the bank was involved in 363 such confiscations by November 1938. In 1938, German bank Mendelssohn & Co. was acquired. During the war, Deutsche Bank incorporated other banks that fell into German hands during the occupation of Eastern Europe. Deutsche Bank provided banking facilities for the Gestapo and loaned the funds used to build the Auschwitz camp and the nearby IG Farben facilities. During World War II, Deutsche Bank became responsible for managing the Bohemian Union Bank in Prague, with branches in the Protectorate and in Slovakia, the Bankverein in Yugoslavia (which has now been divided into two financial corporations, one in Serbia and one in Croatia), the Albert de Barry Bank in Amsterdam, the National Bank of Greece in Athens, the Creditanstalt-Bankverein in Austria and Hungary, the Deutsch-Bulgarische Kreditbank in Bulgaria, and Banca Comercială Română (The Romanian Commercial Bank) in Bucharest. It also maintained a branch in Istanbul, Turkey. In 1999, Deutsche Bank confirmed officially that it had been involved in the Auschwitz camp. In December 1999, Deutsche, along with other major German companies, contributed to a US$5.2 billion compensation fund following lawsuits brought by Holocaust survivors; U.S. officials had threatened to block Deutsche Bank's $10 billion purchase of Bankers Trust, a major American bank, if it did not contribute to the fund. The history of Deutsche Bank during the Second World War has since been documented by independent historians commissioned by the Bank. Post-World War II Following Germany's defeat in World War II, the Allied authorities, in 1948, ordered Deutsche Bank's break-up into regional banks. These regional banks were later consolidated into three major banks in 1952: Norddeutsche Bank AG; Süddeutsche Bank AG; and Rheinisch-Westfälische Bank AG. In 1957, these three banks merged to form Deutsche Bank AG with its headquarters in Frankfurt. In 1959, the bank entered retail banking by introducing small personal loans. In the 1970s, the bank pushed ahead with international expansion, opening new offices in new locations, such as Milan (1977), Moscow, London, Paris, and Tokyo. In the 1980s, this continued when the bank paid U$603 million in 1986 to acquire Banca d'America e d'Italia. In 1972, the bank established its Fiduciary Services Division which provides support to its private wealth division. At 8:30am on 30 November 1989, Alfred Herrhausen, chairman of Deutsche Bank, was killed when a car that he was in exploded while he was traveling in the Frankfurt suburb of Bad Homburg. The Red Army Faction claimed responsibility for the blast. In 1989, the first steps towards creating a significant investment-banking presence were taken with the acquisition of Morgan, Grenfell & Co., a UK-based investment bank which was renamed Deutsche Morgan Grenfell in 1994. In 1995 to greatly expand into international investments and money management, Deutsche Bank hired Edson Mitchell, a risk specialist from Merrill Lynch, who hired two other former Merrill Lynch risk specialists Anshu Jain and William S. Broeksmit. By the mid-1990s, the buildup of a capital-markets operation had got underway with the arrival of a number of high-profile figures from major competitors. Ten years after the acquisition of Morgan Grenfell, the US firm Bankers Trust was added. Bankers Trust suffered losses during the 1998 Russian financial crisis since it had a large position in Russian government bonds, but avoided financial collapse by being acquired by Deutsche Bank for $10 billion in November 1998. On 4 June 1999, Deutsche Bank merged its Deutsche Morgan Grenfell and Bankers Trust to became Deutsche Asset Management (DAM) with Robert Smith as the CEO. This made Deutsche Bank the fourth-largest money management firm in the world after UBS, Fidelity Investments, and the Japanese post office's life insurance fund. At the time, Deutsche Bank owned a 12% stake in DaimlerChrysler but United States banking laws prohibit banks from owning industrial companies, so Deutsche Bank received an exception to this prohibition through 1978 legislation from Congress. Deutsche continued to build up its presence in Italy with the acquisition in 1993 of Banca Popolare di Lecco from Banca Popolare di Novara for about $476 million. In 1999, it acquired a minority interest in Cassa di Risparmio di Asti. 21st Century In the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. the Deutsche Bank Building in Lower Manhattan, formerly Bankers Trust Plaza, was heavily damaged by the collapse of the South Tower of the World Trade Center. Demolition work on the 39-story building continued for nearly a decade, and was completed in early 2011. In October 2001, Deutsche Bank was listed on the New York Stock Exchange. This was the first NYSE listing after interruption due to 11 September attacks. The following year, Josef Ackermann became CEO of Deutsche Bank and served as CEO until 2012 when he became involved with the Bank of Cyprus. Then, beginning in 2002, Deutsche Bank strengthened its U.S. presence when it purchased Scudder Investments. Meanwhile, in Europe, Deutsche Bank increased its private-banking business by acquiring Rued Blass & Cie (2002) and the Russian investment bank United Financial Group (2005) founded by the United States banker Charles Ryan and the Russian official Boris Fyodorov which followed Anshu Jain's aggressive expansion to gain strong relationships with state partners in Russia. Jain persuaded Ryan to remain with Deutsche Bank at its new Russian offices and later, in April 2007, sent the President and Chairman of the Management Board of VTB Bank Andrey Kostin's son Andrey to Deutsche Bank's Moscow office. Later, in 2008, to establish VTB Capital, numerous bankers from Deutsche Bank's Moscow office were hired by VTB Capital. In Germany, further acquisitions of Norisbank, Berliner Bank and Deutsche Postbank strengthened Deutsche Bank's retail offering in its home market. This series of acquisitions was closely aligned with the bank's strategy of bolt-on acquisitions in preference to so-called "transformational" mergers. These formed part of an overall growth strategy that also targeted a sustainable 25% return on equity, something the bank achieved in 2005. On 1 October 2003, Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank entered into a payment transaction agreement with Postbank to have Postbank process payments as the clearing center for the three banks. Since the mid-1990s Deutsche Bank commercial real estate division offered Donald Trump financial backing, even though in the early 1990s Citibank, Manufacturers Hanover, Chemical, Bankers Trust, and 68 other entities refused to financially support him. In 2008, Trump sued Deutsche Bank for $3 billion and a few years later, he shifted his financial portfolio from the investment banking division to Deutsche Bank private wealth division with Rosemary Vrablic, formerly of Citigroup, Bank of America, and Merrill Lynch, becoming Trump's new personal banker at Deutsche Bank. In 2007, the company's headquarters, the Deutsche Bank Twin Towers building, was extensively renovated for three years, certified LEED Platinum and DGNB Gold. In 2010, the bank developed, owned the Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas, after the casino's original developer defaulted on its borrowings. Deutsche Bank ran it at a loss until its sale in May 2014. The bank's exposure at the time of sale was more than $4 billion, and sold the property to Blackstone Group for $1.73 billion. Great Recession and European debt crisis (2007–2012) Housing credit bubble and CDO market Deutsche Bank was one of the major drivers of the expansion of the collateralized debt obligation (CDO) market during the housing credit bubble from 2004 to 2008, creating about $32 billion worth. The 2011 US Senate Permanent Select Committee on Investigations report on "Wall Street and the Financial Crisis" analyzed Deutsche Bank as a case study of investment banking involvement in the mortgage bubble, CDO market, credit crunch, and recession. It concluded that even as the market was collapsing in 2007, and its top global CDO trader was deriding the CDO market and betting against some of the mortgage bonds in its CDOs, Deutsche bank continued to churn out bad CDO products to investors. The report focused on one CDO, Gemstone VII, made largely of mortgages from Long Beach, Fremont, and New Century, all notorious subprime lenders. Deutsche Bank put risky assets into the CDO, like ACE 2006-HE1 M10, which its own traders thought was a bad bond. It also put in some mortgage bonds that its own mortgage department had created but could not sell, from the DBALT 2006 series. The CDO was then aggressively marketed as a good product, with most of it being described as having A level ratings. By 2009 the entire CDO was almost worthless and the investors (including Deutsche Bank itself) had lost most of their money. Greg Lippmann, head of global CDO trading, was betting against the CDO market, with approval of management, even as Deutsche was continuing to churn out product. He was a large character in Michael Lewis' book The Big Short, which detailed his efforts to find 'shorts' to buy Credit Default Swaps (CDS) for the construction of Synthetic CDOs. He was one of the first traders to foresee the bubble in the CDO market as well as the tremendous potential that CDS offered in this. As portrayed in The Big Short, Lipmann in the middle of the CDO and MBS frenzy was orchestrating presentations to investors, demonstrating his bearish view of the market, offering them the idea to start buying CDS, especially to AIG in order to profit from the forthcoming collapse. As regards the Gemstone VII deal, even as Deutsche was creating and selling it to investors, Lippman emailed colleagues that it 'blew', and he called parts of it 'crap' and 'pigs' and advised some of his clients to bet against the mortgage securities it was made of. Lippman called the CDO market a 'ponzi scheme', but also tried to conceal some of his views from certain other parties because the bank was trying to sell the products he was calling 'crap'. Lippman's group made money off of these bets, even as Deutsche overall lost money on the CDO market. Deutsche was also involved with Magnetar Capital in creating its first Orion CDO. Deutsche had its own group of bad CDOs called START. It worked with Elliot Advisers on one of them; Elliot bet against the CDO even as Deutsche sold parts of the CDO to investors as good investments. Deutsche also worked with John Paulson, of the Goldman Sachs Abacus CDO controversy, to create some START CDOs. Deutsche lost money on START, as it did on Gemstone. On 3 January 2014, it was reported that Deutsche Bank would settle a lawsuit brought by US shareholders, who had accused the bank of bundling and selling bad real estate loans before the 2008 downturn. This settlement came subsequent and in addition to Deutsche's $1.93 billion settlement with the US Housing Finance Agency over similar litigation related to the sale of mortgage-backed securities to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Leveraged super-senior trades Former employees including Eric Ben-Artzi and Matthew Simpson have claimed that, during the crisis, Deutsche failed to recognise up to $12 billion of paper losses on its $130 billion portfolio of leveraged super senior trades, although the bank rejects the claims. A company document of May 2009 described the trades as "the largest risk in the trading book", and the whistleblowers allege that had the bank accounted properly for its positions its capital would have fallen to the extent that it might have needed a government bailout. One of them claims that "If Lehman Brothers didn't have to mark its books for six months it might still be in business, and if Deutsche had marked its books it might have been in the same position as Lehman." Deutsche had become the biggest operator in this market, which were a form of credit derivative designed to behave like the most senior tranche of a CDO. Deutsche bought insurance against default by blue-chip companies from investors, mostly Canadian pension funds, who received a stream of insurance premiums as income in return for posting a small amount of collateral. The bank then sold protection to US investors via the CDX credit index, the spread between the two was tiny but was worth $270m over the 7 years of the trade. It was considered very unlikely that many blue chips would have problems at the same time, so Deutsche required collateral of just 10% of the contract value. The risk of Deutsche taking large losses if the collateral was wiped out in a crisis was called the gap option. Ben-Artzi claims that after modelling came up with "economically unfeasible" results, Deutsche accounted for the gap option first with a simple 15% "haircut" on the trades (described as inadequate by another employee in 2006) and then in 2008 by a $1–2bn reserve for the credit correlation desk designed to cover all risks, not just the gap option. In October 2008, it stopped modelling the gap option and just bought S&P put options to guard against further market disruption, but one of the whistleblowers has described this as an inappropriate hedge. A model from Ben-Artzi's previous job at Goldman Sachs suggested that the gap option was worth about 8% of the value of the trades, worth $10.4bn. Simpson claims that traders were not simply understating the gap option but actively mismarking the value of their trades. European debt crisis, 2009-today In 2008, Deutsche Bank reported its first annual loss in five decades, despite receiving billions of dollars from its insurance arrangements with AIG, including US$11.8 billion from funds provided by US taxpayers to bail out AIG. Based on a preliminary estimation from the European Banking Authority (EBA), in late 2011, Deutsche Bank AG needed to raise capital of about €3.2 billion as part of a required 9% core Tier 1 ratio after sovereign debt write-down starting in mid-2012. As of 2012, Deutsche Bank had negligible exposure to Greece, but Spain and Italy accounted for a tenth of its European private and corporate banking business with credit risks of about €18 billion in Italy and €12 billion in Spain. In 2017 Deutsche Bank needed to get its common equity tier-1 capital ratio up to 12.5% in 2018 to be marginally above the 12.25% required by regulators. Since 2012 In January 2014, Deutsche Bank reported a €1.2 billion ($1.6 billion) pre-tax loss for the fourth quarter of 2013. This came after analysts had predicted a profit of nearly €600 million, according to FactSet estimates. Revenues slipped by 16% versus the prior year. Deutsche Bank's Capital Ratio Tier-1 (CET1) was reported in 2015 to be only 11.4%, lower than the 12% median CET1 ratio of Europe's 24 biggest publicly traded banks, so there would be no dividend for 2015 and 2016. Furthermore, 15,000 jobs were to be cut. In June 2015, the then co-CEOs, Jürgen Fitschen and Anshu Jain, both offered their resignations to the bank's supervisory board, which were accepted. Jain's resignation took effect in June 2015, but he provided consultancy to the bank until January 2016. Fitschen continued as joint CEO until May 2016. The appointment of John Cryan as joint CEO was announced, effective July 2016; he became sole CEO at the end of Fitschen's term. In January 2016, Deutsche Bank pre-announced a 2015 loss before income taxes of approximately €6.1 billion and a net loss of approximately €6.7 billion. Following this announcement, a bank analyst at Citi declared: "We believe a capital increase now looks inevitable and see an equity shortfall of up to €7 billion, on the basis that Deutsche may be forced to book another €3 billion to €4 billion of litigation charges in 2016." May 2017, Chinese conglomerate HNA Group became its biggest shareholder, owning 9.90% of its shares. However, HNA Group's stake reduced to 8.8% as of February 16, 2018. In November 2018, the bank's Frankfurt offices were raided by police in connection with investigations around the Panama papers and money laundering. Deutsche Bank released a statement confirming it would "cooperate closely with prosecutors". AUTO1 FinTech is a joint venture of AUTO1 Group, Allianz, SoftBank and Deutsche Bank. In February 2019, HNA Group announced cutting stake in Deutsche Bank to 6.3 percent. It was further reduced to 0.19 percent as at March 2019. During the Annual General Meeting in May 2019, CEO Christian Sewing said he was expecting a "deluge of criticism" about the bank's performance and announced that he was ready to make "tough cutbacks" after the failure of merger negotiations with Commerzbank AG and weak profitability. According to The New York Times , "its finances and strategy [are] in disarray and 95 percent of its market value [has been] erased". News headlines in late June 2019 claimed that the bank would cut 20,000 jobs, over 20% of its staff, in a restructuring plan. On 8 July 2019, the bank began to cut 18,000 jobs, including entire teams of equity traders in Europe, the US, and Asia. On the previous day, Sewing had laid blame on unnamed predecessors who created a "culture of poor capital allocation" and chasing revenue for the sake of revenue, according to a Financial Times report, and promised that going forward, the bank "will only operate where we are competitive". In January 2020, Deutsche Bank had decided to cut the bonus pool at its investment branch by 30% following restructuring efforts. In February 2021, it was reported that Deutsche Bank made a profit of €113 million ($135.6 million) for 2020, the first annual net profit it had posted since 2014. In March 2021, Deutsche Bank sold about $4 billion of holdings seized in the implosion of Archegos Capital Management in a private deal. The move helped Deutsche Bank emerge unscathed after Archegos defaulted on margin loans used to build up highly leveraged bets on stocks. Leadership history When Deutsche Bank was first organized in 1870 there was no CEO. Instead the board was represented by a speaker of the board. Beginning in February 2012, the bank has been led by two co-CEOs; in July 2015 it announced it would be led by one CEO beginning in 2016. The management bodies are the annual general meeting, supervisory board and management board. Performance Corporate governance Shareholders Deutsche Bank is one of the leading listed companies in German post-war history. Its shares are traded on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and, since 2001, also on the New York Stock Exchange and are included in various indices, including the DAX and the Euro Stoxx 50. As the share had lost value since mid-2015 and market capitalization had shrunk to around €18 billion, it temporarily withdrew from the Euro Stoxx 50 on 8 August 2016. With a 0.73% stake, it is currently the company with the lowest index weighting. In 2001, Deutsche Bank merged its mortgage banking business with that of Dresdner Bank and Commerzbank to form Eurohypo AG. In 2005, Deutsche Bank sold its stake in the joint company to Commerzbank. Business divisions The bank's business model rests on three pillars – the Corporate & Investment Bank (CIB), the Private & Commercial Bank and Asset Management (DWS). Corporate & Investment Bank (CIB) The Corporate & Investment Bank (CIB) is Deutsche Bank's capital markets business. The CIB comprises the below six units. Corporate Finance is responsible for advisory and mergers & acquisitions (M&A). Equities / Fixed Income & Currencies. These two units are responsible for sales and trading of securities. Global Capital Markets (GCM) is focused on financing and risk management solutions. It includes debt and equity issuances. Global Transaction Banking (GTB) caters to corporates and financial institutions by providing commercial banking products including cross-border payments, cash management, securities services, and international trade finance. Deutsche Bank Research provides analysis of products, markets, and trading strategies. Private & Commercial Bank Private & Commercial Clients Germany / International is the retail bank of Deutsche Bank. In Germany, it operates under two brands – Deutsche Bank and Postbank. Additionally, it has operations in Belgium, Italy, Spain and India. The businesses in Poland and Portugal are in the process of being sold. Wealth Management functions as the bank's private banking arm, serving high-net-worth individuals and families worldwide. The division has a presence in the world's private banking hotspots, including Switzerland, Luxembourg, the Channel Islands, the Cayman Islands and Dubai. Deutsche Asset Management (DWS) Deutsche Bank holds a majority stake in the listed asset manager DWS Group (formerly Deutsche Asset Management), which was separated from the bank in March 2018. Logotype In 1972, the bank created the world-known blue logo "Slash in a Square" – designed by Anton Stankowski and intended to represent growth within a risk-controlled framework. Controversies Deutsche Bank in general as well as specific employees have frequently figured in controversies and allegations of deceitful behavior or illegal transactions. As of 2016, the bank was involved in some 7,800 legal disputes and calculated €5.4 billion as litigation reserves, with a further €2.2 billion held against other contingent liabilities. Role in Financial crisis of 2007–2008 In January 2017, Deutsche Bank agreed to a $7.2 billion settlement with the United States Department of Justice over its sale and pooling of toxic mortgage securities in the years leading up to the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. As part of the agreement, Deutsche Bank was required to pay a civil monetary penalty of $3.1 billion and provide $4.1 billion in consumer relief, such as loan forgiveness. At the time of the agreement, Deutsche Bank was still facing investigations into the alleged manipulation of foreign exchange rates, suspicious equities trades in Russia, as well as alleged violations of United States sanctions against Iran and other countries. Since 2012, Deutsche Bank had paid more than €12 billion for litigation, including a deal with U.S. mortgage-finance giants Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Espionage scandal, 2009 In 2009, the bank admitted it engaged in covert espionage on its critics from 2001 to 2007 directed by its corporate security department, although it characterized the incidents as "isolated". According to The Wall Street Journal, Deutsche Bank had prepared a list of names of people who it wanted investigated for criticism of the bank, including Michael Bohndorf (an activist investor in the bank), Leo Kirch (a former media executive in litigation with the bank), and the Munich law firm of Bub Gauweiler & Partner, which represented Kirch. According to the Wall Street Journal, the bank's legal department was involved in the scheme along with its corporate security department. The bank hired Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton to investigate the incidents on its behalf. The Cleary firm submitted its report, which however was not made public. According to The Wall Street Journal, the Cleary firm uncovered a plan by which Deutsche Bank was to infiltrate the Bub Gauweiler firm by having a bank mole hired as an intern at the Bub Gauweiler firm. The plan was allegedly cancelled after the intern was hired but before she started work. Peter Gauweiler, a principal at the targeted law firm, was quoted as saying "I expect the appropriate authorities including state prosecutors and the bank's oversight agencies will conduct a full investigation." Deutsche Bank´s law firm Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton in Frankfurt published a report in July 2009 saying, it found no systemic misbehaviour and there was no indication that present members of the Management Board had been involved in any activity that raises legal issues or has had any knowledge of such activities. This was confirmed by the Public Prosecutor's Office in Frankfurt in October 2009. BaFin found deficiencies in operations within Deutsche Bank's security unit in Germany but no systemic misconduct. The bank said it took steps to strengthen controls for the mandating of external service providers by its Corporate Security Department. Black Planet Award, 2013 In 2013, the CEOs Anshu Jain and Jürgen Fitschen as well as the major shareholders of Deutsche Bank were awarded the Black Planet Award of the Foundation Ethics & Economics (Ethecon Foundation). Deutsche Bank document release, 2014 On 26 January 2014, William S. Broeksmit, a risk specialist at Deutsche Bank who was very close to Anshu Jain and hired by Edson Mitchell to spearhead Deutsche Bank's foray into international investments and money management in the 1990s, released numerous Deutsche Bank documents from the New York branch of the Deutsche Bank Trust Company Americas (DBTCA), which Broeksmit's adopted son Val Broeksmit, who is a close friend of Moby, later gave, along with numerous emails, to both Welt am Sonntag and ZDF, which revealed numerous irregularities including both a $10 billion money laundering scheme spearheaded by the Russia branch of Deutsche Bank at Moscow, which the New York State Department of Financial Services fined Deutsche Bank $425 million, and derivatives improprieties. Libor scandal, 2015 On 23 April 2015, Deutsche Bank agreed to a combined US$2.5 billion in fines – a US$2.175 billion fine by American regulators, and a €227 million penalty by British authorities – for its involvement in the Libor scandal uncovered in June 2012. It was one of several banks colluding to fix interest rates used to price hundreds of trillions of dollars of loans and contracts worldwide, including mortgages and student loans. Deutsche Bank also pleaded guilty to wire fraud, acknowledging that at least 29 employees had engaged in illegal activity. It was required to dismiss all employees who were involved with the fraudulent transactions. However, no individuals were charged with criminal wrongdoing. In a Libor first, Deutsche Bank will be required to install an independent monitor. Commenting on the fine, Britain's Financial Conduct Authority director Georgina Philippou said "This case stands out for the seriousness and duration of the breaches ... One division at Deutsche Bank had a culture of generating profits without proper regard to the integrity of the market. This wasn't limited to a few individuals but, on certain desks, it appeared deeply ingrained." The fine represented a record for interest rate related cases, eclipsing a $1.5 billion Libor related fine to UBS, and the then-record $450 million fine assessed to Barclays earlier in the case. The size of the fine reflected the breadth of wrongdoing at Deutsche Bank, the bank's poor oversight of traders, and its failure to take action when it uncovered signs of abuse internally. U.S. sanctions violations, 2015 On 5 November 2015, Deutsche Bank was ordered to pay US$258 million (€237.2 million) in penalties imposed by the New York State Department of Financial Services (NYDFS) and the United States Federal Reserve Bank after the bank was caught doing business with Burma, Libya, Sudan, Iran, and Syria, which were under US sanctions at the time. According to the US federal authorities, Deutsche Bank handled 27,200 US dollar clearing transactions valued at more than US$10.86 billion (€9.98 billion) to help evade US sanctions between early 1999 until 2006 which were done on behalf of Iranian, Libyan, Syrian, Burmese, and Sudanese financial institutions and other entities subject to US sanctions, including entities on the Specially Designated Nationals by the Office of Foreign Assets Control. In response to the penalties, the bank will pay US$200 million (€184 million) to the NYDFS while the rest (US$58 million; €53.3 million) will go to the Federal Reserve. In addition to the payment, the bank will install an independent monitor, fire six employees who were involved in the incident, and ban three other employees from any work involving the bank's US-based operations. Tax evasion, 2016 In June 2016 six former employees in Germany were accused of being involved in a major tax fraud deal with CO2 emission certificates, and most of them were subsequently convicted. It was estimated that the sum of money in the tax evasion scandal might have been as high as €850 million. Deutsche Bank itself was not convicted due to an absence of corporate liability laws in Germany. Dakota Access Pipeline, 2016 Environmentalists criticize Deutsche Bank for co-financing the controversial Dakota Access Pipeline, which is planned to run close to an Indian reservation and is seen as a threat to their livelihood by its inhabitants. Deutsche Bank has issued a statement addressing the criticism it received from various environmental groups. Russian money-laundering, 2017 In January 2017, the bank was fined $425 million by the New York State Department of Financial Services (DFS) and £163 million by the UK Financial Conduct Authority regarding accusations of laundering $10 billion out of Russia. Relationship with Donald Trump, 1995-2021 Deutsche Bank is widely recognized as being the largest creditor to real-estate-mogul-turned-politician Donald Trump, 45th President of the United States, lending him and his company more than $2 billion over twenty years ending 2020. The bank held more than $360 million in outstanding loans to him prior to his 2016 election. Deutsche Bank's role in Trump and Russian parties cooperating to elect him was investigated by Special Counsel Robert Mueller. , Deutsche Bank's relationship with Trump was also under investigation by two U.S. congressional committees and by the New York attorney general. In April 2019, House Democrats subpoenaed the Bank for Trump's personal and financial records. On 29 April 2019, President Donald Trump, his business, and his children Donald Trump Jr., Eric Trump, and Ivanka Trump sued Deutsche Bank and Capital One bank to block them from turning over financial records to congressional committees. On 22 May 2019, judge Edgardo Ramos of the federal District Court in Manhattan rejected the Trump suit against Deutsche Bank, ruling the bank must comply with congressional subpoenas. Six days later, Ramos granted Trump's attorneys their request for a stay so they could pursue an expedited appeal through the courts. In October 2019, a federal appeals court said the bank asserted it did not have Trump's tax returns. In December 2019, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that Deutsche Bank must release Trump's financial records, with some exceptions, to congressional committees; Trump was given seven days to seek another stay pending a possible appeal to the Supreme Court. In May 2019, The New York Times reported that anti-money laundering specialists in the bank detected what appeared to be suspicious transactions involving entities controlled by Trump and his son-in-law Jared Kushner, for which they recommended filing suspicious activity reports with the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network of the Treasury Department, but bank executives rejected the recommendations. One specialist noted money moving from Kushner Companies to Russian individuals and flagged it in part because of the bank's previous involvement in a Russian money-laundering scheme. On 19 November 2019, Thomas Bowers, a former Deutsche Bank executive and head of the American wealth management division, was reported to have committed suicide in his Malibu home. Bowers had been in charge of overseeing and personally signing over $360 million in high-risk loans for Trump's National Doral Miami resort. The loans had been subject to a criminal investigation by special counsel Robert Mueller in his investigation of the president's 2016 campaign involvement in Russian election meddling. Documents on those loans have also been subpoenaed from Deutsche Bank by the House Democrats together with the financial documents of the president. A relationship between Bowers's responsibilities and apparent suicide has not been established; the Los Angeles County Medical Examiner – Coroner closed the case, giving no indication to wrongdoing by third parties. In early 2021, Deutsche Bank elected to discontinue its relationship with Donald Trump following his supporters' “insurrection” on the United States Capitol . Fine for business with Jeffrey Epstein, 2020 Deutsche Bank lent money and traded currencies for the well-known sex offender Jeffrey Epstein up to May 2019, long after Epstein's 2008 guilty plea in Florida to soliciting prostitution from underage girls, according to news reports. Epstein and his businesses had dozens of accounts through the private-banking division. From 2013 to 2018, "Epstein, his related entities and his associates" had opened over forty accounts with Deutsche Bank. According to The New York Times, Deutsche Bank managers overruled compliance officers who raised concerns about Epstein's reputation. The bank found suspicious transactions in which Epstein moved money out of the United States, The Times reported. On 7 July 2020, the New York Department of Financial Services (DFS) imposed a $150 million penalty on Deutsche Bank , in connection with Epstein. The bank had "ignored red flags on Epstein". Criminal cartel charges in Australia, 2018 On 1 June 2018, the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission announced that criminal cartel charges were laid by the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions against ANZ Bank, its group treasurer Rick Moscati, along with Deutsche Bank, Citigroup, and a number of individuals. The case was going to trial in December 2020. Involvement in Danske Bank money-laundering scandal, 2018 On 19 November 2018, a whistleblower of the Danske Bank money laundering scandal stated that a large European bank was involved in helping Danske process $150 billion in suspect funds. Although the whistleblower, Howard Wilkinson, did not name Deutsche Bank directly, another inside source claimed the institute in question was Deutsche Bank's U.S. unit. In 2020 it became known that the U.S. arm of Deutsche Bank processed more than $150 billion of the $230 billion dirty money through New York, for which it was fined 150 million $. After a raid in 2019, Frankfurt-based prosecutors imposed a fine of $15.8 million in 2020 for DB´s failure on more than 600 occasions to promptly report suspicious transactions. Improper handling of ADRs, 2018 On 20 July 2018, Deutsche Bank agreed to pay nearly $75 million to settle charges of improper handling of "pre-released" American depositary receipt (ADRs) under investigation of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Deutsche Bank didn't admit or deny the investigation findings but agreed to pay disgorgement of more than $44.4 million in ill-gotten gains plus $6.6 million in prejudgment interest and a penalty of $22.2 million. Malaysian 1MDB fund, 2019-today In July 2019 U.S. prosecutors investigated Deutsche Bank's role in a multibillion-dollar fraud scandal involving the 1Malaysia Development Berhad, or 1MDB. Deutsche Bank helped raise $1.2 billion for the 1MDB in 2014. As of May 2021 Malaysia sued Deutsche Bank to recover billions in alleged losses from a corruption scandal at the fund. Commodities trading, bribery fine, 2021 In January 2021, Deutsche Bank agreed to pay a U.S. fine of more than $130 million for a scheme to conceal bribes to foreign officials in countries such as Saudi Arabia and China, and the city of Abu Dhabi, between 2008 and 2017 and a commodities case where it spoofed precious metals futures. Acquisitions Disconto-Gesellschaft in Berlin, 1929 Mendelssohn & Co. 1938 Morgan, Grenfell & Company, 1990 Bankers Trust, 30 November 1998 Scudder Investments, 2001 RREEF, 2002 Berkshire Mortgage Finance, 22 October 2004 Chapel Funding (now DB Home Lending), 12 September 2006 Norisbank, 2 November 2006 MortgageIT, 3 January 2007 Hollandsche Bank-Unie, 2 July 2008 Sal. Oppenheim, 2010 Deutsche Postbank, 2010 Notable employees Hermann Josef Abs, former chair (1957–1968) Paul Achleitner, Chairman of the Supervisory Board Josef Ackermann, former CEO (2002–2012) Friedrich Wilhelm Christians, former co-head of Deutsche Bank Michael Cohrs, former head of Global Banking (2002–2010) John Cryan, former CEO (2015-2018) Sir John Craven – financier in London Jürgen Fitschen, former co-chair David Folkerts-Landau, head of Research Katherine Garrett-Cox, chief executive officer Alfred Herrhausen, former chair (1988–1989) Henry Jackson – founder of OpCapita Anshu Jain, former head of Corporate and Investment Banking Sajid Javid, (2007–2009) Josh Frydenberg, former Director of Global Banking (2005) Otto Hermann Kahn – philanthropist Karl Kimmich, former chair (1942–1945) Hilmar Kopper, former chairman of the Board of Deutsche Bank (1989-1997) Philip May, Former spouse of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Steven Reich - CEO of Deutsche Bank Trust Company Americas, Associate Deputy Attorney General (2011–2013) Georg von Siemens, co-founder and director (1870–1900) Georg Solmssen, former chair (short time 1933) Johannes Teyssen, (chair of the management board of E.ON) Ted Virtue – executive board member Hermann Wallich, co-founder and director (1870–1893) Boaz Weinstein – derivatives trader Chandra Wilson - Actress Justin Kennedy - Global head of real estate capital market (1997-2009) See also European Financial Services Roundtable Cash Group List of largest banks List of corporate collapses and scandals Notes References External links Historical Association of Deutsche Bank Deutsche Bank in the Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (BaFin) database Literature by and about Deutsche Bank in the German National Library 1870 establishments in Germany Banks established in 1870 Banks under direct supervision of the European Central Bank Companies listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Exchange-traded funds Financial services companies established in 1870 German brands German companies established in 1870 Investment banks Investment management companies of Germany Multinational companies headquartered in Germany Primary dealers Systemically important financial institutions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%20on%20Fire%20%282004%20film%29

Man on Fire (2004 film)

Man on Fire is a 2004 action thriller film directed by Tony Scott from a screenplay by Brian Helgeland, and based on the 1980 novel of the same name by A. J. Quinnell. The novel had previously been adapted into a feature film in 1987. In this film, Denzel Washington portrays John Creasy, a despondent, alcoholic former U.S. Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance captain and CIA Special Activities Division officer – turned bodyguard, who goes on a revenge rampage after his charge, nine-year-old Lupita "Pita" Ramos (Dakota Fanning), is abducted in Mexico City. The supporting cast includes Christopher Walken, Radha Mitchell, Giancarlo Giannini, Marc Anthony, Rachel Ticotin and Mickey Rourke. A modest box office success, the film received mixed reviews, but has garnered a cult following over the years. Plot Former CIA SAD/SOG officer John W. Creasy comes to Mexico to visit his old friend, Paul Rayburn. Rayburn convinces him to take a bodyguard position, and he is offered one by Samuel Ramos, Mexico City automaker. His young daughter Lupita "Pita" Ramos requires a bodyguard for her kidnapping insurance policy to take effect. Creasy struggles with alcoholism, burnout, and guilt over his actions with the CIA. When trying to commit suicide, the bullet in his gun misfires. He eventually focuses more on his job, bonding with Pita. Noticing Pita, a swimmer, becomes startled by the starter gun at her swim meets, he begins to coach her. She learns to react to the starter gun, diving into the water without flinching, eventually winning a medal. One day, while waiting for Pita outside of her piano lesson, Creasy notices a car with two men circling the area, and two Federal Police officers block the street. As Pita emerges, he yells at her to run, but she freezes. The car pulls up and the men attempt to grab Pita, but he fires his gun in the air, causing her to run away. Creasy attempts to fend off the attackers, killing three, and wounding a fourth, but is critically wounded himself. Pita runs back to him, but is then abducted by the remaining kidnappers. While recovering from his injuries, AFI agent Miguel Manzano has Creasy relocated to a veterinarian clinic, to protect him from the corrupt police. When he regains consciousness, he is questioned by Manzano, but refuses to divulge any information. He then meets reporter Mariana Garcia Guerrero, who offers to help him investigate. Pita's ransom drop fails when the kidnappers are ambushed by rival criminals. The kidnappers' leader, "The Voice," is enraged at his nephew's death during the botched drop. Holding the Ramoses responsible, he informs Pita's mother Lisa that Pita will be lost to her and Samuel forever as retribution. Creasy uses this to wage war on the kidnapping ring and police corruption responsible for Pita's death. He tracks down, interrogates, and kills the getaway driver, followed by middle man "Jersey Boy", and Lt. Victor Fuentes, who coordinated the drop. From Fuentes, Creasy learns most of the ransom money had been stolen before the ambush at the drop and that Jordan Kalfus, Samuel's lawyer who suggested kidnapping insurance, loaded the money into Samuel's drop vehicle. At Kalfus’ home, Creasy discovers that he is decapitated and finds a fax with bank account information leading to Samuel. Creasy confronts Samuel and Lisa. Samuel explains that Kalfus recommended arranging a kidnapping so he could claim the insurance payout and pay the debts his father had left him alongside a ruined auto empire. They were promised Pita would be unharmed. When the drop went bad, Samuel blamed Kalfus for Pita's death, killing him in a rage. Lisa, unaware of Samuel's involvement, angrily tells Creasy to "kill him or (she) will". He leaves Samuel a gun and the bullet he previously intended to commit suicide with. Remorseful, Samuel loads the gun and shoots himself in the head. Creasy learns from Guerrero the ATM card he recovered earlier is linked to a man living on the edge of the city. Manzano's people, acting on Guerrero's information, infiltrate his home, finding a photo of "The Voice". Guerrero runs a story in her paper, revealing the ringleader is Daniel Sanchez. The ATM card belongs to Daniel's brother Aurelio. Creasy breaks into Aurelio's, taking him prisoner, despite being shot in the chest in the process. He then calls Daniel, threatening to kill his family unless he turn himself in. However, Daniel reveals that Pita is still alive, and offers to trade her for his brother and him. Creasy accepts. Arriving at the overpass meeting place and seeing Pita, he crosses it on foot, meeting her in the middle. He says goodbye, assuring her he loves her before sending her to Lisa. Creasy and Aurelio get into Daniel's car, but he succumbs to his wounds and blood loss in transit. Meanwhile, Manzano tracks Daniel down and kills him, stating in the official report that Daniel died during the course of arrest. Cast Denzel Washington as John W. Creasy, a former CIA operative and U.S. Marine Force Recon Captain Dakota Fanning as Guadalupe 'Lupita' (Pita) Ramos Radha Mitchell as Lisa Ramos. Lisa originates from Houston, Texas. Eric Harrison of the Houston Chronicle described Lisa as an "American trophy wife with a Southern accent that seems to come and go." Christopher Walken as Paul Rayburn, who runs a security firm in Mexico. Marlon Brando was originally considered for the role, but his poor health (which led to his death) prevented him from taking the role. Marc Anthony as Samuel Ramos Giancarlo Giannini as Miguel Manzano, director of the AFI. Tony Scott stated "Giancarlo loves women, as did this character." Mickey Rourke as Jordan Kalfus, Samuel Ramos' lawyer. Kalfus and Samuel Ramos's father were best friends, and therefore Kalfus has a close relationship with Samuel. Mickey Rourke stated that Kalfus has "a responsibility to his father, to him, to look out for his well-being." Therefore, Kalfus "[wants] to be there for him" when Ramos "gets his head underwater a little bit". Rachel Ticotin as Mariana Garcia Guerrero, a reporter for the Diario Reforma Roberto Sosa as Daniel Sanchez, "The Voice". He is based on a real kidnapper, Daniel Arizmendi López. Jesús Ochoa as Victor Fuentes, a lieutenant in the Anti-Kidnapping Division of the Federal Judicial Police and the head of the criminal "La Hermandad" syndicate Carmen Salinas as Guardian three Gero Camilo as Aurelio Sanchez. Based on Aurelio Arizmendi López, the brother of Daniel Arizmendi López. Rosa María Hernández as Maria Rosas Sanchez, wife of The Voice. Charles Paraventi as Jersey Boy, proprietor of the rave in Neza and an accomplice to Pita's kidnapping. Mario Zaragoza as Jorge Gonzalez, a Federal Judicial Policeman and member of the criminal "La Hermandad" syndicate, who physically kidnaps Pita off the street Production Tony Scott, the film's director, had tried to adapt the 1980 source novel, by A. J. Quinnell, into a film in 1983. Journalist Paul Davies theorized that movie producers likely believed that Scott, whose only directorial work as of the time was 1983's The Hunger, lacked the experience to direct this as his second film. The novel was first adapted into the 1987 film Man on Fire, starring Scott Glenn as Creasy. This movie, like the novel, was set in Italy, then a major center of kidnapping. When a remake was first under consideration, producer Arnon Milchan (who also produced the 1987 version) looked at Michael Bay and Antoine Fuqua to direct, before asking Scott if he was still interested. 20th Century Fox wanted the film to still be set in Italy. An early draft of the script was set in Naples, with early reporting suggesting that the Mexico City filming was an odd stand in for Naples. Scott argued that if the setting would be Italy, then the film would have to be a period piece, since by the 2000s kidnappings became a rare occurrence in Italy. Mexico City became the setting of the 2004 film because Mexico City had a high kidnapping rate, and due to other reasons. As a result, the character Rika Balletto was renamed Lisa Martin Ramos, and Pinta Balletto was renamed Lupita "Pita" Ramos. Ettore Balletto became Samuel Ramos. Robert De Niro was originally offered the role of Creasy. Prior to his death, Marlon Brando was the original choice to play Rayburn. Reception Man on Fire opened in the U.S. on April 23, 2004, in 2,980 theaters and grossed $22,751,490 with an average of $7,634 and ranking No. 1 at the box office. The film's widest release was 2,986 theaters and it ended up earning $77,911,774 in North America and $52,381,940 internationally for a total of $130,293,714 worldwide, above its $70 million production budget. The film was successful in the U.S. home video market, grossing more than $123 million in DVD and VHS rentals and sales in U.S. The film has a rating of 38% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 169 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10. The consensus states, "Man on Fire starts out well, but goes over the top in the violent second half." The film also has a score of 47 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 36 reviews. Paul Davies, a journal article author, said that the critical reception to Man on Fire in the United States was "somewhat less than kind" because critics did not like the vigilantism that Creasy uses. Davies argues that "most critics missed" Creasy not taking "sadistic pleasure" in the killings since he kills to get information to get to all of the people involved in the kidnapping of Pita Ramos, and does not like harming innocent parties. A. J. Quinnell had a favorable reception to this adaptation, mainly because the film used many of the book's lines. Quinnell said that usually screenwriters "like to leave their mark on the product." Quinnell added that even though he usually dislikes film adaptations of books, the writers "did a good job with Man On Fire and I loved the chemistry between Creasy and the girl" and "When I first heard Denzel was playing the part of Creasy I missed a couple of heartbeats but he played the part brilliantly. The film is violent and if the anger is not portrayed properly, the result can be awful." Kevin Freese of the Foreign Military Studies Office stated that "it appears that the allusion" of the fictional Sánchez brothers with the real Arizmendi brothers "escaped the comprehension of much of the audience." Awards and Nominations Soundtrack The cut "Smiling", from the soundtrack composed by Harry Gregson-Williams, has been adopted as the theme of a number of television commercials for Omega Watches in 2012 to 2013. The soundtrack containing 20 tracks, was composed by Harry Gregson-Williams, and was released on July 27, 2004. The film heavily features the work of Nine Inch Nails. Trent Reznor is credited as "Musical Consultant". The movie features six Nine Inch Nails songs. Remake In 2005, a Hindi remake of the film by director Apoorva Lakhia, called Ek Ajnabee, was released. It starred Amitabh Bachchan as John W. Creasy (renamed Suryaveer "Surya" Singh). The same year, it was also remade in Tamil language as Aanai starring Arjun Sarja. See also Cinema of the United States List of American films of 2004 References External links Man on Fire official website (Archive) 2004 action thriller films 2004 action drama films 2004 films 20th Century Fox films American action drama films American action thriller films American films English-language films Estudios Churubusco films Films about child abduction Films about children Films about families Films about murderers American films about revenge Films based on British novels Films based on crime novels Films directed by Tony Scott Films produced by Lucas Foster Films with screenplays by Brian Helgeland Films set in 2003 Films set in Mexico Films set in Mexico City Regency Enterprises films Scott Free Productions films American vigilante films Films scored by Harry Gregson-Williams 2000s vigilante films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20coverage%20of%20the%20Arab%E2%80%93Israeli%20conflict

Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict

Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict by journalists in international news media has been said to be biased by both sides and independent observers. These perceptions of bias, possibly exacerbated by the hostile media effect, have generated more complaints of partisan reporting than any other news topic and have led to a proliferation of media watchdog groups. Types of bias The language of conflict Diction, or word choice, affects the interpretation of the same set of entities or events. There is an emotional and semantic difference between the verbs died and killed, and similarly between kill and murder; murder evokes stronger negative emotions and connotes intent. In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, various terminological issues arise. The terms "disputed territories" versus "occupied territories" reflect different positions on the legal status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The terms "security fence" and "apartheid wall," "neighbourhood" and "settlement," and "militant," "freedom fighter," and "terrorist," while used to describe the same entities, present them in a different light and suggest a different narrative. Similarly, describing an attack or bombing as a "response" or "retaliation" again places the events in a different light. In the immediate aftermath of the Six-Day War Israeli usage initially adopted the standard terminology of referring to the West Bank and Gaza as "occupied territories" (ha-šeṭaḥim ha-kevušim). This was soon replaced by "administered territories" (ha-šeṭaḥim ha-muḥzaqim). Finally, the West Bank area, excluding East Jerusalem, was renamed "Judea and Samaria" (Yehudah we-Šomron), a term chosen to affirm the Biblical basis for the Jewish people's connection to that territory. While the default term in international law is belligerent occupation, over subsequent decades, U.S. media coverage, which initially described Israel's presence in either of the Palestinian territories as an "occupation", gradually dropped the word and by 2001 it had become "almost taboo" in, and "ethereal in its absence" from, American reportage. A poll of British newsreaders that same year found that only 9% were aware that Israel was the occupying power of Palestinian territories. Israeli academic surveys at the time of Operation Defensive Shield (2002) also found that the Israeli public thought the West Bank revolt was evidence that Palestinians were trying, murderously, to wrest control of territories within Israel itself. Several studies have concluded that "terminology bias" has been a recurrent feature of coverage of the conflict, and scholars and commentators like Yasir Suleiman and Peter Beinart argue that language manipulation plays an important role in endeavours to win over the international public, with some concluding that Israel has proven more adept in this battle. So too Greg Myre wrote of the rise of a "verbal arms race" where "(m)uch of the Mideast conflict is about winning international support", one which escalated with the onset of the Al-Aqsa Intifada. Brian Whitaker, reviewing 1,659 articles covering events in the Guardian and Evening Standard for this period (2000–2001), observed the same effects, adding that omission of important adjectives was notable: 66% failed to mention that the incidents took place in an occupied territory. Hebron was described as a divided city, though 99% of its inhabitants are Palestinian, whereas Israel describes Jerusalem as "undivided" though a third of its inhabitants are Palestinian. Likewise, Jews live in "communities", Palestinians in "areas". In his view Israel had won the verbal war. East Jerusalem is not "occupied" or a cultural and spiritual centre for Muslims and Arabs for 14 centuries, but "the eternal, indivisible capital of Israel" and "reunited". In reporting the capture of Gilad Shalit on Israeli soil and his removal to the Gaza Strip, and Israel's response of detaining 60 Hamas members, half Palestinian West Bank parliamentarians, the former was said to have been kidnapped while the latter, seized from their beds in night raids and removed to Israeli prisons, were arrested. Beinart's article suggested there was a pattern of Orwellian "linguistic fraud and a culture of euphemism" in the way AIPAC, for one, describes what takes place in the West Bank. In Israeli newspaper reportage of violence, the IDF confirms, or says, while the Palestinians claim. The word "violence" itself connotes, according to Gershon Shafir, different events in Israeli and non-Israeli discourse: In the former, it is essentially dissociated from the 50 year long practice of occupying Palestinian lands and used to refer only to an intermittent recourse to military methods to contain episodic upsurges of hostile Palestinian resistance, a means employed when the security of an otherwise peaceful state is said to be at stake. Thus, Israeli violence is restricted to responses to specific events like putting down the First and Second Intifadas, Israel's wars in Gaza and the Palestinian knifing attacks in 2015–2016, which were mainly the work of lone wolves. Shafir argues to the contrary that the occupation "is best understood as ongoing, day-in and day-out coercion, and its injuries include material, psychological, social, and bodily harm". And, he further claims, it is the coercive techniques of the institutions of occupation deployed to enforce submission that produce the occasional eruptions of "military operations" and wars. Violence is omnipresent reality for Palestinians, on the other hand, and found in all facets of the occupation. Consequently, he concludes, the most intense suppression of uprisings and wars cannot be considered in isolation from the occupation regime as an everyday experience. Such omissions and alterations in the terms used are cited as an example of the pervasive use of euphemisms or loaded terminology in reportage on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, a problem which the International Press Institute thought sufficiently important by 2013 to issue a handbook to guide journalists through the semantic minefield. What Palestinians call "assassinations" – the shooting of people suspected of terrorism – Israel first called "pre-emptive strikes", then "pinpoint preventive operations", and also "extrajudicial punishments" or "long-range hot pursuit" until "focused prevention" was finally settled on. Offers to return "occupied territory" are "(painful) concessions" rather than a compliance with international law. For decades, Israeli announcements, speaking of arrests of children, never used the word "child". Even a 10-year-old shot by the IDF could be referred to as "a young man of ten." The use of the term "colonialism" by New Historians to describe Zionist settlement, a term likening the process to the French colonization of Algeria and the Dutch settlement of South Africa, has likewise been challenged, with some asserting that this is a demonizing term used in Palestinian textbooks. In the immediate aftermath of the 2021 Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Associated Press reporter Emily Wilder was fired because of tweets made during the conflict, after right-wing media sources complained of her pro-Palestinian views. Robert Fisk argues that the descriptive language used by major political players and the press to describe the occupation is one of "desemanticization": occupied lands become "disputed territories"; colonies are described as "settlements", "neighbourhoods" "suburbs", "population centres"; dispossession and exile are referred to as "dislocation"/"displacement"; Israelis are shot by "terrorists" but when Palestinians are shot dead they die in "clashes"; the Wall becomes a "fence" or "security barrier". Suicide bombers for Palestinians are "martyrs" (shahid); Israel prefers "homicide bombers". Israel calls one of its uses of Palestinians as human shields a "neighbour procedure". If children are killed by Israeli fire, these events are often contextualized by the "shop-worn euphemism" (Fisk) of their being "caught in the crossfire". Deporting West Bankers to Gaza as collective punishment for families who have siblings that participated in terror incidents is known as an "order limiting the place of residency". Israeli military actions are customarily referred to as "responses" or "retaliations" to a Palestinian attack, even if it is Israel that strikes first. Media and academic coverage The quality of both Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict and research and debates on university campuses have been the object of extensive monitoring and research.Public discussion of the occupation is also contested, especially on university campuses. Pro-Israeli Jewish students complain that they have been vilified or harassed; some proposed talks on Palestinian perspectives have been cancelled on the grounds that audiences might not be able to objectively evaluate the material. In response to attempts to silence several high-profile critics of Israeli territorial policies concerns have been expressed that the topic itself is at risk, and that the political pressures restricting research and discussion undermine academic freedom. In the latter regard, organizations like Campus Watch closely report and denounce what they consider "anti-Israeli" attitudes. In addition to Israel's hasbara organization, intent on countering negative press images, there are also many private pro-Israeli organizations, among them CAMERA, FLAME, HonestReporting, Palestinian Media Watch and the Anti-Defamation League which subject reportage to scrutiny in the belief news on Israel has systematically distorted reality to privilege Palestinian versions. In Ehud Barak's view Palestinians are "products of a culture in which to tell a lie..creates no dissonance". Others allow that both sides lie, but "Arabs" are better at it. The term Pallywood was coined to suggest that Palestinian coverage of their plight, in a genre called "traumatic realism", is marked by a diffuse intent to fraudulently manipulate the media, beginning with the killing of Mohammad Durrah, and, it has been argued, still being evoked as late as 2014 to dismiss Israeli responsibility for the Beitunia killings. The idea has been dismissed as bearing the hallmarks of a "conspiracy theory". On the other hand, book-length studies have been devoted to testing the theory that the world's understanding of the conflict, though "mediated by Israeli newspapers to a domestic audience", is "anti-Israel".Attempts have been made to silence several high-profile critics of Israeli policies in the territories, among them Tony Judt, Norman Finkelstein, Joseph Massad, Nadia Abu El-Haj and William I. Robinson. Such difficulties have given rise to anxieties that the topic itself is at risk, and that the political pressures circumscribing research and discussion undermine academic freedom itself. Internal Israeli studies have argued that local press coverage has traditionally been conservative, reflecting the often tendentious and biased views of the political and military establishment, and similar tendencies have been noted in Palestinian reportage. In a sample of 48 reports of 22 Palestinian deaths, 40 Israeli accounts only gave the IDF version, a mere 8 included a Palestinian reaction. Tamar Liebes, former director of the Smart Institute of Communication at the Hebrew University, argued that Israeli "Journalists and publishers see themselves as actors within the Zionist movement, not as critical outsiders". The explosive expansion of the Internet has opened up a larger sphere of controversy. Digital forensics flourishing on social networks have occasionally revealed problems with a few widely circulating images of dead Palestinians, but, according to Kuntzman and Stein, technical suspicion quickly yielded ground, among Israeli Jewish social media practitioners who combined a politics of militant nationalism with global networking conventions, to unfounded polemical claims, making out that, 'the fraudulent, deceiving Palestinian was a "natural condition" that required no substantiation', and that, generically, images of dead or injured Palestinians were faked.Palestinians commonly use the phrases "gang of settlers" or "herd of settlers" to refer to Israeli settlers, expressions perceived as offensive and dehumanising because "gang" implies thuggish criminality (though some Palestinians view settlers as criminals) and "herd" uses animal imagery to refer to people. A former vice president of the Jewish Council for Public Affairs in the United States has remarked that many rabbis themselves address their congregations by tiptoeing around the topic of Israel and Palestine, and that there is a widespread fear that speaking forthrightly will make their community life and careers insecure. John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt have argued that "the American media's coverage of Israel tends to be strongly biased in Israel's favour" compared to reportage in other democratic countries' media, with a tendency to marginalize anyone who voices a critical attitude. A 2001 study concluded that press coverage had highlighted violent displays and demonstrations of Palestinian grievances as if it were Palestinians who "looked for a confrontation", but consistently failed to add any context of the systematic abuses to which they are subjected. Marda Dunsky argues that empirical work appears to support Mearsheimer and Walt's claim. She concluded that coverage of (a) the refugee problem; (b) settlements; (c) the historical and political background, (which are either frequently skimmed over or entirely omitted), and (d) violence, "reflects the parameters of U.S. Middle East policy", regarding both U.S. aid and support for Israel. This view that American media are biased towards Palestinians has been challenged by authors who cite research that concluded most mainstream media have a "liberal" bias, a criticism extended to European outlets like Le Monde and the BBC. Retaliation A study by the American organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting monitored the use of the term "retaliation" in the nightly news broadcasts of the three main American networks CBS, ABC, and NBC between September 2000 through March 17, 2002. It found that of the 150 occasions when "retaliate" and its variants were used to describe attacks in the Israeli/Palestinian conflict, 79 percent were references to Israel "retaliating" and only 9 percent were references to Palestinians "retaliating". Emotive language In a study of BBC television news coverage, the Glasgow Media Group documented differences in the language used by journalists for Israelis and Palestinians. The study found that terms such as "atrocity," "brutal murder," "mass murder," "savage cold blooded killing," "lynching" and "slaughter" were used to describe the death of Israelis but not the death of Palestinians. The word "terrorist" was often used to describe Palestinians. However, in reports of an Israeli group attempting to bomb a Palestinian school, members of the Israeli group were referred to as "extremists" or "vigilantes" but not as "terrorists." Omission In the context of media, an omission refers to the failure to include information. This selective inclusion of information, which results from omitting other information, may distort the presentation of events in favor of one side or the other. In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, for example, consider the difference in overall impact between: An article mentioning both a Palestinian suicide bombing in Israel and an Israeli offensive in the West Bank An article mentioning only the Palestinian suicide bombing An article mentioning only the Israeli offensive In a 2001 study done by FAIR, only 4% of the US media mentioned that an occupation by Israel is occurring. In an update to the study, the number has reportedly gone down to only 2% of the media mentioning an occupation. The 2001 figure is also seen in the documentary Peace, Propaganda and the Promised Land. Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America (CAMERA) (a pro-Israel group) notes that factual errors can be errors of omission, where something important was not said, resulting in readers being misled, or commission, where information used is not true. Honest Reporting have asked the following questions : "was the reporting one-sided and imbalanced?";and "was key information missing (selective omission)?" Palestine Media Watch in its "Media critique quick sheet" asked the following questions: "how many times were UN reports/findings/resolutions mentioned?"; "How many times were Human Rights reports/findings/statements mentioned?"; "did the story describe official Palestinian denials/pleas of ignorance and innocence in violent acts?" and "did the story describe official Israelis denials/pleas of ignorance and innocence in violent acts?" Lack of verification The ethics and standards of journalism require journalists to verify the factual accuracy of the information they report. Factual verification" is what separates journalism from other modes of communication, such as propaganda, fiction or entertainment". Lack of verification involves the publication of potentially unreliable information prior to or without independent confirmation of the facts, and has resulted in various scandals. In the context of the Israel-Palestinian conflict, for example, consider: The Battle of Jenin, after which early media reports claimed that Israel "massacred" hundreds of Palestinian civilians. Later investigations by the United Nations and Human Rights Watch estimated the total Palestinian death toll at 52 (with estimates of civilian deaths ranging from 22 to 26) and contradicted previous claims that a massacre had taken place. The Islamic Jihad shooting attack on Kiryat Arba in November 2002, which Western media reports described as an attack on "worshipers," resulting in international condemnations. According to the Jerusalem Post, Islamic Jihad "opened fire at a [sic] security forces safeguarding Jewish worshipers," and according to both Haaretz and the Jerusalem Post, the twelve Israelis killed all belonged to the IDF, the Israeli Border Police, or the Hebron security force. Honest Reporting (a pro-Israel group) believe that many media outlets devoted huge amounts of ink to "unverified Palestinian tales of conspiracies, mass murders, common graves, and war crimes." CAMERA believe that when dealing with vilification of Israel, facts remain unchecked, accusations remain unverified, and journalistic responsibility is replaced by disclaimers. Selective reporting Selective reporting involves devoting more resources, such as news articles or air time, to the coverage of one side of the story over another. Honest Reporting has asked whether "equal time" was granted to both sides of the conflict, or was one side given preferential treatment – hence lending more weight and credibility to that side's positions. In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, FAIR believe the media in the United States downplay violence against Palestinians and stated that National Public Radio reported more Israeli casualties of the Arab–Israeli conflict than Palestinian casualties by percentage. CAMERA made the opposite complaint – that NPR gave pro-Arab speakers 77% more time than Israeli or pro-Israeli speakers, and segments that included only pro-Arab speakers were almost twice as numerous and four times as long as those that omitted Arab speakers altogether. Decontextualization Decontextualization is a type of omission in which the omitted information is essential to understanding a decision, action, or event, its underlying motivations or key events leading up to it. In the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, for example, consider the effect of the following: An article discussing the West Bank Barrier which does not mention the suicide bombings of the Second Intifada An article discussing the 2006 Hamas Election Victory which does not mention the corruption of Fatah Honest Reporting believe that failing to provide proper context and full background information, journalists can dramatically distort the true picture. CAMERA believes it to be a frequent problem when reporting about the Middle East. Reasons for bias Print and broadcast media may be biased for varying reasons, including: Coercion or censorship Coercion or censorship refers to the use of intimidation or force to promote favorable reports and to confiscate unfavorable reports. In the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, both sides accuse each other of coercion or censorship as an explanation of alleged bias in favor of the other side. In support of these claims, Israeli advocates point to kidnappings of foreign reporters by Palestinians, while Palestinian advocates point to media blackouts and confiscation of reports by Israelis. Additionally, both sides point to reports by both governmental and non-governmental organizations, which assess the degree of journalistic freedom in the region. See Media of Israel and Human rights in Israel#Freedom of speech and the media. Forgery or falsification Forgery or falsification involves the intentional misrepresentation, alteration, or invention of reported information. Due to the severity of these actions, which violate the ethics and standards of journalism, instances of forgery and/or falsification are frequently cited by Israelis and their advocates and/or by Palestinians and their advocates—depending on the nature of the forgery and/or falsification—to support claims that the media favors the other side. HonestReporting commented on the 2006 Lebanon War photographs controversies that "A Reuters photo turns out to be an outright lie, manipulated to make damage in Beirut appear much worse than reality." For additional claims see Pallywood Placement According to CAMERA, headlines are the first, and sometimes only, news items seen by readers and should provide the accurate and specific essence of a news story. It criticized The New York Times for the placement of news stories about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, focusing heavily on Palestinian suffering while continually minimizing the personal toll on Israelis. Exaggeration or sensationalism Sensationalism, in general, is a form of being extremely controversial, loud, or attention grabbing. In the context of the media, sensationalism refers to claims that the media chooses to report on shocking events or to exaggerate, at the expense of accuracy and objectivity, to improve viewer, listener or readership ratings. This criticism, also known as media circus, is proffered by both Israelis and Palestinians as a possible explanation for alleged bias. HonestReporting believes a new de facto "stylebook" is being used by the media which sensationalize the intensity and scope of Israeli military actions. the following regarding sensationalism: CAMERA criticized Haaretz for using a sensational headline: Prejudiced journalists Journalists may intentionally or unintentionally distort reports due to political ideology, national affiliation, antisemitism, anti-Arabism, or Islamophobia. Richard Falk, United Nations special rapporteur on Palestinian human rights, has stated that in the media-distorted picture surrounding the Middle East, those who reports honestly and factually are accused of bias, whereas pro-Israel bias is perceived as mainstream. Falk has stated that because the media don't adequately report violations of international law by Israel, "the American public isn't aware of the behavior of Israel or the victimization of the Palestinian people. This creates a kind of imbalance." CAMERA attributed Christiane Amanpour's allegedly biased news coverage to her political ideology; Ira Stoll of the New York Sun, and formerly of the Jerusalem Post, attributes alleged anti-Israel media bias in part to reporters of Jewish background. Contentious incidents To substantiate claims that the media favors the other side, participants in the conflict on each side frequently cite a number of illustrative and extreme examples of controversial reporting. This section lists incidents of controversial reporting frequently cited by only Israelis and Israel advocates, by only Palestinians and Palestinian advocates, or by both sides. The list of incidents appear chronologically, according to when the incident took place. Where events took place on the same date, the incidents appear sorted alphabetically. Muhammad al-Durrah affair On September 30, 2000, the 11- to 12-year-old boy, Muhammad al-Durrah, was shot in Palestinian-Israeli crossfire at the Netzarim junction. France 2, which caught the incident on tape, claimed that Israel had fatally shot the boy. After an official, internal investigation, the IDF conceded that it was probably responsible and apologized for the shooting. Al-Durrah became a symbol of the Second Intifada and of Palestinian martyrdom. External investigations suggested that the IDF could not have shot the boy and that the tape had been staged. In 2001, following a non-military investigation, conducted by Israeli Southern Command Maj.-Gen. Yom Tov Samia, the Israeli Prime Minister's Foreign Media Advisor, Dr. Ra'anan Gissin, along with Daniel Seaman of the Israeli Government Press Office (GPO) publicly challenged the accuracy of the France 2 report. In 2005, the head of the Israeli National Security Agency, Major-General (res.) Giora Eiland publicly retracted the IDF's initial admittance of responsibility. To avoid negative publicity and a resulting backlash, the IDF did not conduct its own official, military investigation until 2007. On October 1, 2007, Israel officially denied responsibility for the shooting and claimed that the France 2 footage had been staged, prompting criticism from Al-Durrah's father. However, in early 2012, Dr. David Yehudah was sued by al-Dura's father and was acquitted in French court. The French defamation case was definitely settled on June 26, 2013, by the French Court of Appeals: Philippe Karsenty was convicted of defamation and fined €7,000 by the Paris Court of Appeals. Karsenty's version, which described the killing of young Mohammed Al Durah as "staged", was rejected by the French Court's final decision. Photo of Tuvia Grossman On September 30, 2000, The New York Times, the Associated Press, and other media outlets published a photograph of a club-wielding Israeli police officer standing over a battered and bleeding young man. The photograph's caption identified the young man as a Palestinian and the location as the Temple Mount. The young man in the picture was 20-year-old Tuvia Grossman, a Jewish American student from Chicago who had been studying at a Yeshiva in Israel; the Israeli police officer in the photograph, actually came to his rescue by threatening his Palestinian assailants. After a complaint by Grossman's father, The New York Times issued a correction on October 4. A few days later the Times published an article about the incident and printed a more complete correction. The Times attributed the error to a misidentification by the Israeli agency that took the photo compounded by a further misidentification by the Associated Press "which had received many pictures of injured Palestinians that day". The Grossman photo appears frequently in Israeli criticisms of the media, because the photograph implied that the police officer who rescued Grossman had beaten him, it implied an Israeli perpetrator, it implied a Palestinian victim, and it conveyed the opposite of what had transpired. Seth Ackerman of FAIR described the attention given to the photo, as well as the two NYT corrections, as disproportionate to a "plausible, though careless" assumption resulting from "garbled information from the Israeli photographer". Battle of Jenin On April 3, 2002, following the Passover massacre on March 27 which killed 30 Israeli civilians and wounded as many as 143, the IDF began a major military operation in the Jenin refugee camp, a city which, according to Israel, had "served as a launching site for numerous terrorist attacks against both Israeli civilians and Israeli towns and villages in the area". The fighting, which lasted eight days and resulted in the deaths of 52 Palestinians (including 14 civilians, according to the IDF, and 22 civilians, according to HRW) and 23 Israeli soldiers, has been interpreted quite differently by Israelis and Palestinians. In the aftermath of the fighting, chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat claimed that the IDF had killed 500 Palestinians and accused Israel of committing a "massacre". Early news publications, following both IDF estimates of 200 Palestinians killed and Palestinian estimates of 500 Palestinians killed, reported hundreds of Palestinian deaths and repeated claims that a massacre had taken place. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International later found that no massacre had taken place, although both organizations charged the IDF with war crimes and human rights violations. The United Nations similarly dismissed claims that hundreds of Palestinians had been killed as unsubstantiated, a finding which was widely interpreted and reported as rejecting claims of a "massacre". Israelis cite the reporting surrounding the Battle of Jenin, because "the Arab and European media hastily reported", without proper verification, Palestinian allegations that a massacre had taken place, a claim broken by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and described by many pro-Israel sources as "The Big Jenin Lie" and by HonestReporting as "Jeningrad". Gaza beach blast On June 9, 2006, an explosion on a beach in the Gaza Strip killed seven Palestinians, including three children. Palestinian sources claimed that the explosion resulted from Israeli shelling. After a three-day investigation, Israel concluded that the blast could not have resulted from an IDF artillery shell. This IDF investigation was criticized by both Human Rights Watch and The Guardian for ignoring evidence. The IDF agreed that the report should have mentioned two gunboat shells fired at about the time of the deaths but stated that these shells had landed too far away from the area to be the cause of the explosion and this omission did not impact the report's overall conclusion that Israel had not been responsible for the blast. According to Human Rights Watch, the IDF acknowledged that the cause of the blast may have been an unexploded 155mm artillery shell from an earlier shelling, or another location, but suggested it might have been placed there as an IED by Palestinians. An investigation by Human Rights Watch concluded that the explosion was caused by a 155mm Israeli artillery shell, stating that 'The shrapnel, crater, and injuries all point to this weapon as the cause.' According to CAMERA, "many in the press [have presumed] that Israel is responsible". This incident is often cited by Israel advocates who claim that the media favors the Palestinian side, because of reports which attributed the blast to the IDF prior to the conclusion of the IDF investigation. 2006 Lebanon War photographs controversies On August 5, 2006 Charles Foster Johnson of Little Green Footballs accused Reuters of inappropriately manipulating images of destruction to Beirut caused by Israel during the Second Lebanon War. This accusation marked the first of many accusations against media outlets for inappropriate photo manipulation. Media outlets were also accused of incorrectly captioning photos and of staging photographs through the inappropriate use of props. These accusations, which initially appeared in the blogosphere, were amplified by Aish HaTorah through an online video entitled "Photo Fraud in Lebanon". In response to these allegations, Reuters toughened its photo editing policy and admitted to inappropriate photo manipulation on the part of Adnan Hajj, a freelance photographer whom Reuters subsequently fired. Additionally, BBC, The New York Times, and the Associated Press recalled photos or corrected captions in response to some of the accusations. This journalistic scandal, dubbed "Reutersgate" by the blogosphere in reference to the Watergate scandal and dubbed "fauxtography" by Honest Reporting and others, is frequently cited by Israelis and by Israel advocates to demonstrate alleged anti-Israel bias, this time in the form of an outright forgery created by a biased local freelance photographer. "Mystery of Israel's Secret Uranium Bomb" On October 28, 2006, The Independent published an article, by Robert Fisk, which speculated, based on information from the European Committee on Radiation Risk, that Israel may have used depleted uranium weapons during the 2006 Lebanon War. The article prompted criticism by HonestReporting for coming to conclusions prematurely, and resulted in an investigation by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). On November 8, 2006, UNEP concluded that Israel had not used any form of uranium-based weapons. Israelis and Israel advocates cite the article as an instance of "shoddy journalism", arising allegedly as a result of media sensationalism. Samir Kuntar as a hero On July 19, 2008, Al Jazeera TV broadcast a program from Lebanon that covered the "welcome-home" festivities for Samir Kuntar, a Lebanese militant who had been imprisoned in Israel for murdering several people, including a four-year-old child, in a Palestine Liberation Front raid from Lebanon into Israel. In the program, the head of Al Jazeera's Beirut office, Ghassan bin Jiddo, praised Kuntar as a "pan-Arab hero" and organized a birthday party for him. In response, Israel's Government Press Office (GPO) threatened to boycott the satellite channel unless it apologized. A few days later an official letter was issued by Al Jazeera's director general, Wadah Khanfar, in which he admitted that the program violated the station's Code of Ethics and that he had ordered the channel's programming director to take steps to ensure that such an incident does not recur. Baby death date misrepresentation A Gaza man falsely claimed that his five-month-old baby died on March 23, 2012, when the generator powering his respirator ran out of fuel, a result of the Egyptian blockade on Gaza and Egyptian cut-off of fuel to Gaza. The baby's death, which had been "confirmed" by a Gaza health official, would have been the first to be connected with the territory's energy shortage. The baby's father, Abdul-Halim Helou, said that his son Mohammed was born with a lymphatic disorder and needed removal of the fluids that accumulated in his respiratory system, and had only a few months to live. He said that they had erred in how much fuel was required and that if they had been "living in a normal country with electricity", his son's chances of living longer would have been better. However, the report was called into question when it emerged that the timing of the baby's death had been misrepresented, and appeared to be an attempt by Gaza's Hamas rulers to exploit the death to gain sympathy. The Associated Press later learned that news of Mohammed Helou's death had already appeared on March 4 in the local Arabic newspaper Al-Quds and that Hamas was now trying to recycle the story to capitalize on the family's tragedy. The Al-Quds article contained the same details as the later report, but with an earlier date. When confronted by the Associated Press, the family and Hamas official Bassem al-Qadri continued to insist that the baby had only recently died. The AP reporter Diaa Hadid tweeted, "#Hamas misrepresented a story. Two Hamas officials misled us and so did the family." The Associated Press then retracted the story, explaining that "The report has been called into question after it was learned that a local newspaper carried news of the baby's death on March 4." An Israeli government spokesman said he was not surprised by Hamas' attempt to "hide the truth and manipulate the information that is allowed to get out of Gaza." Honest Reporting commented that "when Palestinian lies and misinformation go unchecked, it's inevitable that dishonest propaganda tactics used against Israel will be employed against others." CAMERA stated that this was "the latest example of disinformation about Gaza casualties." Gaza floods caused by opening dams in Israel Gaza is a coastal plain, bordering the Negev desert which witnesses flash floods during heavy rains as water runs across the surface of the impervious desert soil. During the 2013 winter storm in the Middle east Ma'an News Agency reported that Israel opened dams, leading to Gaza floods. However, no such dams actually exist. Gazan paramedic killed by the Israeli army Razan Ashraf Abdul Qadir al-Najjar was a nurse/paramedic who was killed by the Israeli army while volunteering as a medic during the 2018 Gaza border protests. She was fatally shot in the chest by an Israeli soldier as she, reportedly with her arms raised to show she was unarmed, tried to help evacuate the wounded near Israel's border fence with Gaza. The Israeli army released footage in which she purportedly admitted to participating in the protests as a human shield, supposedly at the request of Hamas. The video was later found to be a clip from an interview with a Lebanese television station that had been edited by the IDF to misleadingly take al-Najjar's comments out of context. In the actual, unedited video, she made no mention of Hamas, and called herself a "rescuing human shield to protect and save the wounded at the front lines", with everything following "human shield" trimmed out of the Israeli clip. The IDF was widely criticized for tampering with the video to chip away at her image. Films This section discusses films with media coverage of the Arab-Israeli conflict as its main topic. The films presented in this section appear in alphabetical order. Décryptage Décryptage is a 2003 documentary written by Jacques Tarnero and directed by Philippe Bensoussan. The French film (with English subtitles) examines media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict in French media, and claims that the media's presentation of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in France is consistently skewed against Israel and may be responsible for exacerbating anti-Semitism. Pallywood Pallywood: According to Palestinian sources... is an 18-minute online documentary by Richard Landes. The film, with its title derived from the words Palestine and Hollywood, claims that the Western media uncritically accepts and reports the stories of freelance Palestinian videographers who record staged scenes, often involving faked or exaggerated injuries, to elicit sympathy and support. Peace, Propaganda, and the Promised Land Peace, Propaganda, and the Promised Land is a 2004 documentary by Sut Jhally and Bathsheba Ratzkoff. The movie claims that the influence of pro-Israel media watchdog groups, such as CAMERA and Honest Reporting, leads to distorted and pro-Israel media reports. In its response to the movie, the pro-Israel JCRC criticizes the film for not discussing the influence of "the numerous pro‐Palestinian media watchdog groups, including, ironically, FAIR (Fair and Accuracy in the Media, which describes itself as 'A National Media Watch Group'), whose spokesperson played a prominent role in the film". According to the pro-Palestinian LiP Magazine, the movie "offers a great starting point for thinking about media misrepresentation of the Israel-Palestinian conflict, and useful analysis of how language is used to manipulate public opinion," but is short on "solid statistics and facts to back up some of its blanket statements". A review in The New York Times by Ned Martel found that the film "largely ignores Palestinian leadership, which has surely played a part in the conflict's broken vows and broken hearts. And such a lack of dispassion weakens the one-sided film's bold and detailed argument". Other criticisms False compromise False compromise refers to the claim, made by some Israeli advocates and by some Palestinian advocates, that their side of the conflict is morally right and the other side is morally wrong and, therefore, attempts to balance the presentation of both viewpoints wrongfully suggests that both sides are morally equivalent. In the words of journalist Bret Stephens, "Moral clarity is a term that doesn't get much traction these days, least of all among journalists, who prefer 'objectivity' and 'balance.' Yet good journalism is more than about separating fact from opinion and being fair. Good journalism is about fine analysis and making distinctions, and this applies as much to moral distinctions as to any others. Because too many reporters today refuse to make moral distinctions, we are left with a journalism whose narrative and analytical failings have become ever more glaring". Structural geographic bias Structural geographic bias refers to the claim, made by some Palestinian advocates, that the Western media favors Israel, allegedly as a result of Western reporters living in Israel. Internet and social media Advocacy groups, governments and individuals use the internet, new media and social media to try to influence public perceptions of both sides in the Arab/Palestinian–Israeli conflict. Jerusalem Post writer Megan Jacobs has written "War in the Middle East is being waged not only on the ground, but also in cyberspace." While Israeli and Palestinian advocacy websites promote their respective points of view, fierce debate over the Arab–Israeli conflict has embroiled social networking websites and applications with user-generated content, such as Facebook, Google Earth, Twitter and Wikipedia. According to an Associated Press article, Israelis and Palestinians make use of social media to promote "rival narratives" and draw attention to their own suffering to gain international sympathy and backing. However, "distortions and mistakes are instantly magnified on a global scale." Facebook Facebook is a social networking website, which allows users to connect and interact with other people online, both directly by "friending" people and indirectly through the creation of groups. Because the website allows users to join networks organized by city, workplace, school, and region, Facebook has become embroiled in a number of regional conflicts. Facebook groups such as "'Palestine' Is not a country... De-list it from Facebook as a country!" and "Israel is not a country! ... Delist it from Facebook as a country!", among others reflecting the mutual non-recognition of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, have protested Facebook's listing of Israel and Palestine, respectively, as countries. This controversy became particularly heated when, in response to protests over Palestine being listed as a country, Facebook delisted it. The move infuriated Palestinian users and prompted the creation of numerous Facebook groups such as "The Official Petition to get Palestine listed as a Country", "Against delisting Palestine from Facebook", and "If Palestine is removed from Facebook ... I'm closing my account". Facebook, in response to user complaints, ultimately reinstated Palestine as a country network. A similar controversy took place regarding the status of Israeli settlements. When Israeli settlements were moved from being listed under the Israel network to the Palestine network, thousands of Israelis living in the area protested Facebook's decision. In response to the protest, Facebook has allowed users living in the area to select either Israel or Palestine as their home country. Another controversy over Facebook regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict concerns Facebook groups which, against Facebook's terms of use, promote hatred and violence. According to former Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres, Facebook has been used to promote anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism. A proliferation of Facebook groups praising the perpetrator of the Mercaz HaRav massacre in 2008 prompted the creation of the Facebook group "FACEBOOK: Why do you support Anti-Semitism and Islamic Terrorism", which claimed to have succeeded in deleting over 100 pro-Palestinian Facebook groups with violent content, by reporting the groups to Facebook. The group, which since evolved into the Jewish Internet Defense Force, took over the Facebook group "Israel is not a country! Delist it from Facebook as a country" when, according to the JIDF, Facebook stopped removing such groups. After taking over the group, the JIDF began to remove its more than 48,000 members and replaced the group's graphic with a picture of an IAF jet with the flag of Israel in the background. This sparked controversy. Twitter According to a McClatchy news article, those using social media, including even official spokesmen and public officials, have a habit of "re-purposing" older photographs and videos to illustrate current-day events. Few people check the accuracy of the material before spreading it to others. During the March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes there were three such notable Twitter incidents. Ofir Gendelman, a spokesman for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, tweeted a photo of an Israeli woman and her two children ducking a Gaza rocket describing it as "when a rocket fired by terrorists from Gaza is about to hit their home." When it was proved the photo was from 2009 he said "I never stated that the photo was current. It illustrates the fear that people in southern Israel live in." Avital Leibovich, the head of the foreign desk for Israel's military, sent a tweet from her official account of a video of rockets from Gaza being fired at Israel. It later was discovered the video had been taken in October 2011. When questioned she said her tweet was not misleading and "Launching a rocket does not differ whether it happened in November, July or now". Leibovich was one of a number of bloggers who criticized Khulood Badawi, an Information and Media Coordinator for the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs who tweeted a picture of a Palestinian child covered in blood. She captioned it "Another child killed by #Israel... Another father carrying his child to a grave in #Gaza." It was discovered the picture was published in 2006 and was of a Palestinian girl who had died in an accident and been brought to the hospital shortly after an Israeli air strike in Gaza. Israel's Ambassador to the United Nations Ron Prosor called for Badawi's dismissal, stating that she was "directly engaged in spreading misinformation". Humanitarian Coordinator and the Head of Office in Jerusalem later met with officials at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel to discuss these events. UN Under-Secretary General Valerie Amos wrote, "It is regrettable that an OCHA staff member has posted information on her personal Twitter profile, which is both false and which reflects on issues that are related to her work." A few days later Badawi tweeted on her personal account "Correction: I tweeted the photo believing it was from the last round of violence & it turned out to be from 2006 This is my personal account." Ma'an News Agency reported a week later that the hospital medical report on the dead girl stated that she died "due to falling from a high area during the Israeli strike on Gaza". There are differing accounts of how the Israeli air strike, reported to be as little as 100 meters away, may have caused the accident. Wikipedia Wikipedia is an online, collaboratively written encyclopedia. While editing conflicts occur frequently, one particular conflict, involving CAMERA and The Electronic Intifada, was reported in The Jerusalem Post and the International Herald Tribune (IHT). When CAMERA encouraged individuals sympathetic to Israel to participate in editing Wikipedia to "lead to more accuracy and fairness on Wikipedia", The Electronic Intifada accused CAMERA of "orchestrating a secret, long-term campaign to infiltrate the popular online encyclopedia Wikipedia to rewrite Palestinian history, pass off crude propaganda as fact, and take over Wikipedia administrative structures to ensure these changes go either undetected or unchallenged." The accusations led to administrative actions on Wikipedia—including the banning of certain editors. HonestReporting responded to the incident with its own article, entitled "Exposed – Anti-Israeli Subversion on Wikipedia" which complained of "anti-Israel bias on Wikipedia" and described Wikipedia's NPOV policy as a "noble goal not always applied equally by Wikipedia users. CAMERA similarly responded to the incident with a letter entitled "The failure of Wikipedia", appearing in IHT, which described Wikipedia's Middle East articles as "often-unreliable". In a separate article entitled "The Wild West of Wikipedia", which appeared in The Jewish Chronicle and IMRA, Gilead Ini of CAMERA decried "Wikipedia's often-skewed entries about the Middle East", described Wikipedia's rules as "shoddily enforced", and wrote that, following the incident, "many editors who hoped to ensure accuracy and balance ... are now banned" while "partisan editors ... continue to freely manipulate Wikipedia articles to their liking". The Yesha Council and Israel Sheli, launched a project to improve coverage of Zionist views on Wikipedia. The project organiser, Ayelet Shaked emphasized that the information has to be reliable and meet Wikipedia rules. "The idea is not to make Wikipedia rightist but for it to include our point of view," said Naftali Bennett, the director of the Yesha Council. In this vein, the groups taught a course on how to edit Wikipedia. The Yesha Council also launched a new prize, "Best Zionist Editor," to be awarded to the most productive editor on Israel-related topics. In 2013, news outlets including Haaretz and France24 reported the indefinite block of an editor who had concealed the fact that he was an employee of right-wing media group NGO Monitor. The editor was reported to have edited English Wikipedia articles on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict "in an allegedly biased manner". Watchdog groups This is an alphabetically sorted list of media watchdog groups which monitor coverage of the conflict in Western news media. While academics debate the impact of the media on public opinion, lobbying organisations view the media as essential in influencing public perceptions of the conflict and, therefore, as paramount in influencing and securing favorable public policy in relation to the conflict. See also Israeli occupation of the West Bank Media coverage of the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict Israeli Military Censor Arab zoological conspiracy theories Israel-related animal conspiracy theories 2006 Fox journalists kidnapping Adnan Hajj photographs controversy Hasbara Jewish Internet Defense Force James Miller Fadel Shana'a Deception: Betraying the Peace Process Media of Israel Notes Citations Sources Further reading Bad News from Israel, Greg Philo and Mike Berry Pluto Press, (2004) Caught in the Middle by Steve Mcnally; Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 40, January–February 2002 Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World, by Edward W. Said (1997) Covering the Intifada: A Hazardous Beat; Photographers and Journalists Come under Gunfire While Reporting on the Conflict, by Joel Campagna; Nieman Reports, Vol. 56, Fall 2002 Covering the Intifada: How the Media Reported the Palestinian Uprising, by Joshua Muravchik; Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2003 Days of Rage: News Organizations Have Been Besieged by Outraged Critics Accusing Them of Unfair Coverage of the Violence in the Middle East. Are They Guilty as Charged?, by Sharyn Vane; American Journalism Review, Vol. 24, July–August 2002 Do Words and Pictures from the Middle East Matter? A Journalist from the Region Argues That U.S. Policy Is Not Affected by the Way News Is Reported, by Rami G. Khouri; Nieman Reports, Vol. 56, Fall 2002 Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict, New and Revised Edition, by Norman G. Finkelstein (2003) Images Lead to Varying Perceptions: 'In Photographs in Which We, as Journalists, Saw Danger, Some Readers Saw Deception, by Debbie Kornmiller; Nieman Reports, Vol. 56, Fall 2002 Israel-Palestine on Record: How the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East by Richard A. Falk and Howard Friel London: Verso (2007) . The Israeli-Hezbollah War of 2006: The Media as a Weapon in Asymmetrical Conflict by Marvin Kalb John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, February 2007 The Minefield of Language in Middle East Coverage: Journalists Rarely Have the Time or Space to Navigate through the War of Words, by Beverly Wall; Nieman Reports, Vol. 56, Fall 2002 Missing: The Bias Implicit in the Absent, by Marda Dunsky; Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 23, 2001 The Other War: A Debate: Questions of Balance in the Middle East by Adeel Hassan; Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 42, May–June 2003 The Other War: Israelis, Palestinians and the Struggle for Media Supremacy, by Stephanie Gutmann, Encounter Books 2005 () Pens and Swords: How the American Mainstream Media Report the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Marda Dunsky, Columbia University Press, 2008 () Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy, Kathleen Christison (2001) Racism and the North American Media Following September 11: The Canadian Setting, by T. Y. Ismael and John Measor; Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 25, 2003 Reporting the Arab Israeli Conflict: How Hegemony Works by Tamar Liebes (1997) Understanding the Arab-Israeli Conflict: What the Headlines Haven't Told You, by Michael Rydelnik; Moody Publishers (June 1, 2004) External links CNN Navigates Raw Emotions In Its Coverage From Israel by The New York Times The Hottest Button: How The Times Covers Israel and Palestine by The New York Times Some U.S. Backers of Israel Boycott Dailies Over Mideast Coverage That They Deplore by The New York Times Journalists caught in the middle by the BBC NUJ under fire for Israel boycott by The Guardian Israel cuts links with BBC by The Guardian Israel to boycott Al-Jazeera TV, claiming incitement to terror by Haaretz Israel accuses al-Jazeera of bias by BBC NPR reacts to charges of anti-Israel bias in coverage by JTA Watching the Pro-Israeli Media Watchers by Manfred Gerstenfeld and Ben Green on JCPA Seven Years on the Front Lines by Honest Reporting on YouTube CAMERA 2007 by CAMERA on YouTube Are There Two Sides to Every Story? by HonestReporting on YouTube Arab–Israeli conflict Media bias controversies Mass media in the State of Palestine

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Mount%20Tumbledown

Battle of Mount Tumbledown

The Battle of Mount Tumbledown was an engagement during the Falklands War. The engagement was an attack by the British Army and the Royal Marines on the heights over-looking Stanley, the Falkland Islands capital. Mount Tumbledown, Mount William and Sapper Hill lie west of the capital. Due to their proximity to the capital, they were of strategic importance during the 1982 War. They were held by the Argentine 5th Naval Infantry Battalion (BIM 5), a reinforced, cold weather trained and equipped, Marine battalion. The assaulting British forces were the 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards, 42 Commando, Royal Marines Mortar platoon and four light tanks of the Blues and Royals. The 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve. One of a number of night battles that took place during the British advance towards Stanley, the battle led to British troops capturing all the heights above the town, allowing the town's capture and the surrender of the Argentine forces on the islands. Overview On the night of 13–14 June 1982 the British launched an assault on Mount Tumbledown, one of the highest points near the town of Stanley, the capital, and succeeded in driving Argentinian forces from the mountain. This close-quarters night battle was later dramatized in the BBC drama Tumbledown. The attacking British forces consisted of the 2nd Battalion, Scots Guards (2SG), mortar detachments from 42 Commando, Royal Marines and the 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles (1/7 GR), as well as support from a troop of the Blues and Royals equipped with two Scorpion and two Scimitar armoured vehicles. The Argentinian forces defending the mountains were Commander Carlos Robacio's 5th Marine Infantry Battalion (BIM 5). In Argentine shelling directed by Marine Second Lieutenant Marcelo De Marco of the 5th Marines from his observation post on Tumbledown Mountain, four members of the Third Battalion, the Parachute Regiment and one REME craftsman had been killed on Mount Longdon and another seven paratroopers wounded. Prior to the British landings, the Argentinian marine battalion had been brought up to brigade strength by a company of the Amphibious Engineers Company (CKIA), a heavy machine-gun company of the Headquarters Battalion (BICO), a battery of the 1st Marine Field Artillery Battalion (BIAC), and three Tigercat SAM/Hispano-Suiza 30mm anti-aircraft gun batteries of the 1st Marine Anti-Aircraft Regiment, as well as a 2nd Marine Infantry Battalion platoon, a 3rd Marine Infantry Battalion platoon, a military police platoon and a canine platoon. As part of the British plan, 1/7 GR was given the task of capturing the sub-hill of Mount William held by O Company, the 5th Marine Battalion's reserve, and then allowing the Welsh Guards through to seize Sapper Hill, the final obstacle before Stanley. The attack was supported by naval gunfire from HMS Active's 4.5 inch gun. At the time of the battle, Marine Teniente de Navio (Ship-of-the-Line Lieutenant) Eduardo Villarraza's N Company held Mount Tumbledown. Mount William was just south of Tumbledown and the Marine battalion's O Company under Marine Captain Ricardo Quiroga was on its lower slopes. Major Oscar Ramon Jaimet's B (Bravo) Company, 6th Army Regiment was in reserve behind N Company. Marine Captain Rodolfo Oscar Cionchi's M Company occupied Sapper Hill. The Argentinian defenders held firm under the British 'softening up' bombardment, which began at 7:30 local time. Major Jaimet later recalled: I heard the cries of the wounded calling for their comrades, twelve men wounded before nightfall. We thought we had suffered before, but what luxury and comfort compared to this. During the battle, the 5th Marines Command Post took five direct hits, but Commander Robacio emerged unscathed. Tumbledown defenders Captain Eduardo Villarraza's N Company from the 5th Marine Battalion, would defend Mounts Tumbledown and William. The 1st Platoon, under by Marine Second Lieutenant (Guardiamarina or Midshipman) Carlos Bianchi, was dug in on Mount William. The 2nd Platoon, led by Marine Second Lieutenant Marcelo Oruezabala, was dug in between Tumbledown and William. The 3rd Platoon, under Marine Sergeant (Suboficial or Chief Petty Officer) Jorge Lucero, was dug in on the northern slopes of Tumbledown, overlooking Moody Brook. The 4th Platoon, led by Sub-Lieutenant Carlos Daniel Vázquez, was dug in near the summit of Tumbledown, covering the western approaches to the peak. The 5th Platoon, led by Lieutenant Héctor Omar Miño, was positioned behind the 4th Platoon, facing north in support of Lucero's men. Browning 12.7mm heavy machine gun teams and German Shepherd Dog squads (from the Puerto Belgrano-based Headquarters Battalion) were also present on Mount Tumbledown and Sapper Hill. Marine Tigercat Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) launchers and Anti-Tank gun and missile teams were also part of the defences, with one anti-tank team located on Mount William in support of Bianchi's men and another anti-tank team supporting Lucero's men. The Marine SAM Platoon equipped with British Blowpipe and Russian SA-7 shoulder-launched missiles were positioned on Sapper Hill. The 60mm Mortar Platoon was split in two parts on Tumbledown, with the mortar men positioned near the summit (under Marine Sergeants David Ramos and Lucio Monzón) in support of Vázquez's 4th Platoon. Early moves On the morning of 13 June, the Scots Guards were moved by helicopter from their position at Bluff Cove to an assembly area near Goat Ridge, west of Mount Tumbledown. The British plan called for a diversionary attack south of Mount Tumbledown by a small number of the Scots Guards, assisted by the four light tanks of the Blues and Royals, whilst the main attack came as a three-phase silent advance from the west of Mount Tumbledown. In the first phase, G company would take the western end of the mountain. In the second phase, Left Flank (company) would pass through the area taken by G company to capture the centre of the summit. In the third phase, Right Flank would pass through Left Flank to secure the eastern end of Tumbledown. A daytime assault was initially planned, but was postponed at the British battalion commander's request. In a meeting with his company commanders the consensus was that the long uphill assault across the harsh ground of Tumbledown would be suicidal in daylight. Diversion At 8:30 p.m. on 13 June the diversionary attack began. The 2nd Bn Scots Guards' Reconnaissance Platoon, commanded by Major Richard Bethell (a former SAS officer), and supported by four light tanks of the 'Blues & Royals', clashed with the Argentine O Marine Company under Marine Captain Quiroga in a blocking position on the lower slopes of Mount William. On William's southern slopes, one of the tanks was taken out of action by a booby trap. The initial advance was unopposed, but a heavy firefight broke out when British troops made contact with Argentinian defences. The Argentinians opened fire, killing two British soldiers and wounding four others. After two hours of hard fighting, the company withdrew to its main defences on William and the British secured the position. Marine First Class Private José Luis Fazio fought against Bethell's force: At about 2230 hours our battalion had its first intensive gun battle with British companies which appeared out of nowhere. I heard Private Roberto Barboza yell "The English are here!" ... I remember our Operations Officer requested the artillery to assist at 23.00 with star shells. The close quarter battle was such that the Argentine artillery was unable to drop shells on to the British attackers. I was shooting, doing my work. I don't know if I killed anyone. We just fired our rifles, that's all. Contact was maintained for over an hour before battalion headquarters ordered Obra Company to fall back ... What we did not realise at the time was that at least a wounded Marine made his way to the amphibious engineer platoon position and hurled a grenade wounding a Major. Simultaneously the Major opened fire, killing him. Fearing a counter-attack, the British platoon withdrew into an undetected minefield, and were forced to abandon their dead. Two men were wounded covering the withdrawal and four more were wounded by mines. The explosions prompted the Argentine Marine Major Antonio Pernías to order the 81 mm mortar platoon on Mount William and the longer-ranged 120 mm mortars attached to 'C' Company, 3rd Infantry Regiment on Sapper Hill to open fire on the minefield and the likely withdrawal route of anyone attacking Mount William. The barrage lasted for about forty minutes and more British casualties would have been inflicted if the mortar bombs had not landed on soft peat, which absorbed most of the power of the explosions. In 2007, Guardsmen Steven William Duffy and Peter Alexander MacInnes from the Pipes & Drums Platoon recounted their experiences, claiming that some Argentinian Marines were in hot pursuit during the British withdrawal, with Bethell's force suffering a total of 2 killed and 16 wounded. Night attack At 9 p.m., half an hour after the start of the diversionary attack, Major Iain Dalzel-Job's G Company started its advance of nearly two miles. Reaching its objective undetected, the company found the western end of the mountain undefended and occupied it easily, but later came under heavy shellfire that wounded Major Dalzel-Job in the head. Major John Kiszely's Left Flank passed through them and reached the central region of the peak unopposed, but then came under heavy fire. The Argentinians, later learned to be of company strength, directed mortar, grenade, machine gun and small arms fire from very close range at the British company, killing three British soldiers. Marine Sub-Lieutenant Héctor Mino's 5th Platoon (1st Amphibious Engineer Company), held the rocks behind Sub-Lieutenant Carlos Vázquez's 4th Platoon, N Company. In the centre of the 4th Marine Platoon position were the remnants of Second Lieutenants Óscar Silva's and Marcelo Llambías-Pravaz's RI 4 platoons as well as the remnants of Second Lieutenants Celestino Mosteirín's and Marcelo Dorigón's RI 12 platoons, which had recently fought on Two Sisters, Goat Ridge and Mount Harriet. For four or five hours, a mixed bag of Marine/Army defenders representing six platoons of Argentinian infantry, engineers and one platoon of mortar men on Tumbledown pinned the British down. To help identify the bunkers, the Guardsmen fired flares at the summit. The Guardsmen traded 66 mm rockets and 84 mm anti-tank rounds with the Argentinians, who were armed with anti-tank rifle grenades and protected in their rock bunkers. The Argentinians refused to budge; the Guardsmen could hear some of them shouting obscene phrases in English and even singing the March of the Malvinas as they fought. Meanwhile, two Royal Navy frigates, HMS Yarmouth and Active, were pounding Tumbledown with their 4.5 inch guns. At one stage Lieutenant Colonel Michael Scott, (Commanding Officer of 2 SG), thought the battalion might have to withdraw and attack again the next night, "The old nails were being bitten a bit, if we had been held on Tumbledown it might have encouraged them to keep on fighting". Left flank The fighting was hard going for Left Flank. The Argentinians had well dug-in machine guns and snipers. At 2:30 a.m., however, a second British assault overwhelmed the men of the 4th and 12th Regiments but the survivors of Vazquez's 4th Platoon would continue fighting till about 7:00 am. The British troops swarmed over the mountaintop and killed, wounded or captured several of the RI 4 and RI 12 defenders, at times fighting with fixed bayonets. Marine Private Jorge Sanchez recalled: The fighting was sporadic, but at times fierce, as we tried to maintain our position. By this time we had ten or twelve dead including one officer [Second Lieutenant Oscar Silva, Argentine Army]. I hadn't fired directly at a British soldier, as they had been too hard to get a clear shot at. I can remember lying there with all this firing going over my head. They were everywhere. The platoon commander [Marine Sub-Lieutenant Carlos Daniel Vazquez] then called Private Ramon Rotela manning the 60 millimetre mortar and Rotela fired it straight up into the air so that the bombs landed on ourselves. At this point I had been up and in actual combat for over six hours. It was snowing and we were tired. Some of the guys had surrendered, but I didn't want to do this. I had only twenty rounds left and I decided to continue the fight from Mount William. I popped up, fired a rifle grenade in the direction of 8 to 10 British soldiers to keep their heads down, and then ran for the 2nd Platoon. I can remember saying some type of prayer hoping the British wouldn't shoot me in the back. Major Kiszely, who was to become a senior general after the war, was the first man into the 4th Platoon position, personally shooting two Argentinian conscripts and bayoneting a third, his bayonet breaking in two. Seeing their company commander among the Argentinians inspired 14 and 15 Platoons to make the final dash across open ground to get within bayoneting distance of the remaining 4th Platoon Marines. Kiszely and six other Guardsmen suddenly found themselves standing on top of the mountain, looking down on Stanley which was under street lighting and vehicles could be seen moving along the roads. The Argentinians, in the form of Second Lieutenant Augusto La Madrid's platoon from Major Jaimet's B Company and Marine Lieutenant Hector Miño's amphibious engineer platoon (rallied by Marine Lieutenant Waldemar Aquino and Marine Second Lieutenant De Marco), now counter-attacked and a burst of machine gun fire from La Madrid's men wounded three Guardsmen, including Lieutenant Alasdair Mitchell (commander of 15 Platoon). A bullet also passed through the compass secured on the belt of the Left Flank Company commander, injuring Major Kiszely. For his bayonet charge Kiszely was awarded the Military Cross. According to Guardsman Mark Cape, another three Guardsmen defending the summit were also wounded in this action, when Miño, De Marco and Privates Oscar Poltronieri and Carlos Muela attacked their position with hand grenades. Counterattack By 6 a.m., Left Flank's attack had clearly stalled and had cost the British company seven men killed and 18 wounded. On the eastern half of the mountain the platoons of conscripts of La Madrid and Miño platoon, were attempting to renew their advance, having already wounded six Guardsmen, so Colonel Scott ordered Right Flank to push on to clear the final positions. Second Lieutenant La Madrid later described the fighting: I went forward to make a reconnaissance and could see that the British had two machineguns and a missile launcher in action. I went through another gap in the rocks and was surprised by three men speaking in English behind and above me and firing over the top of me. I could see them with my night binoculars ... I took a rifle grenade and fired at where I had seen the first three men. I heard it explode and some shouts and cries of pain ... I ran back to my position and ordered my men to open fire. We stopped them, but they thinned out and came round our flanks ... They also engaged us with light mortars and missile launchers. This went on for a long time, and we suffered heavy casualties ... We started to run short of ammunition ... Also, I could see that we were outflanked, with the British behind us, so we were cut off from my company ... I reorganized and found that I was down to sixteen men. I started to retire ... I left six men in a line with one machinegun to cover our retreat, but really we were fighting all the time; we could not break contact. They came on us fast, and we fell back ... We eventually got through to Stanley, through what I would like to say was a perfect barrage fired by the Royal Artillery. We had to wait for breaks in the firing, but I still lost a man killed there. Major Simon Price sent 2 and 3 Platoons forward, preceded by a barrage of 66 mm rockets to clear the Argentine reinforcements. Major Price placed 1 Platoon high up in the rocks to provide fire support for the assault troops. Lieutenant Robert Lawrence led 3 Platoon around to the right of the Argentinian platoons, hoping to take the Argentinians by surprise. They were detected, however, and the British were briefly pinned down by gunfire before a bayonet charge overwhelmed the Argentinian defenders. Lance-Corporal Graham Rennie of 3 Platoon later described the British attack: Our assault was initiated by a Guardsman killing a sniper, which was followed by a volley of 66 mm anti-tank rounds. We ran forward in extended line, machine-gunners and riflemen firing from the hip to keep the enemy heads down, enabling us to cover the open ground in the shortest possible time. Halfway across the open ground 2 Platoon went to ground to give covering fire support, enabling us to gain a foothold on the enemy position. From then on we fought from crag to crag, rock to rock, taking out pockets of enemy and lone riflemen, all of whom resisted fiercely. As La Madrid and Miño withdrew after suffering reportedly five killed in the Argentine counterattack, the platoons under Second Lieutenant Aldo Franco and Guillermo Robredo moved in from the eastern edge of the mountain to try to help La Madrid and Miño. Advancing out of the central region of Tumbledown Mountain, the British again came under heavy fire from the Argentinians, but by advancing in pairs under covering fire, they succeeded in clearing those Bravo Company platoons as well, gaining firm control of the mountain's eastern side. Right Flank had achieved this at the cost of five wounded, including Lieutenant Lawrence. However, Left Flank had lost two men killed and several wounded during the Argentine counterattack, when mortar fire controllers on Mount William targeted British wounded and stretcher bearers in error. In his moment of victory on the eastern slopes, Lawrence was almost killed when a bullet fired by an Argentine stay-behind sniper tore off the side of his head. He was awarded the Military Cross for bravery, but he spent a year in a wheelchair and was almost totally paralyzed. The Argentinian sniper (in fact Private Luis Jorge Bordón or Walter Ignacio Becerra, according to La Madrid), armed with a FAL rifle, had helped cover the Argentinean retreat, firing shots at a Scout helicopter evacuating wounded off Tumbledown and wounding two men (including Guardsman Kenny Mains). The Scots Guards eventually mortally wounded him in a hail of gunfire, but not before the Argentine soldier generated more confusion, resulting in the wounding of the Forward Observation Officer (FOO, Captain Swinton) attached to the Gurkhas, while clearing the positions of Marine Sergeant Jorge Lucero's 3rd Platoon before advancing on to take Mount William. Fall of Tumbledown By 9:00 a.m., the Scots Guards had gained the high ground east of Tumbledown Mountain and the Gurkhas commenced deploying across the heavily shelled saddle from Tumbledown south to Mount William, which they took with the loss of 8 wounded. The 2nd Battalion Scots Guards had lost eight dead and 43 wounded. The Welsh Guards had lost one dead, the Royal Engineers had also lost one dead, and the Gurkhas had sustained altogether 13 wounded, including the artillery observation officer, Captain Keith Swinton. According to Dhanbahadur Rai, a Gurkha: The Scots Guards were to attack Tumbledown, with the Gurkhas following behind. We were supposed to finish the attack and they would give us covering fire from Tumbledown ... During the night we followed the Scots Guards and then our CO told us to stop. The ground was like a valley when we stopped and afterwards the shelling started ... The headquarters and A Company had twelve wounded ... The next morning we started to move. The CO sahib and the anti-tank Milan Platoon commander and the FOO were just going up and they got a rifle shot. Our commanding sahib was shouting. He said, "Look, Goli Ayo!" "Get down! Someone fired!" Then the FOO was standing and looking and the second shot hit him in the chest. The Guards took 30 prisoners, several of them RI 6 soldiers from Bravo Company. The bodies of 30 Argentine Army and Marine soldiers were found in and around the 5th Marine Battalion perimeter. Reaching the rear positions of N Marine Company, Second Lieutenant Franco took the time to set free several German Shepherds left behind in the Argentine retreat from Tumbledown. During the battle, Guardsman Philip Williams was knocked unconscious by an explosion, and left for dead. When he came to, the rest of the British soldiers had gone. Williams' parents were informed that he had died and a memorial service was held for him. When he returned to civilization after seven weeks, he was accused of desertion by the media and fellow soldiers. Last stand on Sapper Hill Relevant deployments While the bulk of the 5th Marine Battalion was deployed on Mounts Tumbledown and William, M Company were stationed along the Sapper Hill slopes, along with supporting Tigercat SAM launchers and Hispano Suiza 30 mm guns from the 1st Marine Anti-Aircraft Battalion, plus extra security in the form of 5 canines (Ñaro, Nego, Vogel, Warner and Xuavia, their handlers, and accompanying riflemen) of the Marine Dog Platoon (Puerto Belgrano-based, under Sub-Lieutenant Miguel Paz). (In all, 18 German Shepherds under Sub-Lieutenant Paz were deployed in and around Stanley.) Also present on Sapper Hill were 155mm guns from the 101st Artillery Group, the 120mm Heavy Mortar Platoon from Captain Ramón Alberto Varela's C Company, and the Reconnaissance Platoon (under Lieutenant Norman Osvaldo Reynoso) from the 3rd General Manuel Belgrano Mechanized Infantry Regiment. An Air Force mobile Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range radar was positioned on Sapper Hill, in April. On 1 May, a Royal Navy bombardment of Sapper Hill killed Private Daniel Cabiglioli (from M Company). The Westinghouse radar was also damaged, and would remain out of service for several days.<ref>"En la madrugada del día 31, dos ataques aéreos con aviones Vulcan y Harrier sobre las posiciones del RI 3, del RI 25 y la zona del aeropuerto, pusieron fuera de servicio, transitoriamente, el radar de vigilancia de la Fuerza Aérea." Félix Roberto Aguiar and Francisco Cervo, Operaciones terrestres en las Islas Malvinas'', p. 216, Círculo Militar, 1985</ref> That night, patrolling near Sapper Hill, a five-man squad (under Sergeant Miguel Angel Martinez) from the 3rd Regiment Recce Platoon discovered an abandoned rubber boat. The next day, the 1st Assault Section (under First Lieutenant José Martiniano Duarte) from the 601st Commando Company checked the boat for hidden explosives, then brought it back to Port Stanley for closer examination. In June, Lieutenant Reynoso's Recce Platoon reportedly exchanged small arms fire with a British patrol (possibly G Squadron from the SAS, who had commandeered a yacht at Bluff Cove Settlement to operate behind Tumbledown and had also sent men forward in a helicopter) infiltrated near Sapper Hill, prior to the final land battles. On 7 June, the Westinghouse radar reportedly detected the British landings at Fitzroy; the next day, Skyhawk fighter-bombers attacked the British troopships Sir Galahad and Sir Tristram with bombs. A British Harrier was claimed to be hit by concentrated fire from M Company, on 7 June. According to Private José Luis Fazio: No Harriers were shot down on 7 June. On 12 June, Harrier XW919 was hit by shrapnel, possibly from a Tigercat missile, and seriously damaged while dropping CBUs on an artillery position near Sapper Hill. During the recovery, the aircraft caught fire on Hermes flight deck, owing to a fractured reaction pipe. Argentine sources claim that the aircraft was hit by AAA immediately after the attack. A 155 mm howitzer was lightly damaged and six soldiers injured. (The Harrier had extensive repairs and, though still operational, it was ultimately transferred to the School of Flight Deck Operations at Culdrose, and was eventually donated to the Polish Aviation Museum of Kraków.) On 13 June, a Welsh Guards messenger, bringing forward food supplies to Major Christopher Drewrywe's Number 2 Company (1WG), was killed when his motorbike ran over a mine. Last Stand After first light on 14 June, Major Phillip Neame's D Company of 2 PARA in the final stages of the Battle of Wireless Ridge reported seeing hundreds of Argentinians regrouping on Sapper Hill. Argentine artillery and Second Lieutenant La Madrid 6th Regiment platoon was still in action, firing on Neame's company and losing another two killed (Privates Horacio Echave and Horacio Balvidares) on Sapper Hill. While taking up new positions on Sapper Hill, Sergeant Víctor Hugo Juárez from 5th Marine Battalion HQs, Private Vicente Antonio Díaz from the 1st Amphibious Engineers Company and Private Ricardo Ramírez from the 81mm Mortar Platoon on Mount William are also killed in the fierce British bombardment and long-range retaliatory machinegun and small-arms fire from Neame's company on Wireless Ridge. On the night of the 13/14 June, the Welsh Guards/Royal Marine Battalion were on standby to help in the British attacks on Mounts Tumbledown and William. Their orders were to move towards Sapper Hill only after these objectives were taken. During the advance, they became bogged down in a minefield, which took them a very long and frustrating time to extract themselves from, after coming under fire from heavy mortars on Sapper Hill. Meanwhile, the men of the 1st Battalion 7th Gurkha Rifles had been spotted and shelled from Argentine mortar fire controllers and artillery officers on Sapper Hill, suffering eight wounded. Earlier on, a Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre patrol under Sergeant David Lazenby had penetrated the frozen minefield to secure a landing zone for the British helicopters. Major Drewrywe's Welsh Guards eventually reached the base of Sapper Hill, only to discover that the Argentine M Company was still in position. The Guardsmen were forced to withdraw, protected by the early morning fog, this time avoiding the minefield. Due to this delay, it was decided that 45 Commando should move forward from Two Sisters to occupy Sapper Hill. While 45 Commando were marching towards Sapper Hill, Alpha and Charlie Companies from 40 Commando had escaped from the attention of the Argentine defenders on Sapper Hill and they were picked up by helicopters. They were eventually landed on the slopes of Sapper Hill just as 45 Commando were approaching, so both units attacked and captured the hill. Argentine Retreat Unwilling to abandon Tumbledown, Commander Carlos Robacio on Sapper Hill was planning to counter-attack and drive back the Guardsmen. Only the personal intervention of Colonel Félix Aguiar, the 10th Brigade Chief of Staff, brought the fighting to an end. The 5th Marines worked their way back into Stanley, leaving the 2nd Platoon of Marine Second Lieutenant Marcelo Davis and 3rd Platoon of Marine Second Lieutenant Alejandro Koch of M Company to cover the retreat. The Argentine Marine companies withdrew safely, although pursued by artillery fire and hit by a laser-guided bomb dropped by Flight Lieutenant Mark Hare in XZ133 killing two of the Marine canines, Negro and Ñaro. Argentine Panhard armoured cars were moved forward to the edge of Stanley to cover the retreating troops. Marine Privates Roberto Leyes, Eleodoro Monzón and Sergio Ariel from M Company were killed protecting the Argentine retreat. Six Royal Marines were wounded by mines and small-arms fire"9 Troop were inadvertently set down 3 km east of the intended landing zone, and were on Sapper Hill. Two Marines were slightly wounded when the Argentineans fired on them as they withdrew." James D. Ladd, By Sea, by Land: The Royal Marines 1919-1997: An Authorised History, p. 403, HarperCollins, 2000securing Sapper Hill, including four Marines from 40 Commando, one Sapper from Condor Troop and a forward officer (Major Brian Armitage) from 3 Commando Brigade HQs. The Royal Marines in Second Lieutenant Carl Bushby's 9 Troop protecting the landing zone successfully defended their position when the Argentine Marines under Davis launched a counter-attack, the last one of the ground campaign."Cuando le ordené al guardiamarina Davis: "¡Listo, nos vamos !", él todavía estaba pensando en el contraataque, y salió disparando hacia el frente, o sea al revés ... Es que Davis y sus hombres estaban listos para largar el contraataque. Fue impresionante su actitud ofensiva." Malvinas: 20 años, 20 héroes, p. 328, Fundación Soldados, 2002 Two parked British Sea Kings within range from Koch's Marines sustained minor damage from Sergeant Miguel Angel Vaca's machine-gun and rifle-grenades fired by Corporal Carlos Jorge Sini, but both remained operational. At the foot of the hill, there was an enormous minefield. Lieutenant Paul Allen and Marine Wayne McGregor of 7 Troop were both wounded activating anti-personnel mines. A group of Sappers from Condor Troop went ahead to clear a path through the mines, losing Sergeant Peter Thorpe badly wounded in the process. Tanks of the Blues & Royals moved forward, to provide covering fire if necessary. During the helicopter evacuations of the wounded, Captain Sam Drennan of No. 656 Squadron would win the Distinguished Flying Cross for rescuing a wounded Gurkha and Guardsman from the middle of a minefield. However, when the Royal Marines and Welsh Guardsmen advanced they found Sapper Hill abandoned. The delay caused by the mines probably saved many lives. The Argentine Marine companies had been deeply entrenched and were well equipped with heavy machine guns. To Guardsman Tracy Evens, the Sapper Hill positions looked impregnable: We were led to an area that the company would rest at for the night, I still took in the fact the Argies had prepared Sapper Hill well, they had depth positions that would have made the task of taking it very hard. As the Guardsmen and Royal Marines consolidated their positions, the British lost a Volvo Bv 202 tracked vehicle to an anti-tank mine planted in the Sapper Hill sector. We ran over a mine. I went up through the roof and the vehicle went up and was turned right round by the explosion, recalled Major Brian Armitage who was shortly evacuated to receive medical treatment. Military recognition For the courage displayed in the attack, men from 2 SG were awarded one Distinguished Service Order, two Military Crosses, two Distinguished Conduct Medals (one posthumously) and two Military Medals. Men from 9 Para Squadron, Royal Engineers, were awarded two Military Medals and Captain Sam Drennan, the Army Air Corps Scout pilot who had picked up the injured soldiers under fire and a former Scots Guards NCO, received the Distinguished Flying Cross. Carlos Robacio, BIM5 commander, was awarded the Argentine Nation to the Valour in Combat Medal and the battalion itself was decorated by the Argentine Congress in 2002. Due to his actions on both Two Sisters and Tumbledown, Private Oscar Ismael Poltronieri of La Madrid's platoon was awarded the Argentine Nation to the Heroic Valour in Combat Cross, Argentina's highest military decoration. He is the only conscript soldier in his nation's recent history who has received this honour. After the battle, Pipe Major James Riddell of 2 SG stood near the top of the mountain and played his bagpipes. He played a quick march he had composed "on the back of a fag packet" [cigarette pack] during the battle, following a long tradition in which Pipe Majors were encouraged "to write tunes to commemorate any actions in which their regiments have been engaged".Piping Times, Volume 55 No.1 (October 2002) includes a photo of P/M Riddell playing his bagpipes on top of Mount Tumbledown. Piping Times, Volume 55 No.2 (November 2002) contains a Riddell's handwritten copy of the music. He named the tune The Crags of Tumbledown Mountain. It was released as a single by the Pipes and Drums of 2SG a year later. Tumbledown after the war The film Tumbledown'', directed by Richard Eyre, premiered on 30 May 1988. It is based on the experiences of Lieutenant Robert Lawrence, who was severely wounded during the battle. The film won several awards including the RTS Television Award 1989 for best male actor for Colin Firth's performance in the role of Lieutenant Lawrence. In 2012, Argentine journalist Nicolas Kasanzew wrote a tango called "Carlos Daniel Vazquez's Thermopylae", which is sung by Carlos Longoni. A cross has been erected at the summit of the mountain as a memorial to the soldiers who died in the battle. Two British artists have depicted the battle in painting, Mark Churms and Terence Cuneo, the latter commissioned by the Scots Guards. In the UK a Tumbledown Veterans And Families Association was created. An ode was written in honour of the fallen: References General Sky News: Return to the Falklands In his first interview in 20 years, Robert Lawrence tells Mark Townsend how the trauma of battle reshaped his life As part of his journey of reconciliation Mike Seers travels to Argentina to interview Marine artillery fire controllers and gunners whom he fought against Reassessing the Fighting Performance of the Argentine 5th Marines Taken from the diary of Guardsman Tracy Evens Mount Tumbledown Household Cavalry Scots Guards British Army in the Falklands War Tumbledown June 1982 events in South America

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Howe%20Island

Lord Howe Island

Lord Howe Island (; formerly Lord Howe's Island) is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, part of the Australian state of New South Wales. It lies directly east of mainland Port Macquarie, northeast of Sydney, and about southwest of Norfolk Island. It is about long and between wide with an area of , though just of that comprise the low-lying developed part of the island. Along the west coast is a sandy semi-enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon. Most of the population lives in the north, while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island, Mount Gower (). The Lord Howe Island Group comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball's Pyramid about to the southeast of Howe. To the north lies a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands called the Admiralty Group. The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788, when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply, was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island. On the return journey, Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession. It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry, and was permanently settled in June 1834. When whaling declined, the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms, which remains a key component of the island's economy. The other continuing industry, tourism, began after World War II ended in 1945. The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales and is regarded legally as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board, which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage. The island's standard time zone is UTC+10:30, or UTC+11 when daylight saving time applies. The currency is the Australian dollar. Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney, Brisbane, and Port Macquarie. UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance. Most of the island is virtually untouched forest, with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes, the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts, the world's southernmost barrier coral reef, nesting seabirds, and the rich historical and cultural heritage. The Lord Howe Island Act 1981 established a "Permanent Park Preserve" (covering about 70% of the island). The island was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 and the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. Bioregion Lord Howe Island is part of the IBRA region Pacific Subtropical Islands (code PSI) and is subregion PSI01 with an area of . In the WWF ecoregion system, Lord Howe Island constitutes the entirety of the 'Lord Howe Island subtropical forests' ecoregion (WWF ID#AA0109). This ecoregion is in the Australasian realm, and the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome. The WWF ecoregion has an area of 14 km2. History 1788–1834: First European visits Prior to European discovery and settlement, Lord Howe Island apparently was uninhabited, and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific. The first reported European sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender (the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships), which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island. On the return journey of 13 March 1788, Ball observed Ball's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession. Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney. Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Ball's Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time. Many names on the island date from this time, and also from May of the same year, when four ships of the First Fleet, , , Lady Penrhyn and , visited it. Much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors such as David Blackburn, Master of Supply, and Arthur Bowes Smyth, surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn. Smyth was in Sydney when the Supply returned from the first voyage to Norfolk Island. His journal entry for 19 March 1788 noted that "the Supply, in her return, landed at the island she [discovered] in going out, and all were very agreeably surprised to find great numbers of fine turtle on the beach and, on the land amongst the trees, great numbers of fowls very like a guinea hen, and another species of fowl not unlike the landrail in England, and all so perfectly tame that you could frequently take hold of them with your hands but could, at all times, knock down as many as you thought proper, with a short stick. Inside the reef also there were fish innumerable, which were so easily taken with a hook and line as to be able to catch a boat full in a short time. She brought thirteen large turtle to Port Jackson and many were distributed among the camp and fleet." Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen (Gallirallus sylvestris), white gallinule (Porphyrio albus), and Lord Howe pigeon (Columba vitiensis godmanae), were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter. As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction, these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record. Over the next three years, the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles, and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets. Between 1789 and 1791, the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago, then south into Australian and New Zealand waters. The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales and southern right whales (Eubalaena australis). The island was subsequently visited by many government and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific, including many from the American whaling fleet, so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement, with some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors. Between July and October 1791, the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days, the deckwork was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry. Whale oil was to become Australia's most profitable export until the 1830s, and the whaling industry shaped Lord Howe Island's early history. 1834–1841: Settlement Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834, when the British whaling barque Caroline, sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe, landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach. They left three men, George Ashdown, James Bishop, and Chapman, who were employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station. The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock. They landed with (or acquired from a visiting ship) their Māori wives and two Māori boys. Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement, which had a supply of fresh water, and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach. This was a cashless society; the settlers bartered their stores of water, wood, vegetables, meat, fish, and bird feathers for clothes, tea, sugar, tools, tobacco, and other commodities not available on the island, but it was the whalers' valuation that had to be accepted. These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson (later joined by John Foulis), whose employees and others then settled on the island. 1842–1860: Trading provisions The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) would also put into the island. Rover's Bride, a small cutter, became the first regular trading vessel. Between 1839 and 1859, five to 12 ships made landfall each year, occasionally closer to 20, with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef. In 1842 and 1844, the first children were born on the island. Then in 1847, Poole, Dawson, and Foulis, bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales government, abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained. One family, the Andrews, after finding some onions on the beach in 1848, cultivated them as the "Lord Howe red onion", which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease. In 1849, just 11 people were living on the island, but soon the island farms expanded. In the 1850s, gold was discovered on mainland Australia, where crews would abandon their ships, preferring to dig for gold than to risk their lives at sea. As a consequence, many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade, which peaked between 1855 and 1857. In 1851, about 16 people were living on the island. Vegetable crops now included potatoes, carrots, maize, pumpkin, taro, watermelon, and even grapes, passionfruit, and coffee. Between 1851 and 1853, several aborted proposals were made by the NSW government to establish a penal settlement on the island. From 1851 to 1854, Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald, which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific (1852–1856), completed the island's first hydrographic survey. On board were three Scottish biologists, William Milne (a gardener-botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden), John MacGillivray (naturalist) who collected fish and plant specimens, and assistant surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald. Together, these men established much basic information on the geology, flora, and fauna of the island. Around 1853, a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle, captained by Ichabod Handy. George Campbell (who died in 1856) and Jack Brian (who left the island in 1854) arrived, and the third, Nathan Thompson, brought three women (called Botanga, Bogoroo, and a girl named Bogue) from the Gilbert Islands. When his first wife Botanga died, he then married Bogue. Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach. Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue. In 1855, the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act. 1861–1890: Scientific expeditions From the early 1860s, whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum, the onset of the California Gold Rush, and the American Civil War—with unfortunate consequences for the island. To explore alternative means of income, Thompson, in 1867, purchased the Sylph, which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney (mainly pigs and onions). It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph's Hole off Old Settlement Beach, but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873, which added to the woes of the island at that time. In 1869, the island was visited by magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder. He was accompanied by Charles Moore, director of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney, and his assistant William Carron, who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne, who by 1875, had catalogued and published 195 species. Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald, a surveyor, and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum. Together, they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people, their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves. Around this time, a downturn of trade began with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six to 12 months passed without a vessel calling. With the provisions rotting in the storehouses, the older families lost interest in market gardening. From 1860 to 1872, 43 ships had collected provisions, but from 1873 to 1887, fewer than a dozen had done so. This prompted some activity from the mainland. In 1876, a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year. He suggested that coffee be grown, but the kentia palm was already catching world attention. In 1878, the island was declared a forest reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator. He encouraged schools, tree-planting, and the palm trade, dynamited the north passage to the lagoon, and built roads. He also managed to upset the residents, and parliamentarian Bowie Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation. With Wilson was a team of scientists who included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department, W. Condor from the Survey Department, J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and A. Morton from the Australian Museum. J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the island and its residents. A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit, which recommended that Armstrong be replaced. Meanwhile, the population had increased considerably and included 29 children; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed. This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations, the Australian Museum, Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens, and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens. 1890–1999 In 1883, the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased. By 1932, with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda, tourism became the second-largest source of external income after palm sales to Europe. Morinda was replaced by in 1932, and she in turn by other vessels. The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie. The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm (Howea forsteriana) was first exported to Britain, Europe, and America, but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 (see below). The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931, when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a de Havilland Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane. It was damaged there in an overnight storm, but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney. After World War II, in 1947, tourists arrived on Catalina and then four-engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay, Sydney, and landing on the lagoon, the journey taking about 3½ hours. When Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974, the seaplanes were eventually replaced with QantasLink twin-engined turboprop Dash 8–200 aircraft. 21st century In 2002, the Royal Navy destroyer struck Wolf Rock, a reef at Lord Howe Island, and almost sank. In recent times, tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation. On 17 October 2011, a supply ship, M/V Island Trader, with 20 tons of fuel, ran aground in the lagoon. The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo. The 2016 film The Shallows starring Blake Lively was largely filmed on the island. During the COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales, a public health order was issued on 22 March 2020 that declared Lord Howe Island a public risk area and directed restricted access. As of that date there were no known cases of COVID-19 on the Island. One of the most contentious issues amongst islanders in the 21st century is what to do about the rodent situation. Rodents have only been on the island since the ran aground in 1918, and have wiped out several endemic bird species and were thought to have done the same to the Lord Howe Island stick insect. A plan was made to drop 42 tonnes of rat bait across the island, but the community was heavily divided. The island was due to be declared rodent-free in October 2021, two years after the last live rat was found, but a living male and pregnant female were discovered in April 2021. The eradication, contrary to many community reservations, has seen birds, insects and plants flourish at levels not seen in decades. Demographics As at the 2016 census, the resident population was 382 people, and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400. Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations. Residents are now involved with the kentia palm industry, tourism, retail, some fishing, and farming. In 1876 on Sundays, games and labour were suspended, but no religious services were held. Nowadays, the area known locally as Church Paddock has Anglican, Catholic, and Adventist churches, the religious affiliations on the island being 30% Anglican, 22% no religion, 18% Catholic and 12% Seventh Day Adventist. The ratio of the sexes is roughly equal, with 47% of the population in the age group 25–54 and 92% holding Australian citizenship. Governance and land tenure Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855, although until at least 1876, the islanders lived in "a relatively harmonious and self-regulating community". In 1878, Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a forest reserve, but as a result of ill feeling, and an enquiry, he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 (he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present-day Transit Hill). After his removal, the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913, when a Sydney-based board was formed; in 1948, a resident superintendent was appointed. In 1913, the three-man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established, mostly to regulate the palm seed industry, but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954. The Lord Howe Island Board is a NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act 1953, to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales. It reports directly to the state's Minister for Environment and Heritage, and is responsible for the care, control, and management of the island. Its duties include the protection of World Heritage values; the control of development; the administration of Crown Land, including the island's protected area; provision of community services and infrastructure; and regulating sustainable tourism. In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five-member board. The board also manages the Lord Howe Island kentia palm nursery, which together with tourism, provides the island's only sources of external income. Under an amendment bill in 2004, the board now comprises seven members, four of whom are elected from the islander community, thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy. The remaining three members are appointed by the minister to represent the interests of business, tourism, and conservation. The full board meets on the island every three months, while the day-to-day affairs of the island are managed by the board's administration, with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988. Land tenure has been an issue since first settlement, as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land. Original settlers were squatters. The granting of a lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints, and a few short-term leases ("permissive occupancies") were granted. In 1913, with the appointment of a board of control, permissive occupancies were revoked and the board itself given permissive occupancy of the island. Then the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 made all land the property of the Crown. Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks up to for residential purposes. Short-term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture, so in 1955, 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted. The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more. An active debate exists concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the board of resident islanders in relation to long-term planning for visitors, and issues relating to the environment, amenity, and global heritage. Parliamentary representation New South Wales As a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, Lord Howe Island was not represented in parliament until the 1894 New South Wales colonial election following the passage of the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Act, 1893. Since 1894, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following New South Wales Legislative Assembly districts: As part of the redistribution of electoral districts for the 2023 state election, a proposal was received to move Lord Howe Island back into the electorate of Sydney. However, the NSW Electoral Commission eventually decided to retain the island within the electorate of Port Macquarie. Commonwealth Since 1901, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following Australian House of Representatives electoral divisions: Economy Kentia palm industry The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King, a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876, who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Overseas trade began in the 1880s, when one of the four palms endemic to the island, the kentia palm (Howea forsteriana), which grows naturally in the lowlands, was found to be ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well-to-do in Britain, Europe, and the United States,. The assistance of mainland magistrate, Frank Farnell, was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906, he became company director of the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery, whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney-based seed company. However, the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues. The kentia palm (known locally as the thatch palm, as it was used to roof the houses of the early settlers) is popular worldwide as decorative palm that grows well both outdoors (in sufficiently warm climates) and indoors; the mild climate of the island has led to the evolution of a palm that can tolerate low light, a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures — ideal for indoor conditions, particularly in higher-end venues such as hotel lobbies, galleries and large foyers where their high price (thanks to their relative rarity) is no disincentive to their use. Up until the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings. The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS/NZS ISO 9002. Seed is gathered from both natural forest and plantations, most collectors being descendants of the original settlers. The seed is then germinated in soilless media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination. After testing, seedlings are picked, washed (bare-rooted), sanitized and certified, then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export. Nursery profits, in turn, are used in projects that enhance the island's ecosystems. The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm (Howea belmoreana) and other native plants of special interest. By the late 1980s, annual exports had begun to provide a revenue of over A$2 million, constituting the only major industry on the island apart from tourism. Tourism Lord Howe Island is known for its geology, birds, plants, and marine life. Popular tourist activities include scuba diving, birdwatching, snorkelling, surfing, kayaking, and fishing. To relieve pressure on the small island environment, only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time. The island is reached by plane from Sydney Airport or Brisbane Airport in less than two hours. The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a national park. Facilities With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time, facilities are limited; they include a bakery, butcher, general store, liquor store, restaurants, post office, museum, and information centre, a police officer, a ranger, and an ATM at the bowling club. Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie. The island has a small four-bed hospital and dispensary. A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds. Diesel-generated power is 240 volts AC, complemented by 1.3 MW solar power and 3.7 MWh battery. No public transport or mobile phone coverage is available, but public telephones, fax facilities, and internet access are, as well as a local radio station and newsletter, The Signal. Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units. The currency is the Australian dollar, and there are two banks. No camping facilities are on the island and remote-area camping is not permitted. To protect the fragile environment of Ball's Pyramid (which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Lord Howe Island stick insect), recreational climbing there is prohibited. No pets are allowed without permission from the board. Islanders use tanked rainwater, supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes. Activities As distances to sites of interest are short, cycling is the main means of transport on the island. Tourist activities include golf (9-hole), lawn bowls, tennis, fishing (including deep-sea game fishing), yachting, windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, and boat trips (including glass-bottom tours of the lagoon). Swimming, snorkelling, and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon, as well as off Tenth of June Island, a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls. Other diving sites are found off Ball's Pyramid, away, where trenches, caves, and volcanic drop-offs occur. Bushwalking, natural history tours, talks, and guided walks take place along the many tracks, the most challenging being the eight-hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower. The island has 11 beaches, and hand-feeding the kingfish (Seriola lalandi) and large wrasse at Ned's Beach is very popular. Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1–5, they include—in the north: Transit Hill 2-hour return, ; Clear Place, 1– to 2-hour return; Stevens Reserve; North Bay, 4-hour return, ; Mount Eliza; Old Gulch, 20-minute return, ; Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout, 3 or 5-hour return, and—in the south: Goat House Cave, 5-hour return, ; Mount Gower, 8-hour return, ; Rocky Run and Boat Harbour; Intermediate Hill, 45-minute return, ; and Little Island, 40-minute return, . Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board. Geography Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, the island is east of mainland Port Macquarie, northeast of Sydney, and about from Norfolk Island to its northeast. The island is about long and between wide with an area of . Along the west coast is a semienclosed, sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand, the most accessible of the island's 11 beaches. Both the north and south sections of the island are high ground of relatively untouched forest, in the south comprising two volcanic mountains, Mount Lidgbird () and Mount Gower which, rising to , is the highest point on the island. The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley. In the north, where most of the population live, high points are Malabar () and Mount Eliza (). Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming, the airstrip, and housing. The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Balls Pyramid, a eroded volcano about to the southeast, which is uninhabited by humans but bird-colonised. It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect, formerly thought to be extinct. To the north is the Admiralty Group, a cluster of seven small, uninhabited islands. Just off the east coast is Mutton Bird Island, and in the lagoon is the Blackburn (Rabbit) Island. Geological origins Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7-million-year-old shield volcano, the product of eruptions that lasted for about 500,000 years. It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf, the Lord Howe Rise, which is long and wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin. The shelf is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is defined by coral-capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for and including the Middleton ( away) and Elizabeth ( away) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve. This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo-Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot, so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of per year (see plate tectonics). Basalts and calcarenite Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island. The first about 6.9 million years (Mya) ago produced the northern and central hills, while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6.3 Mya by successive basalt (an extrusive igneous rock) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera (crater) and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs (at Malabar and Mount Gower) occasionally interspersed with dikes (vertical lava intrusions). Geological pyroclastic remnants of volcanic eruption can be seen on the Roach Island (where the oldest rocks occur) and Boat Harbour as tuff (ash), breccia (with angular blocks), and agglomerate (rounded 'bombs'). Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise, water depths reach falling to to the west of the rise. From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands, the island has been calculated to erode to 1/40th of its original size. Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite, a coral sand, blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130,000 and 20,000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation. In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs, land and marine snails, and the extinct giant horned turtle (Meiolania platyceps) which is not closely related to any living kind of turtle. The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon, the barrier reef, at 31°S, is the most southerly in the world. Beach sands, rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite, as on the mainland, are made of fragments of shell, coral, and coralline algae, together with basalt grains, and basaltic minerals such as black diopside and green olivine. The lowland consists of alluvial soils. The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200,000 years, taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs. Climate Lord Howe Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa under the Köppen climate classification). In general, the summers are warm and humid with erratic rainfall, but occasionally heavy, while in winter it is very mild with rainfall more or less uniform. There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa. Winds are frequent and salt-laden, being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter. July is the windiest month, and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds. The island has 67.8 clear days, annually. Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island. Rainfall records are maintained in the north, where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud-shrouded mountains of the south. Wide variation in rainfall can occur from year to year. July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures around and no frost. Average maximum temperatures range from in the winter to in the summer. The humidity averages in the 60–70% range year round, becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months. The average temperature of the sea ranges from in July, August, and September to in March. Flora and fauna Plants Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests. It is part of the Australasian realm and shares many biotic affinities with Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia. In geological terms at 7 million years old, Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent, its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea, carried by wind, water, or birds, possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed, enabling island hopping. Nevertheless, it is far enough away and has had sufficient time to evolve endemic species. The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera: Negria, Lordhowea, Howea, Lepidorrhachis, and Hedyscepe. Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island, the two islands sharing some endemic species, for example, the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis. The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia. Also, a small but clear link exists with the plants of Vanuatu. The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical southeastern Queensland. A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species such as the wedding lily (Dietes robinsoniana) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa. The flora of the island is relatively untouched, with a large number of rare plants, 44% being endemic to the island. With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys, to ridges, plains, and misty mountain tops, habitat is available for a wide range of plant communities, which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped. Many of the island's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits, where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats, from sea level to the summits. With the increased humidity brought by the clouds on Mount Gower and the other mountain tops, the range of endemic plants include mosses, ferns and flowering plants. One of the best-known plant genera endemic to Lord Howe Island is Howea, an endemic genus of palms (Arecaceae) that are commonly known as kentia palms and are popular houseplants. Mosses include Spiridens muelleri. There are 57 species of ferns, of which 25 are endemic: they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island, especially the higher parts of Mount Gower, perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains. Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis are the other two palm genera which are also endemic to the island. Since the rodent eradication program, researchers have observed an increase in the amount of growth and seeds, especially of the "larger, fleshy, fruited plants", previously eaten by rats. As the understorey grows thicker, this in turn will provide habitat for small animals such as snails and insects, which in turn provide food for the birds. Communities and special plants Plant communities have been classified into nine categories: lowland subtropical rainforest, submontane rainforest, cloud-forest and scrub, lowland swamp forest, mangrove scrub and seagrass, coastal scrub and cliff vegetation, inland scrub and herbland, offshore island vegetation, shoreline and beach vegetation, and disturbed vegetation. Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor. Banyan (Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots; it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned's Beach. Pandanus tree (Pandanus forsteri) has spectacular teepee-like prop roots and pineapple-like fruits that are orange-red when mature, the tough leaves being used for basketry. It occurs in damp areas such as creek beds, and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track. Ten species of orchids are on the island, the most noticeable being the bush orchid (Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum) on lowland trees and rocks, bearing cream flowers from August to September. Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include, on the mountain slopes, the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose (Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa), the massed, small, yellow flowers of corokia (Corokia carpodetoides), orange, plump flowers of pumpkin tree (Negria rhabdothamnoides), and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree (Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii). The kava bush has large, aromatic, heart-shaped leaves. After heavy rain, the endemic glowing mushrooms Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests. The palms are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places, the kentia being of special economic importance. All four species are endemic to the island, often occurring in dense, pure stands, the one that has proved such a worldwide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm (Howea forsteriana). This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in 'hands' of three to five, while the curly palm (H. belmoreana), which occurs on slightly higher ground, has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary 'hands'. Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and a mature specimen of one is growing in the island nursery. On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m, the big mountain palm (Hedyscepe canterburyana) occurs; it has large, golf ball-sized fruits, while the little mountain palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana) has marble-sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits. Images of native flora Animals No snakes nor highly venomous or stinging insects, animals, or plants occur, and no dangerous daytime sharks are found off the beaches, although tiger sharks have been reported on the cliff side of the island. Birds A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island. Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and many more migratory species occur on the island and its adjacent islets, many tame enough that humans can get quite close. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an endemic bird area, and the Permanent Park Preserve as an important bird area, because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens, most of the breeding population of providence petrels, over 1% of the world population of another five seabird species, and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies. Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island. Red-tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs, where they perform acrobatic courting rituals. Between August and May, thousands of flesh-footed and wedge-tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day. From the Little Island Track between March and November, one of the world's rarest birds, the providence petrel, also performs courtship displays during winter breeding, and it is extremely tame. The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century, though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island. The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black-winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island. The flesh-footed shearwater, which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring-autumn, once had its chicks harvested for food by the islanders. The wedge-tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets, though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island. Breeding white-bellied storm petrels were another discovery by Roy Bell. Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round. Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned's and Middle Beaches, North Bay, and Blinkey Beach; the most numerous of the island's breeding seabirds, their eggs were formerly harvested for food. Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes, while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch, and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows. Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler, Lord Howe silvereye, and Lord Howe currawong. The iconic endemic rail, the flightless Lord Howe woodhen, is the only surviving member of its genus; its ancestors could fly, but with no predators and plenty of food on the island, this ability was lost. This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals, so by the 1970s, the population was less than 30 birds. From 1978 to 1984, feral animals were removed and birds were raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild. The population is now relatively safe and stable. List of endemic birds Lord Howe currawong, Strepera graculina crissalis (vulnerable, subspecies of pied currawong) Lord Howe golden whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis contempta (least concern, subspecies of golden whistler) Lord Howe silvereye, Zosterops lateralis tephropleurus (vulnerable, subspecies of silvereye) Robust white-eye, Zosterops strenuus (extinct) Lord Howe gerygone, Gerygone insularis (extinct) Lord Howe fantail, Rhiphidura fuliginosa cervina (extinct, subspecies of NZ fantail) Lord Howe starling, Aplonis fusca hulliana (extinct, subspecies of extinct Tasman starling) Lord Howe thrush, Turdus poliocephalus vinitinctus (extinct, subspecies of Island thrush) Lord Howe parakeet, Cyanoramphus subflavescens (extinct) Lord Howe boobook, Ninox novaeseelandiae albaria (extinct) Lord Howe woodhen, Gallirallus sylvestris (endangered) Lord Howe swamphen, Porphyrio albus (extinct) Lord Howe pigeon, Columba vitiensis godmanae (extinct) Mammals, reptiles and amphibians Only one native mammal remains on the islands, the large forest bat. The endemic Lord Howe long-eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct, possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats. Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group: the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko. Both are rare on the main island, but more common on smaller islands offshore. The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland. During the Pleistocene the giant terrestrial horned turtle Meiolania platyceps was endemic to the island, but this is currently thought to have gone extinct before human occupation as a result of postglacial sea-level rise. Invertebrates The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the accidental introduction of rats when the SS Makambo ran aground near Ned's Beach on 15 June 1918. In 2001, a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball's Pyramid, has been successfully bred in captivity, and is nearing re-introduction to the main island. The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summers. Another endemic invertebrate, the Lord Howe flax snail (or Lord Howe Placostylus), has also been affected by the introduction of rats. Once common, the species is now endangered and a captive-breeding program is underway to save the snail from extinction. An endemic species that is likely to have become extinct due to human-introduced rats was the large rove beetle Hesperus gigas (Lea, 1929) comb. nov. (formerly Cafius gigas Lea, 1929) (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Marine life Marine environments are near-pristine with a mixtures of temperate, subtropical, and tropical species derived from cool-temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current, which flows from the Great Barrier Reef, in summer. Of the 490 fish species recorded, 13 are endemic and 60% are tropical. The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish, while game fish include marlin, tuna, and giant kingfish called "greenbacks". Over 80 species of corals occur in the reefs surrounding the islands. Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island. Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in vicinity, but very little about their biology in the area is known due to lack of studies and sighting efforts caused from locational conditions. Bottlenose dolphins are the most commonly observed and are the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents, while some other dolphin species have also been observed. Humpback whales are the only large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating past the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than those migrating along Australian continent. Historically, migratory whales such as blue, fin, and sei whales were very abundant in the island waters, but were severely reduced in numbers to near-extinction by commercial and illegal hunts, including the mass illegal hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s to 1970s. Southern right and sperm whales were most severely hunted among these, hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers. These two were likely once seasonal residents around the island, where right whales prefer sheltered, very shallow bays, while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters. Conservation About 10% of Lord Howe Island's forests has been cleared for agriculture, and another 20% has been disturbed, mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep, goats, and pigs. As a result, 70% of the island remains relatively untouched, with a variety of plants and animals, many of which are endemic, and some of which are rare or threatened. Two species of plants, nine terrestrial birds, one bat, and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778. Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea, Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis, a woody daisy Lordhowea, the tree Negria, the leech Quantenobdella howensis, three annelid worm genera (Paraplutellus, Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella), an isopod shrimp Stigmops, a hemipteran bug Howeria, and a cricket Howeta. The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey (published in 1974), which has guided the island conservation program. In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a "Permanent Park Preserve" over the north and south ends of the island. Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, which has a ranger stationed on the island. The island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982. Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. This consists of a state marine park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to three nautical miles around the island and including Ball's Pyramid. It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage. In total the Marine Park covers about . Feral animals and plants Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food sources in the early 1800s; the goats destroyed shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs ate eggs and chicks and disturbed the land by rooting for food. Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans. The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule, the white-throated pigeon, the red-crowned parakeet, and the Tasman booby, which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the 19th century, either from overhunting for food or protection of crops. Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860. In 1918, the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the S.S. Makambo, which ran aground at Ned's Beach. This triggered a second wave of extinctions, including the vinous-tinted thrush, the robust white-eye, the Lord Howe starling, the Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone, as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and the decimation of palm fruits. Bounties were offered for rat and pig tails and 'ratting' became a popular pursuit. Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low. The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by, or competition with, the Tasmanian masked owls, which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population. Stray dogs are also a threat, as they could harm the native woodhen and other birds. Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated, but others are currently being managed. In 1995, the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants on the island, chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper, but also cherry guava, Madeira vine, Cotoneaster, Ochna, and Cestrum. This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000. Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and re-vegetate some formerly cultivated areas. An environmental unit was created by the board and it includes a flora management officer and a permanent weed officer. Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place, supported by improved education and quarantine procedures. Introduced species that harmed Lord Howe's native flora and fauna, namely feral pigs, cats and goats, were eradicated by the early 2000s. In July 2012, the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker announced that the Australian and New South Wales governments would each contribute 50% of the estimated A$9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island, using aerial deployment of poison baits. The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial. Around 230 woodhens were captured before the rodent eradication commenced in early 2019. Following the successful eradication of the rodents, all woodhens and currawongs were released across the island in late 2019 and early 2020. A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen's numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000, which is close to carrying capacity. Climate change According to an analysis by noted eminent Australian academic Tim Flannery, the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming, with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate-change solution occurred at Lord Howe Island in 2011, the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry. Heritage listings The Lord Howe Islands Group was inscribed on the World Heritage List for its unique landforms and biota, its diverse and largely intact ecosystems, natural beauty, and habitats for threatened species. It also has significant cultural heritage associations in the history of NSW. Lord Howe Island and adjacent islets, Admiralty Islands, Mutton Bird Islands, Ball's Pyramid, and associated coral reefs and marine environs were added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007, on the basis of the World Heritage List. Lord Howe Island was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. In September 2019 it was revealed that, in 2017, federal environment minister Josh Frydenberg overruled a recommendation from his department to install two wind turbines. The project, which would have substantially reduced the Island's dependence on diesel-powered electricity generators, had been considered not to endanger the Island's heritage status and was supported by the Islanders. Sport Lord Howe Island Bowling Club Lord Howe Island Golf Club See also Jim Lacey, former administrator List of islands of Australia References Bibliography Attribution Further reading External links Official site of the Lord Howe Island Board World heritage listing (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities) Lord Howe Island Act, 1953 (Australian Legal Information Institute) Ecoregions of Australia Islands of New South Wales Extinct volcanoes Hotspot volcanoes Miocene volcanoes Polygenetic shield volcanoes Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Volcanoes of New South Wales Volcanoes of the Pacific Ocean Volcanoes of Zealandia Australian National Heritage List World Heritage Sites in New South Wales Important Bird Areas of New South Wales Islands of the Tasman Sea New South Wales State Heritage Register Tourist attractions in New South Wales Unincorporated areas of New South Wales Island restoration

543503

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Phil%20Silvers%20Show

The Phil Silvers Show

The Phil Silvers Show, originally titled You'll Never Get Rich, is a sitcom which ran on CBS from 1955 to 1959. A pilot titled "Audition Show" was made in 1955, but was never broadcast. 143 other episodes were broadcast – all half-an-hour long except for a 1959 one-hour live special. The series starred Phil Silvers as Master Sergeant Ernest G. Bilko of the United States Army. The series was created by Nat Hiken, and won three consecutive Emmy Awards for Best Comedy Series. The show is sometimes titled Sergeant Bilko or simply Bilko in reruns, and is very often referred to by these names, both on-screen and by viewers. The show's success transformed Silvers from a journeyman comedian into a star, and writer-producer Hiken from a highly regarded behind-the-scenes comedy writer into a publicly recognized creator. Production By 1955, the American television business was already moving westward to Los Angeles, but Nat Hiken insisted on filming the series in New York City, believing it to be more conducive to comedic creativity and the show's humor. Early episodes were filmed at Dumont's television center in New York City – now home to WNYW-TV – with later episodes shot at the CBS "Hi Brown" Studios in Chelsea, Manhattan. Most of the series was filmed to simulate a live performance. The actors memorized their lines, and performed the scenes in sequence before a studio audience. Thus, there are occasional flubs and awkward pauses. Actor Paul Ford, playing Bilko's commanding officer, was notorious for forgetting his lines; when he would get a blank expression on his face, Silvers and the rest of the cast would improvise something to save the scene, like "Oh, you remember, Colonel, the top brass is coming..." At that point, Ford would pick up where he left off. Later episodes were filmed in California. Famous producer Mike Todd, making a guest appearance, insisted that his show should be filmed like a movie, out of sequence. The cast and crew tried it, and soon found that Todd's way was indeed easier. Production continued in this manner until the series ended in 1959. Premise The series was originally set in Fort Baxter, a sleepy, unremarkable U.S. Army post in the fictional town of Roseville, Kansas, and centered on the soldiers of the Fort Baxter motor pool under Master Sergeant Ernest G. Bilko. However, Bilko and his men seemed to spend very little time actually performing their duties—Bilko in particular spent most of his time trying to wheedle money through various get-rich-quick scams and promotions, or to find ways to get others to do his work for him. While Bilko's soldiers regularly helped him with his schemes, they were just as likely to become "pigeons" in one of his schemes. Nevertheless, Bilko exhibited an odd paternalism toward his victims, and would doggedly shield them from all outside antagonists. The sergeant's attitude toward his men has been described thus: "They were his men and if anyone was going to take them, it was going to be him and only him." Through it all, the platoon was generally loyal to Bilko despite their wariness of his crafty nature, and would depend on him to get them out of any military misfortune. If one of his boys was treated unfairly or was cheated in any way, Bilko always helped the injured party, using the same psychological guile and chicanery he always used to outwit his suckers. This benevolent side of Bilko was toned down in the series's later seasons (with scripts, significantly, by different writers); Bilko became strictly mercenary, willing to swindle anyone for a fast buck. Bilko's swindles were usually directed toward (or behind the back of) Col. John T. Hall, the overmatched and beleaguered post commander who had early in his career been nicknamed "Melon Head". Despite his flaws and weaknesses, Col. Hall would get the best of Bilko just often enough to establish his credentials as a wary and vigilant adversary. The colonel would often be shown looking fretfully out his window, worried without explanation or evidence, simply because he knew that Bilko was out there somewhere, planning something. The colonel's wife, Nell (Hope Sansberry), had only the kindest thoughts toward Bilko, who would shamelessly flatter her whenever he met her. Bilko and Hall were not always adversaries. In an episode entitled "The Court Martial" (1956), Bilko tries to assist the colonel in setting a speed record for inducting new recruits, which accidentally results in a private's pet chimpanzee being enrolled. The animal's failure to answer when addressed by the phrase "Hurry! Speak Up!" is soon misheard and interpreted as being his name, "Harry Speakup," continuing the error and the imposture. Harry passes the medical and psychiatric exams, receives a uniform, and is formally sworn in. With the superior officers in a panic, Bilko saves the day by orchestrating an honorable discharge for the chimp. The show's setting changed with the fourth season, when the men of Fort Baxter were reassigned to Camp Fremont in California. This mass transfer was explained in storyline as being orchestrated by Bilko, who had discovered a map showing a gold deposit near the abandoned army post. One reason for the change from Kansas was so that the series could more plausibly bring in guest stars from nearby Hollywood, such as Dean Martin, Mickey Rooney, Diana Dors and Lucille Ball. Silvers even played himself in an hourlong episode. Cast Bilko's right-hand men were Cpl. Rocco Barbella (Harvey Lembeck) and Cpl. Steve Henshaw (Allan Melvin), and his long-suffering superior was Col. John T. Hall (Paul Ford). Bilko's motorpool platoon included Herbie Faye (a former burlesque crony of Silvers) as Cpl. Sam Fender, Maurice Gosfield as Pvt. Duane Doberman, Billy Sands as Pvt. Dino Paparelli, Mickey Freeman as diminutive Pvt. Fielding Zimmerman, Tige Andrews (billed under his given name, Tiger Andrews) as Pvt. Gander, Jack Healy as the tough-talking Pvt. Mullen, Maurice Brenner as Pvt. Irving Fleischman, Karl Lukas as Pvt. Stash Kadowski, former boxer Walter Cartier as botany fiend Pvt. Claude Dillingham, and Terry Carter as African-American Pvt. Sugarman, at a time when American society was still largely segregated. Other characters included Harry Clark as camp cook Sgt. Stanley Sowici, succeeded after Clark's death by burlesque comic Joe E. Ross as Sgt. Rupert Ritzik; Beatrice Pons as loud-mouthed Mrs. Ritzik, Ned Glass as quartermaster Sgt. Andy Pendleton, Jimmy Little as Sgt. Francis Grover, Nicholas Saunders as Hall's adjutant Captain Barker and John Gibson as an unnamed Chaplain. Some episodes gave Bilko a romantic interest, Elisabeth Fraser as Sgt. Joan Hogan. The series frequently featured so many secondary cast members, with so many speaking parts, that the show ultimately became too expensive to sustain. It was this factor more than any significant decline in ratings that led to the show's demise in 1959. Though The Phil Silvers Show was never a huge ratings magnet, it was considered the top television comedy of its time. The show was Emmy Award-nominated for both Comedy Writing and Best Series in all four of its seasons, winning both awards in 1956, 1957, and 1958. The series received nine other nominations during its run, with Silvers winning one individual Emmy for his performance, and Nat Hiken winning one for direction. As Silvers later recalled, "We went out at our height." Guest stars included Alan Alda, Bea Arthur, Charlotte Rae, Dick Van Dyke, Eric Fleming, Fred Gwynne, Mark Rydell, Paul Reed, Peggy Cass, Suzanne Storrs, Darryl Richard, and Paul Lynde, then near the beginning of their careers. Later episodes used a wealth of veteran Hollywood character actors, including Harold Huber, Margaret Hamilton, Marjorie Gateson, Natalie Schafer and Frank Albertson. George Kennedy was the show's US Army technical adviser; he had roles as a military policeman in several episodes. Finale In the series finale, "Weekend Colonel", Bilko discovers a short-order cook named Charlie Clusterman who is the exact double of Colonel Hall. Bilko hires the cook to impersonate the colonel, so he can cheat the other officers in a bogus charity effort. The real Colonel Hall learns of the scam, and Bilko, Henshaw, and Barbella end up being locked away in the guardhouse. As Colonel Hall looks at his prisoners on a newly installed closed-circuit TV system, he quips: "It's a wonderful show, and as long as I'm the sponsor, it will never be cancelled." The camera cuts to Bilko and his henchmen finally behind bars. Bilko waves to the camera and says, "Th-th-that's all, folks!" Episodes Aftermath Following the show's cancellation, CBS shortsightedly sold the rights to NBC: the rival network immediately aired reruns five days a week to great financial returns. Some of the show's other actors were recruited by "Bilko" producer Edward J. Montagne to appear in Nat Hiken's follow-up sitcom Car 54, Where Are You?, and in McHale's Navy. Silvers was able to parody, or play off, his enduring Bilko persona for the rest of his career. In 1963–1964, he starred in The New Phil Silvers Show, which attempted to transplant his mercenary character to a factory setting, but the result proved unpopular. Silvers frequently guest-starred on The Beverly Hillbillies as a character called Honest John. He also played unscrupulous Broadway producer Harold Hecuba on an episode of Gilligan's Island, stealing the castaways' concept for a musical version of Hamlet. In an episode of The Lucy Show, Silvers was a demanding efficiency expert; at one point, Lucy's boss Mr. Mooney (Gale Gordon), remarks that Silvers reminds him of a sergeant he used to know. Silvers also portrayed greedy connivers in various movies, such as It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), in which Paul Ford had a supporting role as a colonel, though they shared no scenes, and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966). The British film Follow That Camel (1967) cast him as a scheming sergeant, this time in the French Foreign Legion. The original You'll Never Get Rich program, which was filmed in black-and-white, was widely rerun into the 1970s. The advent of color television rendered it and many similar programs less marketable than they had been previously. The series reemerged in the late 1980s on the fledgling cable channel Comedy Central, then again on Nick at Nite for a short time during the 1990s (serving as charter programming for TV Land in 1996), and MeTV. Currently, it can be seen on Decades TV (a network broadcast on secondary television channels in many markets, and a sister channel to Me-TV, with CBS Television Stations owning the network with the owner of Me-TV, Weigel Broadcasting). Legacy The Bilko persona was borrowed by the Hanna-Barbera animation studio for its television cartoon series Top Cat, which drew on elements from The Phil Silvers Show. Maurice Gosfield from the original platoon voiced Benny the Ball. Hokey Wolf was another Hanna-Barbera production that borrowed heavily from The Phil Silvers Show. The episode of The Flintstones that introduced Dino gave the pet dinosaur a Sgt. Bilko-styled voice and character. After this atypical debut, Dino never spoke again. Another episode recruited Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble into the army, where they were conned by an unnamed Bilko-like character into becoming astronaut test pilots. The film The Manchurian Candidate (1962) used the names of several people associated with Sgt Bilko for the members of a Korean War patrol – Cpl Allan Melvin, Pvt Silvers, Pvt Hiken, and Pvt Lembeck. The characters also appear in the novel The Manchurian Candidate, which has been plagued with multiple assertions of plagiarism. In 1987, a British tourist visited Tibet wearing a Phil Silvers "Sgt Bilko" T-shirt. Chinese soldiers attempted to rip it off her because they thought the picture was the Dalai Lama. Larry David, creator and star of Curb Your Enthusiasm, has called The Phil Silvers Show his favorite television show. From 1957 to 1960, DC Comics published a Sergeant Bilko comic book which lasted 16 issues and a Sergeant Bilko's Private Doberman series that lasted 11 issues. Most of the covers and inside artwork were by Bob Oksner. Broadcast history September 1955-October 1955 – Tuesdays at 8:30-9:00 pm on CBS November 1955-January 1958 – Tuesdays at 8:00-8:30 pm on CBS February 1958-September 1959 – Fridays at 9:00-9:30 pm on CBS Reception Broadcast ratings Primetime Emmy Award Nominations and Wins 1955 (presented March 17, 1956) Best Comedy Series – Won Best Actor (Continuing Performance): Phil Silvers – Won Best Comedy Writing: Nat Hiken, Barry Blitzer, Arnold Auerbach, Harvey Orkin, Vincent Bogert, Arnold Rosen, Coleman Jacoby, Tony Webster and Terry Ryan – Won Best Producer (Film Series): Nat Hiken – Nominated (Winner: Walt Disney, Disneyland) Best Director (Film Series) Nat Hiken – Won 1956 (presented March 16, 1957) Best Series (Half Hour or Less) – Won Best Continuing Performance by a Comedian in a Series: Phil Silvers – Nominated (Winner: Sid Caesar, Caesar's Hour) Best Supporting Performance by an Actor: Paul Ford – Nominated (Winner: Carl Reiner, Caesar's Hour) Best Comedy Writing (Variety or Situation Comedy): Nat Hiken, Billy Friedberg, Tony Webster, Leonard Stern, Arnold Rosen and Coleman Jacoby – Won 1957 (presented April 15, 1958) Best Comedy Series – Won Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Phil Silvers – Nominated (Winner: Robert Young, Father Knows Best) Best Continuing Supporting Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Paul Ford – Nominated (Winner: Carl Reiner, Caesar's Hour) Best Comedy Writing: Nat Hiken, Billy Friedberg, Phil Sharp, Terry Ryan, Coleman Jacoby, Arnold Rosen, Sydney Zelinka, A.J. Russell and Tony Webster – Won 1958–1959 (presented May 6, 1959) Best Comedy Series – Nominated (Winner: The Jack Benny Show) Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Comedy Series: Phil Silvers – Nominated (Winner: Jack Benny, The Jack Benny Show) Best Supporting Actor (Continuing Character) in a Comedy Series: Maurice Gosfield – Nominated (Winner: Tom Poston, The Steve Allen Show) Best Writing of a Single Program of a Comedy Series: Billy Friedberg, Arnie Rosen and Coleman Jacoby for "Bilko's Vampire" - Nominated (Winner: Sam Perrin, George Balzer, Hal Goldman and Al Gordon for The Jack Benny Show: "Jack Benny Show with Ernie Kovacs") UK broadcasts The series was shown weekly on BBC Television during its original run from 20 April 1957 onwards, in varying timeslots, with the final first-run episode "Weekend Colonel" airing on 15 January 1961. ITV also screened repeats of the series in most regions throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The series returned in repeats on BBC Television (later BBC1) from June 1961 to March 1967, after which it was absent from the screen until April 1973, when it returned in a late-night timeslot (although listed in Radio Times as Sergeant Bilko/Bilko), becoming a staple of BBC1's post-11pm late-night schedule throughout the 1970s and 1980s, usually appearing immediately prior to the channel's signoff (before BBC One, as the channel was now rendered, became a 24-hour broadcaster in November 1997). The series was moved to an early evening timeslot on BBC2, beginning a repeat run of all four seasons in broadcast order from 7 November 1984. This repeat run continued through to 22 November 1991, at which point the BBC had aired all available episodes. Episodes continued to be shown, although no longer in their original broadcast order, from 1993 to 2004, with the BBC's last broadcast episode, "Bilko and the Flying Saucers", appearing on 5 November 2004. The UK publication Radio Times Guide to Comedy ranked The Phil Silvers Show as its top TV sitcom in 2003. Phil Silvers as Sergeant Bilko appeared on the B.B.C's Tommy Trinder series The Trinder Box during June 1959. The Radio Times of 12, June 1959 had a full cover photo of Phil Silvers as Bilko. Home media In May 2006, CBS DVD released a 50th anniversary collection entitled The Phil Silvers Show: 50th Anniversary Edition. The three-disc set features 18 episodes from the series. On July 27, 2010, CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) released the first season of The Phil Silvers Show on DVD in Region 1 format. A region 2 release followed on September 6 of the same year. On August 5, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series in Region 1 and would release Sgt. Bilko -The Phil Silvers Show: The Complete Series on November 4, 2014. In 2015, they began releasing individual season sets, season 2 was released on April 28, 2015 followed by season 3 on August 4, 2015. The fourth and final season was released on November 17, 2015. In Region 2, Mediumrare Entertainment has acquired the rights in the UK and released Sgt. Bilko – The Phil Silvers Show: - Complete Collection on DVD on September 22, 2014. In other media Film The Phil Silvers Show was the basis of a critically and commercially unsuccessful movie, Sgt. Bilko (1996), starring Steve Martin as Bilko, Dan Aykroyd as Colonel Hall, Max Casella as Paparelli, and Eric Edwards as Doberman, with Phil Silvers' daughter, Cathy Silvers, at Lt. Monday. The plot centers around an investigation into wrongdoings in Fort Baxter by Major Thorn (played by Phil Hartman), an old rival of Bilko's, who will stop at nothing to get the better of Bilko. References External links The Phil Silvers Show at the Museum of Broadcast Communications 1950s American sitcoms 1955 American television series debuts 1959 American television series endings Black-and-white American television shows CBS original programming English-language television shows Military comedy television series Military humor in film Jewish comedy and humor Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners Television series by CBS Studios Television shows filmed in New York (state) Television shows set in California Television shows set in Kansas

556295

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1chira

Táchira

Táchira State (, ) is one of the 24 states of Venezuela. The state capital is San Cristóbal. Táchira State covers a total surface area of and as of the 2011 census, had a population of 1,168,908. At the end of the 19th century, Táchira State was where oil was discovered in Venezuela. Currently, its main economic revenues come from the production of coffee and pineapple. The cattle and agricultural activities play an important role in Táchira's economy. There is also a strong industrial sector which focuses on the processing of potato, sugar, milk, and cheese and the production of textiles. Táchira State is one of the three Venezuelan Andean states (the other two are Mérida and Trujillo). This state borders Zulia State to the north, Barinas and Mérida States to the east, Apure and Barinas States to the south, and Colombia (Norte de Santander Department) to the west. Etymology Possible origins have been identified for the word Táchira, so one hypothesis states that the word is an indigenous word - based on Chibcha dialects - composed of three particles: ta, "farm" (as a root), chi, "ours, which belongs to us" and the suffix rá, "element that expresses place, moment or position (...)" with respect to the future. Thus, it would mean approximately a term like: "The land that will be our inheritance" or "The land of our inheritance". On the other hand, it is believed that Táchira comes from a Chibcha word that comes from the term "tachure", which identifies a purple dye plant that has medicinal uses, known as tun-túa or sibidigua (Jatropa gossypifolia). History Spanish colonization Populated mainly by groups of Timothy, Cuica, Chibcha origin and as the Machirí, Umuquena and Táriba, the territory was extensively colonized in the sixteenth century. With the foundation of San Cristóbal in 1561 by Captain Juan Maldonado Ordoñez y Villaquirán and La Grita in 1576 by Francisco de Cáceres, the agricultural exploitation of the area began, giving rise to the creation of new settlements. Since its foundation in 1576, La Grita was the capital of the Province of La Grita, so the importance of this city was primitive in the region until the arrival of European trading companies to the state, which settled mainly in the more accessible and better communicated San Cristóbal. In 1781 Juan Jose Garcia de Hevia led the Insurrection of the Communards of Los Andes, an anti-colonial revolutionary movement that sought to liberate Venezuela from the colonialism of the Spanish Empire, under the search for tax relief. During the Venezuelan War of Independence, Simon Bolivar invaded the country through the Táchira in his Admirable Campaign. 18th and 19th centuries Despite the progressive population growth of the region, its importance as Venezuela's main coffee producer for over two hundred years and the arrival of important European trading houses in the 19th century, the state remained relatively isolated from the rest of the country, with greater cultural influence received from Colombia for many years. In a country that now depends on an economy based on oil income, the Táchira was privileged to have the first oil wells in Venezuela. At the end of the 19th century the national oil industry was born in the place now called La Petrolia. On March 11, 1856, by decree of the Sovereign Congress of the Republic, the Province of Táchira was created, formed with the cantons of San Cristóbal, San Antonio, Lobatera and La Grita. It was decided that the capital of the Province would be San Cristóbal and there the headquarters of all the organs of the Provincial Government were established, with a general population of 42,731 inhabitants. The decree of the congress with date 11 of March was sanctioned by the National Executive day 14. General Jose Tadeo Monagas governed in the Country, who named to exercise the position of the Province, to the citizen Pascual Casanova, assuming the position of Governor of the State Táchira, this civil employee was named May 9 being sworn in its position the 1 of July 1856. In 1881, during the second presidency of General Antonio Guzmán Blanco, the National Constitution was reformed, establishing that the Republic is composed of nine great States; one of them was the great State of the Andes, with the sections Trujillo, Mérida and Táchira, each section being divided into districts. The executive power of the Táchira section was exercised by General Rosendo Medina, who was replaced by General Francisco Alvarado, who was short-lived because President Guzmán Blanco imposed his delegate in the Táchira, General Marcos Rodríguez. The arrival of General Ignacio Andrade to the presidency of the Republic favored the State, since the first National Magistrate to weaken the political-administrative structures of former President Joaquín Crespo, influenced the Congress to achieve a new territorial division. In 1895, the Gran Ferrocarril del Táchira was inaugurated, its construction began in 1893 with an extension of 105 kilometers between La Fría and Encontrados to mobilize the great crops of Tachira coffee. In 1899, Cipriano Castro began the invasion of Venezuela from the State of Táchira with an armed group that confronted the regime of Ignacio Andrade. The successive presidents of Venezuela of Tachira origin initiate a process of greater integration of the state to the country with the construction of better communication routes and the implementation of control measures on the agricultural trade of the state that was almost totally exported. Táchira State plays an important role in the early parts of Venezuelan history. This state produced more presidents than any other state during the 20th century: Cipriano Castro, Juan Vicente Gómez, Marcos Pérez Jiménez, Isaías Medina Angarita, Eleazar López Contreras, Carlos Andrés Pérez, and Ramón José Velásquez. At the end of the 19th century, the people of Táchira State were tired of being left out of the main country's decisions. Consequently, a group of men decided to start a revolution called the "Revolución Restauradora" (The Restorative Revolution). The idea was to take power and enhance the importance of the Andean Region in the country. It was led by Cipriano Castro and was successful. Until the start of the 20th century, it was highly difficult traveling between Táchira State and others and even within the state itself. This condition led to cultural differences between the people of Táchira and those from the rest of Venezuela. The former were more influenced by Colombian culture, a more accessible region through Norte de Santander province. Territorial History In 1856 it was part of the Province of Táchira within the territories of La Grita, Lobatera, San Antonio and San Cristóbal. In 1863 it acquired the category of State, a fact that was ratified in 1864 when it became part, as an independent state, of the United States of Venezuela. Between 1867 and 1868 it was part of the State of Zulia. In 1881, when the country was divided into 9 states, it became part, together with Guzmán (Mérida) and Trujillo, of the Great State of Los Andes. In 1899, the State of Los Andes was dissolved and Táchira recovered its status as an independent State, which it maintains to this day. It has remained a state since 1899, although like other states in Venezuela it did not achieve full autonomy until the early 1990s. Geography Táchira State is located in the Andes. Its highest point is La Montaña el Pulpito, which about 3995 meters above the sea level. Táchira's population is mainly located in San Cristóbal, the most important and prosperous city of this state. Tariba, Rubio, Colon, and La Grita are also other important urban centers in this state. It has international borders with Colombia in the west and south with Norte de Santander Department. Zulia and Mérida States lie to the north, and Barinas and Apure States lie to the east. The main peaks are: The Pulpit: 3,912 m Moor Battalion: 3,507 m The Tama: 3,450 m Moor La Negra: 3,450 m Moor The Zumbador: 2,850 m Crossed by the extension of the Andes mountain range from south to northwest, it divides the state into three different regions with a particular climate: Mountain circuit; in this region are the main urban settlements in the state, the climate is temperate at high altitude8 in most of the region and high moorland at elevations above 3000 meters above sea level, with slight variations throughout the year, has a clear rainy season from May to October. The orography is uneven and influenced by the course of numerous rivers and streams that form valleys at the base of the mountains, as an example the capital city is settled on the valley of the river Torbes, this area represents most of the surface of the state. The main cities located in this area are San Cristóbal, Táriba, Michelena, Rubio and La Grita. Pan-American circuit: this zone is located mainly in the north of the state, it shares the climatic characteristics of the southern region of the lake (of Maracaibo), with a tropical jungle climate, high rainfall and high temperatures. This region is one of the main centers of livestock production in Venezuela. It is on the border of the states of Zulia and Mérida. The main populations of this region are: La Fría, La Tendida and Coloncito. Llanos region: a small part of the Venezuelan plains are briefly located southeast of the state of Táchira, on the border with the states of Apure and Barinas, the climate is tropical savannah, with less humidity than in the Pan-American zone, it is also a region of high livestock production. Its main populations are: La Pedrera, El Piñal and Abejales. Relief Its territory has an area of 11,100 km2, where the Andean physiographic character predominates, with heights above 2,000 m. The mountainous relief is the southern continuation of the Merida mountain range, which penetrates from the north in a southwesterly direction, exceeding 4,000 m in the La Negra moor. In the extreme southwest, the Táchira depression was formed, which includes the tectonic trench through which the river of the same name runs and the entire relatively low area located between this trench and the valleys of the Lobaterita, the Torbes Medio and the Quinimarí Medio. The depression of the Torbes River separates the main range of the Mérida Range from the Tamá Range. During the Tertiary period, the uplifts of failed blocks formed deep valleys like those of the Uribante and Torbes rivers, with very steep slopes. In addition, there are relatively open basins with gently sloping terrain (San Cristóbal-Táriba-Rubio). The northern slopes come into contact with the lowlands located south of Lake Maracaibo, with large marshy areas, while the southeastern sector, from the eastern slope of the Uribante branch, is a transition zone between the piedmont (the lowlands of the mountainous formation) and the western high plains. Climate The climate presents great variations, mainly due to the modifications by the height, in populations of the route to the plain, in the piedmont (El Piñal, San Joaquin de Navay among others), can reach temperatures of 30 °C like in the Pan-American route (La Fría, Coloncito). In the capital, San Cristóbal, the average daytime temperature is 24 °C and the nighttime temperature is 18 °C. However, in cities like Pregonero, El Cobre, La Grita and others located at higher altitudes, the temperature is considerably lower (up to 10 °C). Vegetation The mountain vegetation includes specimens such as the Lasso pine and eucalyptus. The apamates and the creole cedar are abundant. Mangos, guamas, pomarrosas, guavas and other fruit trees are common in most of the state. Hydrography The hydrography is varied, there are several rivers of considerable course; the Torbes river, the Caparo river, the Uribante and the Doradas rivers among others, there are also some lakes and reservoirs, like the Uribante reservoir, the Caparo reservoir, the Garcia lagoon, the Rosal lagoon, the Ríobobo lagoon, among others Extreme geographical landmarks Far North, confluence of the Rio Grande with the Rio Escalante (Pan-American); Far South, confluence of the Rio Burgua with the Los Pensamientos stream (Fernández Feo); Far East, confluence of the Rio Doradas (Cauce Viejo) with the Rio Caparo (Libertador); Far West, eastern bank of the Rio Táchira in front of the Cerrito, village Sabana Larga (Pedro María Ureña). Distance between the extreme points of the State: north-south, 147.88 km; east-west: 129.03 km. Geology The Tachira Andes were formed during the Eocene period (between 56 million and 40 million years ago approximately), when the Nazca tectonic plate and the Caribbean plate began to slowly slide under the South American plate, raising older formations and bending the sedimentary and igneous rocks that form today's mountains (several of the highest peaks and moors in the State of Tachira are from the Phanerozoic eon, from the Precambrian period, about 542 million years ago). The tectonic forces generated by this collision created: the shapes of the highest mountains and peaks (El Pico El Púlpito, 3,912 m, in the northeastern end, and Cerro El Cobre, 3,612 m, in the southwestern end. Both are known as 'The Guardian Pillars of the Tachira'); a tectonic depression (known as the Tachira Depression, from the Pliocene); intramountain areas surrounded by higher ground, known as valleys (from the Pleistocene era). These are where the largest towns and cities are located); and the plains or lowlands of the north - lakes or the lake - and the south of the state - river plains - (areas of piedmont formed between the Miocene and Pliocene). Highest point: El Púlpito Peak (3,912 m, Páramo de Batallón Mountain Range, Jáuregui and Uribante Municipalities). Municipalities and municipal seats Andrés Bello (Cordero) Antonio Rómulo Costa (Las Mesas) Ayacucho (Colón) Bolívar (San Antonio del Táchira) Cárdenas (Táriba) Córdoba (Santa Ana del Táchira) Fernández Feo (San Rafael del Piñal) Francisco de Miranda (San José de Bolívar) García de Hevia (La Fría) Guásimos (Palmira) Independencia (Capacho Nuevo) Jáuregui (La Grita) José María Vargas (El Cobre) Junín (Rubio) Libertad (Capacho Viejo) Libertador (Abejales) Lobatera (Lobatera) Michelena (Michelena) Panamericano (Coloncito) Pedro María Ureña (Ureña) Rafael Urdaneta (Delicias) Samuel Darío Maldonado (La Tendida) San Cristóbal (San Cristóbal) San Judas Tadeo (Umuquena) Seboruco (Seboruco) Simón Rodríguez (San Simon) Sucre (Queniquea) Torbes (San Josecito) Uribante (Pregonero) State Capital The city of San Cristóbal is the capital of the state. It is an important economic pole for the country since it is located in the Colombian-Venezuelan border axis and, therefore, it is a commercial city where small and medium entrepreneurs develop important commercial transactions. It has a metropolitan population that exceeds 400,000 inhabitants. Its topography extends under a succession of river terraces and has an average temperature of 23 °C. It is at an altitude of 825 meters above sea level, which gives it a pleasant climate. San Cristóbal was founded on March 31, 1561, by the captain and advanced Juan Maldonado y Ordóñez, which makes it one of the oldest cities in Venezuela. Nowadays, the city of San Cristóbal is recognized by its wide academic and cultural activity. Its universities are recognized: Universidad de los Andes (Táchira nucleus), Universidad Nacional Experimental del Táchira (UNET) and Universidad Católica del Táchira (UCAT), among others, as well as for its San Sebastián International Fair. Main towns The San Cristóbal metropolitan area, made up of the municipalities of Andrés Bello, Cárdenas, Córdoba, Guásimos, Libertad, Independencia, Tórbes and San Cristóbal, will have around 263,7659 inhabitants in 2011, which represents the largest population concentration in the state. According to the data projected by the INE for the year 2013 the main population centers are San Cristóbal: 263 765 inhabitants. Táriba: 97 356 inhabitants. Rubio: 95 041 inhabitants. San Antonio del Táchira: 69 661 inhabitants. San Juan de Colón: 69 387 inhabitants La Fría: 60 392 inhabitants. La Grita: 54 366 inhabitants. Ureña: 51 900 inhabitants. Palmira: 50 899 inhabitants. El Piñal: 50 417 inhabitants. Population Race and ethnicity According to the 2011 Census, the racial composition of the population was: Ethnography The majority of the state's population is white, European contribution is notably higher than that of Indigenous and African Americans. It is one of the Venezuelan states with the highest proportion of whites, mostly of Spanish and European descent. Economy The Táchira has a very active economy because it is a border state where there is a great flow of capital, goods and services that exist between Venezuela and Colombia passing through this region. Primary sector Fishing: blanco pobre, cachama, cajaro, coporo, palometa, torumo, tumare (in rivers), striped catfish. Agricultural products: garlic, cambur, sugar cane, coffee, caraota, onion, potato, banana and tomato. Livestock production: mainly cattle. Forest resources: bucare, guamo, wax, laurel, butter, laso pine, quindu, among others. Industrial activity Industrial zone of Ureña, the largest and most diverse in the state (bodywork, plastics, textiles, furniture, construction, among others). Food industry: dairy products, confectionery, preserves, coffee, typical bakeries. Automotive: bus manufacturing. Handicrafts: hammocks, textiles, pottery, saddlery, woodwork, tannery. Mining industries: extraction of coal, asphalt, gypsum. Manufacturing: textiles, footwear, clothing, leather factories; industries mainly located in the border area; currently they have been greatly reduced by the exchange rate differential and the closure of the border. Energy: Uribante-Caparo hydroelectric complex. Tertiary or service sector Banking: Apart from the large national banks, the main bank in the region is represented by Banco Sofitasa, a solid financial institution that serves as an economic engine for the financing of many projects in the region. Táchira is also a business location for many other banking offices with a national presence. Education The State of Táchira is the center of important universities. Public Universities National Experimental University of Táchira - UNET University of Los Andes, Táchira Nucleus - ULA Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Instituto Pedagógico Rural "Gervasio Rubio" - UPEL University Institute of Agro-Industrial Technology - IUTAI Universidad Nacional Experimental Politécnica de la Fuerza Armada, Núcleo Táchira - UNEFA National Open University, Centro Local San Cristóbal - UNA Simón Rodríguez National Experimental University, La Grita Center Degree in Nursing, Romulo Gallegos University Bolivarian University of Venezuela UBV Núcleo Táchira Manuela Saenz Polytechnic University of the Territory UPT National Experimental Security University UNES Private Universities Bicentennial University of Aragua, San Táchira Agreement Cecilio Acosta Catholic University, San Cristobal Extension - UNICA Catholic University of Táchira - UCAT Santiago Mariño Polytechnic University Institute, San Cristóbal Extension - IUPSM Monsignor de Talavera University College, San Cristóbal Campus - CUMT Antonio José de Sucre University Institute of Technology, San Cristóbal Extension - IUTAJS Border University Institute - IUFRONT University Institute of Industrial Technology - IUTI Gran Colombia University Institute - IUGC Jesús Enrique Lossada University Institute, San Cristóbal Extension - IUJEL Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo University Institute of Technology, San Cristóbal Extension - IUTEPAL International Center for Continuing Education - Caribbean International University Curaçao - CIDEC- Religion The state is predominantly Christian with the most widespread denomination being the Catholic faith. The first mass celebrated in the territory of the present Táchira State, was on July 25, 1558 in the Santiago Valley, on the solemnity of Santiago Apostle, and was carried out by the Dominican Friar Alonso de Andrada, chaplain of the expedition of Captain Juan Rodríguez Suárez. The first uninterrupted religious services, began in April 1561 in the Fort of Tapias, after the foundation of the city of San Cristobal. Thus, the first and oldest parish in the State of Táchira is the current parish of El Sagrario/San Cristóbal Cathedral, whose oldest sacramental books have been preserved since 1601. The Diocese of San Cristóbal de Venezuela/Dioecesis Sancti Christophori in Venetiola (erected by the Apostolic Constitution Ad munus of 1922), with its episcopal see in the city of San Cristóbal, belongs to the ecclesiastical province of the Archbishopric of Mérida. Tourism The state of Táchira offers different tourist attractions among which the walks on the mountain routes and the moors El Zumbador, Los Rosales, La Negra, el Tamá stand out; the cattle areas of the road to the plain and the South of the Lake (from Maracaibo), the Pan-American route, the traditional and costumbrist towns (Peribeca, San Pedro del Río, El Cobre, Pregonero), the architecture of San Cristóbal, La Grita, the numerous restaurants of typical Andean food, the sporting events held in the city of San Cristóbal (mainly the meetings of the Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club, of the Venezuelan First Division League), the fairs and patron saint's celebrations, mainly the San Sebastián International Fair (FISS), among many others. It is also the Táchira center for river sports activities, such as sport fishing (developed in the numerous river courses of the State, mainly in the Uribante, Caparo and Doradas rivers), some activities such as canoeing and other specialties are developed in the artificial lake formed by the Uribante-Caparo dam, of the hydroelectric complex of the same name. The sites of greatest interest, both tourist and historical, are represented by some buildings of architectural value, which are closely linked with the Tachirenses due to the activities that are developed there such as public buildings, religious centers, entertainment and sports centers. The Ateneo del Táchira is the oldest in Venezuela, apart from being the first cultural center erected in the mentioned entity. Its foundation was carried out on April 19, 1907, although the construction that today looks was initiated in 1935, it is located in the street 9 with street 6 in the center of the city of San Cristóbal. During January the Capital city of San Cristóbal celebrates its fiesta, which is recognized nationally for its industrial, commercial and agricultural exhibitions. During this time there are bull-fights, events, parties, and a number of artists come to have their shows. Important buildings Some important buildings in the capital are: San Cristobal Civic Center Covered markets: (La Guayana, Metropolitano, Los Pequeños Comerciantes, La Ermita, Santa Teresa). "Genaro Mendez" Passenger Terminal" Hospital Central de San Cristóbal Dr. José María Vargas (HCSC) Sports facilities built for the 2005 Andes National Games, and 2007 Copa America: (Gymnastics Pavilion, indoor soccer stadiums, handball...) Metropolitan Baseball Stadium New Town Sports Complex. Building heritage The Ateneo del Táchira or Old Reading Room Steinvorth House Tachira Anthropological Museum Civic Center Bridge Liberator Christ King Monument-Capacho Plaza Monumental de Toros de Pueblo Nuevo Bridge Liberator Bolivarian Lyceum "Simon Bolivar" National School of Dance (ENDANZA Táchira) Navy Lighthouse Monument Natural heritage Some natural heritages of the Táchira are: Abra de Rio Frio natural monument. Chorro El Indio National Park. El Tamá National Park. Páramo El Zumbador. Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park. Casa del Padre (Father's House) Thermal waters in Aguas Calientes Ureña Cavernas de la Loma del Viento-Casa de John Rivera Sports The state of Táchira, together with Mérida and Trujillo, has been characterized as a region where the most popular sport is football. Currently the main football clubs based in the state are Deportivo Táchira F.C., which has won 8 titles in the First Division of Venezuela and also the Venezuelan club that has participated more times (22) in the Libertadores Cup of America; there are also Ureña Sport Club and Real Frontera Sport Club, the latter two members of the Second Division of Venezuela. Among other disciplines the Vuelta al Táchira in bicycle stands out, of great importance at national level, and that marks the beginning of the UCI America Tour. Some sports facilities include the "Juan Maldonado" Sports Complex, the "La Marina" Park, the "Metropolitano" Park, the "Paramillo" Sports Complex, the "Pueblo Nuevo" Sports Complex which has facilities such as the J. J. Mora Velodrome, the San Cristóbal Metropolitan Stadium, the Monumental Bullring, the Armino Gutiérrez Castro Gymnasium and the Pueblo Nuevo Multi-Sport Stadium. Transport El Táchira has important highways and a network of roads that cover much of its territory and communicate with the rest of the country: the Trasandina Highway, the Pan-American Highway or Trunk 1, the road to the plain or Trunk 5 and the San Cristóbal - La Fría Highway that is currently under construction. It also has three international bridges that connect it with neighboring Colombia: International Bridge Simon Bolivar, International Bridge Francisco de Paula Santander and the International Bridge Las Tienditas. The state has 4 airports, of which 3 are classified as international: Juan Vicente Gomez International Airport (closed), Santo Domingo International Airport and the International Airport "Francisco Garcia de Hevia" in La Fria, also has the Paramillo Airport a small capacity airport. Media Print media The state's newspapers are based in San Cristóbal, these are the Diario Católico and the Diario La Nación. In addition to those mentioned, there is the Diario de los Andes, originally from Trujillo state, which has its own editorial and circulation for Táchira. Television There are regional open-signal television channels: Televisora Regional del Táchira (TRT), the oldest. TVCT Canal 21, a television plant with an open signal. Buena TV, the most recently created channel. As well as other community channels, such as Vida TV in Rubio and Montaña TV in Cordero. Similarly in Ureña there is a television station that covers the border, on both sides Intercanal Channel 10. Currently the Colombian channels are transmitted as Channel 1, Citytv and Channel TRO for this state. Radio The radio is the most traditional means of communication in the state, the first receptions were made through the radio service of Venezuela in 1926. In 1933, Radio Táchira, with a small transmitter with a range of less than one kilometer, began to operate informally in the state capital.10 It was the first radio station in the region and one of the pioneers of radio in Venezuela; later, in 1935, it began its formal transmissions, La Voz del Táchira (called Radio Táchira since 1971). Among the most representative capital stations (in AM) are Ecos del Torbes (founded in 1947), which can currently be heard from anywhere in the world and has its own news website; there are also the stations Radio Táchira, Radio Noticias 1060 (formerly Ondas de América and Radio San Cristóbal (in operation since 1954) that belong to the same González Lovera radio circuit and Radio San Sebastián.11 In the interior of the state, radio has also reached an important development. Thus, as early as 1954 in the city of Rubio, the station Ecos de Junín began to broadcast, which was later taken to San Cristóbal. In 1965, Radio Frontera emerged in San Antonio del Táchira and in 1970 Radio Sucesos de Táriba and Radio el Sol de La Fría. FM began to develop in the 1990s with the launch of station 102.1 Stereo, known today as La Mega 102.1FM (currently part of the Mega Circuit). Since then, FM has been widely developed both in the capital and in the interior of the state. Government and politics The State is autonomous and equal in political terms to the rest of Venezuela, its administration and public powers are organized through the Constitution of the State of Táchira, approved by the Legislative Council and published in the extraordinary official gazette of the State of Táchira, number 778, on February 9, 2001. Executive power It is composed of the Governor of Táchira and a group of state secretaries. The Governor is elected by the people by direct and secret vote for a period of four years and has the possibility of re-election for equal periods and a recall referendum in the middle of his term, being in charge of the state administration. The State chooses its own Legislative Council as well as a Governor who is the Chief Executive of the State and is elected every 4 years; as of 1989, before that year he was elected by the President in office, his last Governor appointed by President Carlos Andrés Peréz, was Governor Jorge Enrique Romero, since 1989 he is chosen under direct elections, the current Governor Laidy Gómez is elected for the period (2017 - 2021) with the support of her party AD and other political organizations related to the Venezuelan opposition. Legislative Council The State Legislature is the responsibility of the unicameral Legislative Council of the State of Táchira, elected by the people by direct and secret vote every (4) four years, and they may be re-elected for new consecutive periods, under a system of proportional representation of the population of the State and its municipalities. The State has 13 legislators. State Police The state of Táchira, in accordance with Article 164 of the Venezuelan Constitution and Article 45 of the Constitution of the state of Táchira of 2014, has its own police force, called Politáchira, created in July 1960. Its functions are regulated by state and national laws, namely the Law of the Autonomous Institute of Police of the State of Táchira, the former; and the Organic Law of the Police Service, the latter. It reports to the Secretariat of State Security and is primarily responsible for regional security. Like the other 23 federal entities of Venezuela, the State maintains control over own police force, which is supported and complemented by the National Police and the Venezuelan National Guard. See also States of Venezuela Potosi, Venezuela References States of Venezuela States and territories established in 1899

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTRMNTR

XTRMNTR

XTRMNTR (pronounced "Exterminator") is the sixth studio album by Scottish rock band Primal Scream. It was first released on 31 January 2000 in the United Kingdom by Creation Records and on 2 May 2000 in the United States by Astralwerks. It peaked at number 3 on the UK Albums Chart. In a departure from their earlier, more hedonistic recordings, the band took a more political stance on the album, attacking government, police, and multinational corporations. Its sound is more aggressive and forceful than Primal Scream's previous output, with harsh, electronic sounds reminiscent of industrial music forming the basis for many of its songs. Although Gary Mounfield joined the band in 1997 and recorded a selection of tracks on their previous album Vanishing Point (1997), it marked the first time he shared songwriting credits with them, as well as his first full album since his time with The Stone Roses. The album is notable for being the final full-length release on Creation Records, with the track "Accelerator" later lifted to become the final single released on the label. Critical reception At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 90, based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". NME magazine rated XTRMNTR #2 in its "Top 50 Albums of the Year 2000", and later at the NME Carling Awards 2001, it won "Best Album" of the year. Uncut, like NME, named it at #2 on their list of the best albums of 2000. Over the years, it has gathered more praise, including appearances on lists of the top albums of the 2000s: NME placed it at #3 of their top 50 albums of decade list and Pitchfork placed it at #142 in its Top 200 Albums of the 2000s list. Metacritic placed it at #20 of the 40 best reviewed albums released 2000-9. In 2001, Q magazine named it as one of the "50 Heaviest Albums of All Time". Praising the production, Stylus Magazine included the album on their 2006 list of the "Top Ten Best Sounding Records, 1997–Present", and later ranked the album at number 10 on their "Stylus Decade" list of the "Top 100 Albums of the 2000s". In October 2011, NME placed "Swastika Eyes" at #45 and "Accelerator" at #114 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years". In 2014, they ranked "Shoot Speed/Kill Light" at #190 and "Accelerator" at #497 and in their list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Referring to the 2013 update, the album ranks at number 160 in NME's The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. In 2019, the album was ranked 65th on The Guardians 100 Best Albums of the 21st Century list. Track listing Personnel Credits adapted from liner notes. Primal Scream Bobby Gillespie – vocals, guitar, samples Andrew Innes – guitar Robert Young – guitar, programming Martin Duffy – keyboards, programming Gary 'Mani' Mounfield – bass Darrin Mooney – drums Jim Hunt – saxophone Duncan Mackay – trumpet Additional musicians Marco Nelson Kevin Shields Bernard Sumner Phil Mossman Darren Morris Zac Danziger Brendan Lynch Greg Knowles Gay-Yee Westerhoff Keith Tenniswood Production Primal Scream – production (1, 2, 3), recording Brendan Lynch – production (1, 2, 3, 11), co-production (1, 3), recording (2, 3, 11) Kevin Shields – production (11), mixing (2, 9) Adrian Maxwell Sherwood – recording (6, 7) Jagz Kooner – production (4), mixing (4), programming (7) David Holmes – production (6, 7), co-production (6) Hugo Nicolson – production (8), co-production (8), mixing (8) The Chemical Brothers – production (10), mixing (10) Tim Holmes – production (11) Dan the Automator – production (5), mixing (5) Andy Wilkinson – engineering (2, 9) Jon Weiner – engineering (6) Alan Branch – recording (6, 7) Charts Certifications References External links 2000 albums Primal Scream albums Creation Records albums Industrial rock albums Albums produced by Dan the Automator Albums produced by Kevin Shields

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Giles%27%20Cathedral

St Giles' Cathedral

St Giles' Cathedral (), or the High Kirk of Edinburgh, is a parish church of the Church of Scotland in the Old Town of Edinburgh. The current building was begun in the 14th century and extended until the early 16th century; significant alterations were undertaken in the 19th and 20th centuries, including the addition of the Thistle Chapel. St Giles' is closely associated with many events and figures in Scottish history, including John Knox, who served as the church's minister after the Scottish Reformation. Likely founded in the 12th century and dedicated to Saint Giles, the church was elevated to collegiate status by Pope Paul II in 1467. In 1559, the church became Protestant with John Knox, the foremost figure of the Scottish Reformation, as its minister. After the Reformation, St Giles' was internally partitioned to serve multiple congregations as well as secular purposes, such as a prison and as a meeting place for the Parliament of Scotland. In 1633, Charles I made St Giles' the cathedral of the newly created Diocese of Edinburgh. Charles' attempt to impose a Scottish Prayer Book in St Giles' on 23 July 1637 caused a riot, which precipitated the formation of the Covenanters and the beginnings of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The church's role in the Scottish Reformation and the Covenanters' Rebellion has led to its being called "the Mother Church of World Presbyterianism". St Giles' is one of Scotland's most important medieval parish church buildings. The first church of St Giles' was a small, Romanesque building of which only fragments remain. In the 14th century, this was replaced by the current building, which was enlarged between the late 14th and early 16th centuries. The church was altered between 1829 and 1833 by William Burn and restored between 1872 and 1883 by William Hay with the support of William Chambers. Chambers hoped to make St Giles' a "Westminster Abbey for Scotland" by enriching the church and adding memorials to notable Scots. Between 1909 and 1911, the Thistle Chapel, designed by Robert Lorimer, was added to the church. Since the medieval period, St Giles' has been the site of nationally important events and services; the services of the Order of the Thistle take place here. Alongside housing an active congregation, the church is one of Scotland's most popular visitor sites: it attracted over a million visitors in 2018. Name and dedication Saint Giles is the patron saint of lepers. Though chiefly associated with the Abbey of Saint-Gilles in modern-day France, he was a popular saint in medieval Great Britain. The church was first possessed by the monks of the Order of St Lazarus, who ministered among lepers; if David I or Alexander I is the church's founder, the dedication may be connected to their sister Matilda, who founded St Giles in the Fields. Prior to the Reformation, St Giles' was the only parish church in Edinburgh and some contemporary writers, such as Jean Froissart, refer simply to the "church of Edinburgh". From its elevation to collegiate status in 1467 until the Reformation, the church's full title was "the Collegiate Church of St Giles of Edinburgh". Even after the Reformation, the church is attested as "the college kirk of Sanct Geill". The charter of 1633 raising St Giles' to a cathedral records its common name as "Saint Giles' Kirk". St Giles' held cathedral status between 1633 and 1638 and again between 1661 and 1689 during periods of episcopacy within the Church of Scotland. Since 1689, the Church of Scotland, as a Presbyterian church, has had no bishops and, therefore, no cathedrals. St Giles' is one of a number of former cathedrals in the Church of Scotland – such as Glasgow Cathedral or Dunblane Cathedral – that retain their title despite having lost this status. Since the church's initial elevation to cathedral status, the building as a whole has generally been called St Giles' Cathedral, St Giles' Kirk or Church, or simply St Giles'. The title "High Kirk" is briefly attested during the reign of James VI as referring to the whole building. A 1625 order of the Privy Council of Scotland refers to the Great Kirk congregation, which was then meeting in St Giles', as the "High Kirk". The title fell out of use until reapplied in the late 18th century to the East (or New) Kirk, the most prominent of the four congregations then meeting in the church. Since 1883, the High Kirk congregation has occupied the entire building. Location The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland identified St Giles' as "the central focus of the Old Town". The church occupies a prominent and flat portion of the ridge that leads down from Edinburgh Castle; it sits on the south side of the High Street: the main street of the Old Town and one of the streets that make up the Royal Mile. From its initial construction in the 12th century until the 14th century, St Giles' was located near the eastern edge of Edinburgh. By the time of the construction of the King's Wall in the mid-15th century, the burgh had expanded and St Giles' stood near its central point. In the late medieval and early modern periods, St Giles' was also located at the centre of Edinburgh's civic life: the Tolbooth – Edinburgh's administrative centre – stood immediately north-west of the church and the Mercat Cross – Edinburgh's commercial and symbolic centre – stood immediately north-east of it. From the construction of the Tolbooth in the late 14th century until the early 19th century, St Giles' stood in the most constricted point of the High Street with the Luckenbooths and Tolbooth jutting into the High Street immediately north and north-west of the church. A lane known as the Stinkand Style (or Kirk Style) was formed in the narrow space between the Luckenbooths and the north side of the church. In this lane, open stalls known as the Krames were set up between the buttresses of the church. St Giles' forms the north side of Parliament Square with the Law Courts on the south side of the Square. The area immediately south of the church was originally the kirkyard, which stretched downhill to the Cowgate. This was closed to burials in 1561 and handed over to the town council in 1566. From the construction of Parliament House in 1639, the former kirkyard was developed and the Square formed. The west front of St Giles' faces the former Midlothian County Buildings across West Parliament Square. History Early years The foundation of St Giles' is usually dated to 1124 and attributed to David I The parish was likely detached from the older parish of St Cuthbert's. David raised Edinburgh to the status of a burgh and, during his reign, the church and its lands (St Giles' Grange) are first attested, being in the possession of monks of the Order of Saint Lazarus. Remnants of the destroyed Romanesque church display similarities to the church at Dalmeny, which was built between 1140 and 1166. St Giles' was consecrated by David de Bernham, Bishop of St Andrews on 6 October 1243. As St Giles' is attested almost a century earlier, this was likely a re-consecration to correct the loss of any record of the original consecration. Archaeological excavations, ahead of modern changes to the building, starting in 1981 with the construction of a staircase in the South Choir Aisle and continuing into the 1990s with some work on the floor and outside the church, found that the 12th-century church was built on a substantial clay platform to level the area as it was built on a steep slope. Also, that it was surrounded by a boundary ditch. In 1322 during the First Scottish War of Independence, troops of Edward II of England despoiled Holyrood Abbey and may have attacked St Giles' as well. Jean Froissart records that, in 1384, Scottish knights and barons met secretly with French envoys in St Giles' and, against the wishes of Robert II, planned a raid into the northern counties of England. Though the raid was a success, Richard II of England took retribution on the Scottish borders and Edinburgh in August 1385 and St Giles' was burned. The scorch marks were reportedly still visible on the pillars of the crossing in the 19th century. At some point in the 14th century, the 12th century Romanesque St Giles' was replaced by the current Gothic church. At least the crossing and nave had been built by 1387 as, in that year, John Skuyer, John Primrose, and John of Scone were commissioned to add five chapels to the south side of the nave. The archaeological excavations in the 1980s and 1990s found that this involved the church being extended to the south and east over the existing graveyard. For more than 450 years, St Giles’ served as the parish burial ground for the whole of the burgh, at its greatest extent, the burial grounds covered almost 0.5ha. The 12th century church was likely constructed of pink sandstone and grey whinstone. In the 1370s, the Lazarite friars supported the King of England and St Giles' reverted to the Scottish crown. In 1387 the church was repaired and expanded at he expense of Provost Andrew Yichtson and Adam Forrester of Nether Liberton. In 1393, Robert III granted St Giles' to Scone Abbey in compensation for the expenses incurred by the Abbey in 1390 during the King's coronation and the funeral of his father. Subsequent records show clerical appointments at St Giles' were made by the monarch, suggesting the church reverted to the crown soon afterwards. Collegiate church In 1419, Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas led an unsuccessful petition to Pope Martin V to elevate St Giles' to collegiate status. Unsuccessful petitions to Rome followed in 1423 and 1429. The burgh launched another petition for collegiate status in 1466, which was granted by Pope Paul II in February 1467. The foundation replaced the role of vicar with a provost accompanied by a curate, sixteen canons, a beadle, a minister of the choir, and four choristers. During the period of these petitions, William Preston of Gorton had, with the permission of Charles VII of France, brought from France the arm bone of Saint Giles, an important relic. From the mid-1450s, the Preston Aisle was added to the southern side of the choir to commemorate this benefactor; Preston's eldest male descendants were given the right to carry the relic at the head of the Saint Giles' Day procession every 1 September. Around 1460, extension of the chancel and the addition thereto of a clerestory were supported by Mary of Guelders, possibly in memory of her husband, James II. The archaeological excavations in the 1980s found evidence of these different works on the church and that they, the work on the choir and the creation of the Preston Aisle, may have been partially spurred on by a structural failure of parts of the church due to poor foundations and the need for renovations anyway. In the years following St Giles' elevation to collegiate status, the number of chaplainries and endowments increased greatly and by the Reformation there may have been as many as fifty altars in St Giles'. In 1470, Pope Paul II further elevated St Giles' status by granting a petition from James III to exempt the church from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of St Andrews. During Gavin Douglas' provostship, St Giles' was central to Scotland's response to national disaster of the Battle of Flodden in 1513. As Edinburgh's men were ordered by the town council to defend the city, its women were ordered to gather in St Giles' to pray for James IV and his army. Requiem Mass for the King and the memorial mass for the dead of the battle were held in St Giles' and Walter Chepman endowed a chapel of the Crucifixion in the lower part of the kirkyard in the King's memory. In the summer of 1544 during the war known as the Rough Wooing, after an English army had burnt Edinburgh, Regent Arran maintained a garrison of gunners in the tower of the church. The earliest record of Reformed sentiment at St Giles' is in 1535, when Andrew Johnston, one of the chaplains, was forced to leave Scotland on the grounds of heresy. In October 1555, the town council ceremonially burned English language books, likely Reformers’ texts, outside St Giles'. The theft from the church of images of the Virgin, St Francis, and the Trinity in 1556 may have been agitation by reformers. In July 1557, the church's statue of its patron, Saint Giles, was stolen and, according to John Knox, drowned in the Nor Loch then burned. For use in that year's Saint Giles' Day procession, the statue was replaced by one borrowed from Edinburgh's Franciscans; though this was also damaged when Protestants disrupted the event. On 16 December 1558 the goldsmith James Mosman weighed and valued the treasures of St Giles' including the reliquary of the saint's arm bone with a diamond ring on his finger, a silver cross, and a ship for incense. Reformation At the beginning of 1559, with the Scottish Reformation gaining ground, the town council hired soldiers to defend St Giles' from the Reformers; the council also distributed the church's treasures among trusted townsmen for safekeeping. At 3 pm on 29 June 1559 the army of the Lords of the Congregation entered Edinburgh unopposed and, that afternoon, John Knox, the foremost figure of the Reformation in Scotland, first preached in St Giles'. The following week, Knox was elected minister of St Giles' and, the week after that, the purging of the church's Roman Catholic furnishings began. Mary of Guise (who was then ruling as regent for her daughter Mary) offered Holyrood Abbey as a place of worship for those who wished to remain in the Roman Catholic faith while St Giles' served Edinburgh's Protestants. Mary of Guise also offered the Lords of the Congregation that the parish church of Edinburgh would, after 10 January 1560, remain in whichever confession proved the most popular among the burgh's inhabitants. These proposals, however, came to nothing and the Lords of the Congregation signed a truce with the Roman Catholic forces and vacated Edinburgh. Knox, fearing for his life, left the city on 24 July 1559. St Giles', however, remained in Protestant hands. Knox's depute, John Willock, continued to preach even as French soldiers disrupted his sermons and ladders, to be used in the Siege of Leith, were constructed in the church. The events of the Scottish Reformation thereafter briefly turned in favour of the Roman Catholic party: they retook Edinburgh and the French agent Nicolas de Pellevé, Bishop of Amiens, reconsecrated St Giles' as a Roman Catholic church on 9 November 1559. After the Treaty of Berwick secured the intervention of Elizabeth I of England on the side of the Reformers, they retook Edinburgh. St Giles' once again became a Protestant church on 1 April 1560 and Knox returned to Edinburgh on 23 April 1560. The Parliament of Scotland legislated that, from 24 August 1560, the Pope had no authority in Scotland. Workmen, assisted by sailors from the Port of Leith, took nine days to clear stone altars and monuments from the church. Precious items used in pre-Reformation worship were sold. The church was whitewashed, its pillars painted green, and the Ten Commandments and Lord's Prayer painted on the walls. Seating was installed for children and the burgh's council and incorporations. A pulpit was also installed, likely at the eastern side of the crossing. In 1561, the kirkyard to the south of the church was closed and most subsequent burials were conducted at Greyfriars Kirkyard. Church and crown: 1567–1633 In 1567, Mary, Queen of Scots was deposed and succeeded by her infant son, James VI, St Giles' was a focal point of the ensuing Marian civil war. After his assassination in January 1570, the Regent Moray, a leading opponent of Mary, Queen of Scots, was interred within the church; John Knox preached at this event. Edinburgh briefly fell to Mary's forces and, in June and July 1572, William Kirkcaldy of Grange stationed soldiers and cannon in the tower. Although his colleague of 9 years John Craig had remained in Edinburgh during these events, Knox, his health failing, had retired to St Andrews. A deputation from Edinburgh recalled him to St Giles' and there he preached his final sermon on 9 November 1572. Knox died later that month and was buried in the kirkyard in the presence of the Regent Morton. After the Reformation, parts of St Giles' were given over to secular purposes. In 1562 and 1563, the western three bays of the church were partitioned off by a wall to serve as an extension to the Tolbooth: it was used, in this capacity, as a meeting place for the burgh's criminal courts, the Court of Session, and the Parliament of Scotland. Recalcitrant Roman Catholic clergy (and, later, inveterate sinners) were imprisoned in the room above the north door. The tower was also used as a prison by the end of the 16th century. The Maiden — an early form of guillotine — was stored in the church. The vestry was converted into an office and library for the town clerk and weavers were permitted to set up their looms in the loft. Around 1581, the interior was partitioned into two meeting houses: the chancel became the East (or Little or New) Kirk and the crossing and the remainder of the nave became the Great (or Old) Kirk. These congregations, along with Trinity College Kirk and the Magdalen Chapel, were served by a joint kirk session. In 1598, the upper storey of the Tolbooth partition was converted into the West (or Tolbooth) Kirk. During the early majority of James VI, the ministers of St Giles' – led by Knox's successor, James Lawson – formed, in the words of Cameron Lees, "a kind of spiritual conclave with which the state had to reckon before any of its proposals regarding ecclesiastical matters could become law". During his attendance at the Great Kirk, James was often harangued in the ministers' sermons and relations between the King and the Reformed clergy deteriorated. In the face of opposition from St Giles' ministers, James introduced successive laws to establish episcopacy in the Church of Scotland from 1584. Relations reached their nadir after a tumult at St Giles' on 17 December 1596. The King briefly removed to Linlithgow and the ministers were blamed for inciting the crowd; they fled the city rather than comply with their summons to appear before the King. To weaken the ministers, James made effective, as of April 1598, an order of the town council from 1584 to divide Edinburgh into distinct parishes. In 1620, the Upper Tolbooth congregation vacated St Giles' for the newly established Greyfriars Kirk. Cathedral James' son and successor, Charles I, first visited St Giles' on 23 June 1633 during his visit to Scotland for his coronation. He arrived at the church unannounced and displaced the reader with clergy who conducted the service according to the rites of the Church of England. On 29 September that year, Charles, responding to a petition from John Spottiswoode, Archbishop of St Andrews, elevated St Giles' to the status of a cathedral to serve as the seat of the new Bishop of Edinburgh. Work began to remove the internal partition walls and to furnish the interior in the manner of Durham Cathedral. Work on the church was incomplete when, on 23 July 1637, the replacement in St Giles' of Knox's Book of Common Order by a Scottish version of the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer provoked rioting due to the latter's perceived similarities to Roman Catholic ritual. Tradition attests that this riot was started when a market trader named Jenny Geddes threw her stool at the Dean, James Hannay. In response to the unrest, services at St Giles' were temporarily suspended. The events of 23 July 1637 led to the signing of the National Covenant in February 1638, which, in turn, led to the Bishops' Wars, the first conflict of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. St Giles' again became a Presbyterian church and the partitions were restored. Before 1643, the Preston Aisle was also fitted out as a permanent meeting place for the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. In autumn 1641, Charles I attended Presbyterian services in the East Kirk under the supervision of its minister, Alexander Henderson, a leading Covenanter. The King had lost the Bishops' Wars and had come to Edinburgh because the Treaty of Ripon compelled him to ratify Acts of the Parliament of Scotland passed during the ascendancy of the Covenanters. After the Covenanters' loss at the Battle of Dunbar, troops of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell entered Edinburgh and occupied the East Kirk as a garrison church. General John Lambert and Cromwell himself were among English soldiers who preached in the church and, during the Protectorate, the East Kirk and Tolbooth Kirk were each partitioned in two. At the Restoration in 1660, the Cromwellian partition was removed from the East Kirk and a new royal loft was installed there. In 1661, the Parliament of Scotland, under Charles II, restored episcopacy and St Giles' became a cathedral again. At Charles' orders, the body of James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose – a senior supporter of Charles I executed by the Covenanters – was re-interred in St Giles'. The reintroduction of bishops sparked a new period of rebellion and, in the wake of the Battle of Rullion Green in 1666, Covenanters were imprisoned in the former priests' prison above the north door, which, by then, had become known as "Haddo's Hole" due to the imprisonment there in 1644 of Royalist leader Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet, of Haddo. After the Glorious Revolution, the Scottish bishops remained loyal to James VII. On the advice of William Carstares, who later became minister of the High Kirk, William II supported the abolition of bishops in the Church of Scotland and, in 1689, the Parliament of Scotland restored Presbyterian polity. In response, many ministers and congregants left the Church of Scotland, effectively establishing the independent Scottish Episcopal Church. In Edinburgh alone, eleven meeting houses of this secession sprang up, including the congregation that became Old St Paul's, which was founded when Alexander Rose, the last Bishop of Edinburgh in the established church, led much of his congregation out of St Giles'. Four churches in one: 1689–1843 In 1698 the Town Council created a new parish known as the New North parish which was initially housed in a meeting house on the Lawnmarket which had operated for Christian services since 1692. In 1699 this was formally relocated into St Giles and the parish was known as either New North or West st Giles. In 1699, the courtroom in the northern half of the Tolbooth partition was converted into the New North (or Haddo's Hole) Kirk. At the Union of Scotland and England's Parliaments in 1707, the tune "Why Should I Be Sad on my Wedding Day?" rang out from St Giles' recently installed carillon. During the Jacobite rising of 1745, inhabitants of Edinburgh met in St Giles' and agreed to surrender the city to the advancing army of Charles Edward Stuart. From 1758 to 1800, Hugh Blair, a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment and religious moderate, served as minister of the High Kirk; his sermons were famous throughout Britain and attracted Robert Burns and Samuel Johnson to the church. Blair's contemporary, Alexander Webster, was a leading evangelical who, from his pulpit in the Tolbooth Kirk, expounded strict Calvinist doctrine. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Luckenbooths and Tolbooth, which had enclosed the north side of the church, were demolished along with shops built up around the walls of the church. The exposure of the church's exterior revealed its walls were leaning outwards. In 1817, the city council commissioned Archibald Elliot to produce plans for the church's restoration. Elliot's drastic plans proved controversial and, due to a lack of funds, nothing was done with them. George IV attended service in the High Kirk during his 1822 visit to Scotland. The publicity of the King's visit created impetus to restore the now-dilapidated building. With £20,000 supplied by the city council and the government, William Burn was commissioned to lead the restoration. Burn's initial plans were modest, but, under pressure from the authorities, Burn produced something closer to Elliot's plans. Between 1829 and 1833, Burn significantly altered the church: he encased the exterior in ashlar, raised the church's roofline and reduced its footprint. He also added north and west doors and moved the internal partitions to create a church in the nave, a church in the choir, and a meeting place for the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in the southern portion. Between these, the crossing and north transept formed a large vestibule. Burn also removed internal monuments; the General Assembly's meeting place in the Preston Aisle; and the police office and fire engine house, the building's last secular spaces. Burn's contemporaries were split between those who congratulated him on creating a cleaner, more stable building and those who regretted what had been lost or altered. In the Victorian era and the first half of the 20th century, Burn's work fell far from favour among commentators. Its critics included Robert Louis Stevenson, who stated: "…zealous magistrates and a misguided architect have shorn the design of manhood and left it poor, naked, and pitifully pretentious." Since the second half of the 20th century, Burn's work has been recognised as having secured the church from possible collapse. The High Kirk returned to the choir in 1831. The Tolbooth Kirk returned to the nave in 1832; when they left for a new church on Castlehill in 1843, the nave was occupied by the Haddo's Hole congregation. The General Assembly found its new meeting hall inadequate and met there only once, in 1834; the Old Kirk congregation moved into the space. Victorian era At the Disruption of 1843, Robert Gordon and James Buchanan, ministers of the High Kirk, left their charges and the established church to join the newly founded Free Church. A significant number of their congregation left with them; as did William King Tweedie, minister of the first charge of the Tolbooth Kirk, and Charles John Brown, minister of Haddo's Hole Kirk. The Old Kirk congregation was suppressed in 1860. At a public meeting in Edinburgh City Chambers on 1 November 1867, William Chambers, publisher and Lord Provost of Edinburgh, first advanced his ambition to remove the internal partitions and restore St Giles' as a "Westminster Abbey for Scotland". Chambers commissioned Robert Morham to produce initial plans. Lindsay Mackersy, solicitor and session clerk of the High Kirk, supported Chambers' work and William Hay was engaged as architect; a management board to supervise the design of new windows and monuments was also created. The restoration was part of a movement for liturgical beautification in late 19th century Scottish Presbyterianism and many evangelicals feared the restored St Giles' would more resemble a Roman Catholic church than a Presbyterian one. Nevertheless, the Presbytery of Edinburgh approved plans in March 1870 and the High Kirk was restored between June 1872 and March 1873: the pews and gallery were replaced with stalls and chairs and, for the first time since the Reformation, stained glass and an organ were introduced. The restoration of the former Old Kirk and the West Kirk began in January 1879. In 1881, the West Kirk vacated St. Giles'. During the restoration, many human remains were unearthed; these were transported in five large boxes for reinterment in Greyfriars Kirkyard. Although he had managed to view the reunified interior, William Chambers died on 20 May 1883, only three days before John Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen, Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, ceremonially opened the restored church; Chambers' funeral was held in the church two days after its reopening. 20th and 21st centuries In 1911, George V opened the newly constructed chapel of the knights of the Order of the Thistle at the south east corner of the church. Though the church had hosted a special service for the Church League for Women's Suffrage, Wallace Williamson’s refusal to pray for imprisoned suffragettes led to their supporters disrupting services during late 1913 and early 1914. Ninety-nine members of the congregation – including the assistant minister, Matthew Marshall – were killed in World War I. In 1917, St Giles' hosted the lying-in-state and funeral of Elsie Inglis, medical pioneer and member of the congregation. Ahead of the 1929 reunion of the United Free Church of Scotland and the Church of Scotland, the Church of Scotland (Property and Endowments) Act 1925 transferred ownership of St Giles' from the City of Edinburgh Council to the Church of Scotland. The church escaped World War II undamaged. The week after VE Day, the royal family attended a thanksgiving service in St Giles'. The Albany Aisle at the north west of the church was subsequently adapted to serve as a memorial chapel to the 39 members of the congregation killed in the conflict. To mark her first visit to Scotland since her coronation, Elizabeth II received the Honours of Scotland at a special service in St Giles' on 24 June 1953. From 1973 to 2013, Gilleasbuig Macmillan served as minister of St Giles'. During Macmillan's incumbency, the church was restored and the interior reoriented around a central communion table, the interior floor was levelled and undercroft space was created by Bernard Feilden. St Giles' remains an active parish church as well as hosting concerts, special services, and events. In 2018, St Giles' was the fourth most popular visitor site in Scotland with over 1.3 million visitors that year. Architecture The first St Giles' was likely a small, Romanesque building of the 12th century with a rectangular nave and semi-circular apsidal chancel. Before the middle of the 13th century, an aisle was added to the south of the church. By 1385, this building had likely been replaced by the core of the current church: a nave and aisles of five bays, a crossing and transepts, and a choir of four bays. The church was extended in stages between 1387 and 1518. In Richard Fawcett's words, this "almost haphazard addition of large numbers of chapels" produced "an extraordinarily complex plan". The resultant profusion of outer aisles is typical of French medieval church architecture but unusual in Britain. Apart from the internal partitioning of the church in the wake of the Reformation, few significant alterations were made until the restoration by William Burn in 1829–33, which included the removal of several bays of the church, the addition of clerestories to the nave and transepts, and the encasement of the church's exterior in polished ashlar. The church was significantly restored under William Hay between 1872 and 1883, including the removal of the last internal partitions. In the late 19th century, a number of ground level rooms were added around the periphery of the church. The Thistle Chapel was added to the south-east corner of the church by Robert Lorimer in 1909–11. The most significant subsequent restoration commenced in 1979 under Bernard Feilden and Simpson & Brown: this included the levelling of the floor and the rearrangement of the interior around a central communion table. Exterior The exterior of the church, with the exception of the tower, dates almost entirely from William Burn's restoration of 1829-33 and afterwards. Prior to this restoration, St Giles' possessed what Richard Fawcett called a "uniquely complex external appearance" as the result of the church's numerous extensions; externally, a number of chapels were emphasised by gables. Following the early 19th century demolition of the Luckenbooths, Tolbooth, and shops built against St Giles', the walls of the church were exposed to be leaning outward by as much as one and a half feet in places. Burn encased the exterior of the building in polished ashlar of gray sandstone from Cullalo in Fife. This layer is tied to the existing walls by iron cramps and varies in width from eight inches (20 centimetres) at the base of the walls to five inches (12.5 centimetres) at the top. Burn co-operated with Robert Reid, the architect of new buildings in Parliament Square, to ensure the exteriors of their buildings would complement each other. Burn significantly altered the profile of the church: he expanded the transepts, created a clerestory in the nave, added new doorways in the west front and north and south transepts, and replicated the cusped cresting from the east end of the church throughout the parapet. Alongside the Thistle Chapel, extensions since the Burn restoration include William Hay's additions of 1883: rooms south of the Moray Aisle, east of the south transept, and west of the north transept; in 1891, MacGibbon and Ross added a ladies’ vestry – now the shop – at the east of the north transept. Burn created a symmetrical western façade by replacing the west window of the Albany Aisle at the northwest corner of the church with a double niche and by moving the west window of the inner south nave aisle to repeat this arrangement in the southern half. The west doorway dates from the Victorian restoration and is by William Hay: the doorway is flanked by niches containing small statues of Scottish monarchs and churchmen by John Rhind, who also carved the relief of Saint Giles in the tympanum. The metalwork of the west door is by Skidmore. In 2006, new steps and an access ramp were added to the west door by Morris and Steedman Associates. In order to improve access to Parliament Square, Burn demolished the westernmost two bays of the outer south nave aisle, including the south porch and door. Burn also removed the western bay from the Holy Blood Aisle at the south of the church and, from the north side of the nave, removed the north porch along with an adjoining bay. The lost porches likely dated from the late-15th century and were matched only by those at St John's Kirk, Perth and St Michael's Kirk, Linlithgow as the grandest two-storey porches on Scottish medieval churches. Like the porch at Linlithgow, on which they were likely based, the porches at St Giles' possessed an entry arch below an oriel window. Burn replicated this arrangement in a new doorway at the west of the Moray Aisle. On visiting the church prior to the Burn restoration, Thomas Rickman wrote: "... a few of the windows have the tracery remaining, but from most of them it has been cut away." Views of the church before the Burn restoration show intersecting tracery in some of the choir windows and looping patterns in the windows of the Holy Blood Aisle. Burn retained the tracery of the great east window, which had been restored by John Mylne the Younger in the mid-17th century. In the other windows Burn inserted new tracery based on late medieval Scottish examples. Tower and crown steeple St Giles' possesses a central tower over its crossing: this arrangement is common in larger Scottish medieval secular churches. The tower was constructed in two stages. The lower section of the tower has lancet openings with "Y"-shaped tracery on every side. This had likely been completed by 1416, in which year the Scotichronicon records storks nesting there. The upper stage of the tower has clusters of three cusped lancet openings on each side. The date of this work is uncertain, but it may relate both to fines levied on building works at St Giles' in 1486 and to rules of 1491 for the master mason and his men. From at least 1590, there was a clock face on the tower and, by 1655, there were three faces. The clock faces were removed in 1911. St Giles' crown steeple is one of Edinburgh's most famous and distinctive landmarks. Cameron Lees wrote of the steeple: "Edinburgh would not be Edinburgh without it." Dendrochronological analysis dates the crown steeple to between 1460 and 1467. The steeple is one of two surviving medieval crown steeples in Scotland: the other is at King's College, Aberdeen and dates from after 1505. John Hume called St Giles' crown steeple "a serene reminder of the imperial aspirations of the late Stewart monarchs". The design, however, is English in origin, being found at St Nicholas' Church, Newcastle before it was introduced to Scotland at St Giles'; the medieval St Mary-le-Bow, London, may also have possessed a crown steeple. Another crown steeple existed at St Michael's Parish Church, Linlithgow until 1821 and others may have been planned, and possibly begun, at the parish churches of Haddington and Dundee. These other examples are composed only of diagonal flying buttresses springing from the four corners of the tower; whereas the St Giles' steeple is unique among medieval crown steeples in being composed of eight buttresses: four springing from the corners and four springing from the centre of each side of the tower. For the arrival into Edinburgh of Anne of Denmark in 1590, 21 weather vanes were added to the crests of the steeple; these were removed prior to 1800 and replacements were installed in 2005. The steeple was repaired by John Mylne the Younger in 1648. Mylne added pinnacles half-way up the crests of the buttresses; he is also largely responsible for the present appearance of the central pinnacle and may have rebuilt the tower's traceried parapet. The weathercock atop the central pinnacle was created by Alexander Anderson in 1667; it replaced an earlier weathercock of 1567 by Alexander Honeyman. Nave The Buildings of Scotland series calls the nave "archaeologically the most complicated part of church". Though the nave dates to the 14th century and is one of the oldest parts of the church, it has been significantly altered and extended since. The ceiling over the central section of the nave is a tierceron vault in plaster; this was added during William Burn's restoration of 1829–1833. Burn also heightened the walls of the central section of the nave by 16 feet (4.8 metres), adding windows to create a clerestory. Burn is usually credited with removing a medieval vaulted ceiling from the nave; however, there is no contemporary record of this and it may have been removed before Burn's time. The corbels and shafts leading to the springers of the vaults were added by William Hay in 1882. Burn also removed an attic from above the central section of the nave: this contained several rooms and housed the church's bell-ringer. The outline of the nave roof prior to the Burn restoration can be observed on the wall above the western arch of the crossing. Hay is also responsible for the present arcade. Burn had earlier heightened the medieval arcade and replaced the octagonal 14th century pillars with pillars based on the 15th century example in the Albany Aisle. Hay replaced these pillars with replicas of the octagonal 14th century pillars of the choir. Originally, the south arcade of the nave was lower with a clerestory window above each arch. The lower height of the original arcade is indicated by a fragment of an arch, springing from the south west pier of the crossing. The arches of the clerestory windows, now filled-in, are still visible above the each arch of the arcade on the south side of the nave. The two arches nearest the crossing at the south nave arcade show taller arches, which likely relate to a medieval scheme to heighten the arcade; however, the presence of these blind arches in only two bays suggests the scheme proved abortive. North nave aisle and chapels The ceiling of the north nave aisle is a rib vault in a similar style to the Albany Aisle: this suggests the north nave aisle dates to the same campaign of building at the turn of the 15th century. In the first decade of the 15th century, the Albany Aisle was erected as a northward extension of the two westernmost bays of the north nave aisle. The Aisle consists of two bays under a stone rib-vaulted ceiling. The west window of the chapel was blocked up during the Burn restoration of 1829–33. The north wall of the Aisle contains a semi-circular tomb recess. The ceiling vaults are supported by a bundled pillar that supports a foliate capital and octagonal abacus upon which are the escutcheons of the Aisle's donors: Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany and Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas. This is the oldest example of a style of pillar repeated throughout the later additions to St Giles'. Richard Fawcett describes the repetition of this style of pillar and arcading as providing "some measure of control […] to achieve a measure of architectural unity". Neither Albany nor Douglas was closely associated with St Giles' and tradition holds the aisle was donated in penance for their involvement in the death of David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay. In 1882, the floor of the Albany Aisle was paved with Minton tiles, bands of Irish marble, and tiled medallions depicting the arms of Scotland; Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany; and Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas. For the Aisle's dedication as a memorial chapel in the wake of the Second World War, the Minton tiles were replaced with Leoch paving stones from Dundee while the heraldic medallions and marble bands were retained. East of the Albany Aisle, two light-coloured stones below the Black Watch's Egyptian Campaign memorial mark the site of the Norman north door. Until its removal at the end of the 18th century, the doorway was the only feature of the 12th century Romanesque church in situ. An illustration of 1799 shows the doorway as a highly decorated structure, bearing similarities to doorways at the churches of Dalmeny and Leuchars. A porch stood over the site of the north door until the Burn restoration of 1829–33. This consisted of a chamber over the doorway accessed from the church by a turnpike stair. The lancet arch of the stairway door now frames the Second Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers' Second Boer War memorial. East of the former doorway is a recessed stoup. Two chapels formerly stood north of the easternmost two bays of the north nave aisle. Only the easternmost of these, the St Eloi Aisle, survived the Burn restoration. Its ceiling is a barrel vault with superficial ribs: this was installed during William Hay's restoration of 1881-83 and incorporates a boss from the original vault. The archway between the St Eloi Aisle and the north nave aisle is original to the 15th century construction. The west wall of the St Eloi Aisle contains a Romanesque capital from the original church. It was discovered during the clearance of rubble around the medieval east window of the north transept in 1880 and was reset in its present position. The floor of the St Eloi Aisle is marble with mosaic panels by Minton, depicting the emblem the Incorporation of Hammermen between the symbols of the four evangelists. South nave aisles The inner and outer south nave aisles were likely begun in the later 15th century around the time of the Preston Aisle, which they strongly resemble. They were likely completed by 1510, when altars of the Holy Trinity, Saint Apollonia, and Saint Thomas were added to the west end of the inner aisle. The current aisles replaced the original south nave aisle and the five chapels by John Primrose, John Skuyer, and John of Perth, named in a contract of 1387. The inner aisle retains its original quadripartite vault; however, the plaster tierceron vault of the outer aisle (known as the Moray Aisle) dates to William Burn's restoration. During the Burn restoration, the two westernmost bays of the outer aisle were removed. There remains a prominent gap between the pillars of the missing bays and the 19th century wall. At the west end of the outer aisle, Burn added a new wall with a door and oriel window. Burn also replaced the window of the inner aisle with a smaller window, centred north of the original in order to accommodate a double niche on the exterior wall. The outline of the original window is still visible in the interior wall. In 1513, Alexander Lauder of Blyth commissioned an aisle of two bays at the eastern end of the outer south nave aisle: the Holy Blood Aisle is the easternmost and only surviving bay of this aisle. It is named for the Confraternity of the Holy Blood, to whom it was granted upon completion in 1518. The western bay of the Aisle and the pillar separating the two bays were removed during the Burn restoration and the remainder was converted to a heating chamber. The Aisle was restored to ecclesiastical use under William Hay. An elaborate late Gothic tomb recess occupies the south wall of the aisle. Crossing and transepts The piers of the crossing date to the original building campaign of the 14th century and may be the oldest part of the present church. The piers were likely raised around 1400, at which time the present vault and bell hole were created. The first stages of both transepts were likely completed by 1395, in which year the St John's Aisle was added to the north of the north transept. Initially, the north transept extended no further than the north wall of the aisles and possessed a tunnel-vaulted ceiling at the same height as those in the crossing and aisles. The arches between the transept and north aisles of the choir and nave appear to be 14th century. The St John's Chapel, extending north of the line of the aisles, was added in 1395; in its western end was a turnpike stair, which, at the Burn restoration, was re-set in the thick wall between the St Eloi Aisle and the north transept. The remains of St John's Chapel are visible in the east wall of the north transept: these include fragments of vaulting and a medieval window, which faces into the Chambers Aisle. The bottom half of this window's tracery, as far as its embattled transom, is original; curvilinear tracery was added to the upper half by MacGibbon and Ross in 1889–91. At the Burn restoration, the north transept was heightened and a clerestory and plaster vaulted ceiling inserted. A screen of 1881-83 by William Hay crosses the transept in line with the original north wall, creating a vestibule for the north door. The screen contains sculptures of the patron saints of the Incorporated Trades of Edinburgh by John Rhind as well as the arms of William Chambers. The ceiling and open screens within the vestibule were designed by Esmé Gordon and added in 1940. A fragment of medieval blind tracery is visible at the western end of this screen. Initially, the south transept only extended to the line of the south aisles; it was extended in stages as the Preston, Chepman, and Holy Blood Aisles were added. The original barrel vault remains as far as an awkwardly inserted transverse arch supported on heavy corbels between the inner transept arches: this arch was likely inserted after the creation of the Preston Aisle, when the inner transept arches were expanded accordingly. The transverse arch carries an extension to the lower part of the tower, including a 15th-century traceried window. The south transept was heightened and a clerestory and plaster vaulted ceiling were inserted during the Burn restoration. Choir The Buildings of Scotland series calls the choir the "finest piece of late medieval parish church architecture in Scotland". The choir dates to two periods of building: one in the 14th century and one in the 15th. The archaeological excavations indicate the choir was extended to almost its current size in a single phase before the mid-15th-century work. The choir was initially built as a hall church: as such, it was unique in Scotland. The western three bays of the choir date to this initial period of construction. The arcades of these bays are supported by simple, octagonal pillars. In the middle of the 15th century, two bays were added to the east end of the choir and the central section was raised to create a clerestory under a tierceron-vaulted ceiling in stone. The springers of the original vault are still visible above some of the capitals of the choir pillars and the outline of the original roof is visible above the eastern arch of the crossing. A grotesque at the intersection of the central rib of the ceiling and the east wall of the tower may be a fragment of the 12th century church. The two pillars and two demi-pillars constructed during this expansion in the easternmost bays of the choir are similar in type to those in the Albany Aisle. Of the two pillars added during this extension, the northern one is known as the "King's Pillar" as its capital bears the arms of James III on its east face; James II on its west face; Mary of Guelders on its north face; and France on its south face. These arms date the work between the birth of James II in 1453 and the death of Mary of Guelders in 1463; the incomplete tressure in the arms of James II may indicate he was dead when the work commenced, dating it to after 1460. The southern pillar is known as the "Town's Pillar". Its capital bears the arms of William Preston of Gorton on its east face; James Kennedy, Bishop of St Andrews on its west face; Nicholas Otterbourne, Vicar of Edinburgh on its north face; and Edinburgh on its south face. The south respond bears the arms of Thomas Cranstoun, Chief Magistrate of Edinburgh; the north respond bears the arms of Alexander Napier of Merchiston, Provost of Edinburgh. Choir aisles Of the two choir aisles, the north is only two thirds the width of the south aisle, which contained the Lady Chapel prior to the Reformation. Richard Fawcett suggests this indicates that both choir aisles were rebuilt after 1385. In both aisles, the curvature of the spandrels between the ribs gives the effect of a dome in each bay. The ribs appear to serve a structural purpose; however, the lack of any intersection between the lateral and longitudinal cells of each bay means that these vaults are effectively pointed barrel vaults. Having been added as part of the mid-15th century extension, the eastern bays of both aisles contain proper lateral cells. The north wall of the north choir aisle contains a 15th-century tomb recess; in this wall, a grotesque, which may date to the 12th century church, has been re-set. At the east end of the south aisle is a stone staircase added by Bernard Feilden and Simpson & Brown in 1981–82. The Chambers Aisle stands north of the westernmost bay of the north choir aisle. This chapel was created in 1889-91 by MacGibbon and Ross as a memorial to William Chambers. This Aisle stands on the site of the medieval vestry, which, at the Reformation, was converted to the Town Clerk's office before being restored to its original use by William Burn. MacGibbon and Ross removed the wall between the vestry and the church and inserted a new arch and vaulted ceiling, both of which incorporate medieval masonry. The Preston Aisle stands south of the western three bays of the south choir aisle. It is named for William Preston of Gorton, who donated Saint Giles' arm-bone to the church; Preston's arms recur in the bosses and capitals of the chapel. The town council began the Aisle's construction in 1455, undertaking to complete it within seven years; however, the presence in the Aisle of a boss bearing the arms of Lord Hailes, Provost of Edinburgh in the 1480s, suggests construction took significantly longer. The Aisle's tierceron vault and pillars are similar to those in the 15th century extension of the choir. The pillars and capitals also bear a strong resemblance to those between the inner and outer south nave aisles. The Chepman Aisle extends south of the westernmost bay of the Preston Aisle. The Aisle was founded by Walter Chepman; permission for construction was granted in 1507 and consecration took place in 1513. The ceiling of the Aisle is a pointed barrel vault whose central boss depicts an angel bearing Chepman's arms impaled with those of his first wife, Mariota Kerkettill. The Aisle was divided into three storeys during the Burn restoration then restored in 1888 under the direction of Robert Rowand Anderson. Stained glass St Giles' is glazed with 19th and 20th century stained glass by a diverse array of artists and manufacturers. Between 2001 and 2005, the church's stained glass was restored by the Stained Glass Design Partnership of Kilmaurs. Fragments of the medieval stained glass were discovered in the 1980s: none was obviously pictorial and some may have been grisaille. A pre-Reformation window depicting an elephant and the emblem of the Incorporation of Hammermen survived in the St Eloi Aisle until the 19th century. References to the removal of the stained glass windows after the Reformation are unclear. A scheme of coloured glass was considered as early as 1830: three decades before the first new coloured glass in a Church of Scotland building was installed at Greyfriars Kirk in 1857; however, the plan was rejected by the town council. Victorian windows By the 1860s, attitudes to stained glass had liberalised within Scottish Presbyterianism and the insertion of new windows was a key component of William Chambers' plan to restore St Giles'. The firm of James Ballantine was commissioned to produce a sequence depicting the life of Christ, as suggested by the artists Robert Herdman and Joseph Noel Paton. This sequence commences with a window of 1874 in the north choir aisle and climaxes in the great east window of 1877, depicting the Crucifixion and Ascension. Other windows by Ballantine & Son are the Prodigal Son window in the south wall of the south nave aisle; the west window of the Albany Aisle, depicting the parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins and the parable of the talents (1876); and the west window of the Preston Aisle, depicting Saint Paul (1881). Ballantine & Son are also responsible for the window of the Holy Blood Aisle, depicting the assassination and funeral of the Regent Moray (1881): this is the only window of the church that depicts events from Scottish history. Andrew Ballantine produced the west window in the south wall of the inner south nave aisle (1886): this depicts scenes from the life of Moses. The subsequent generation of the Ballantine firm, Ballantine & Gardiner, produced windows depicting the first Pentecost (1895) and Saint Peter (1895–1900) in the Preston Aisle; David and Jonathan in the east window of the south side of the outer south nave aisle (1900–01); Joseph in the east window of the south wall of the inner south nave aisle (1898); and, in the windows of the Chambers Aisle, Solomon's construction of the Temple (1892) and scenes from the life of John the Baptist (1894). Multiple generations of the Ballantine firm executed heraldic windows in the oriel window of the outer south nave aisle (1883) and in the clerestory of the choir (1877–92): the latter series depicts the arms of the Incorporated Trades of Edinburgh. David Small is responsible for the easternmost window of the north side of the clerestory (1879). Ballantine & Son also produced the window of the Chepman Aisle, showing the arms of notable 17th century Royalists (1888); in the St Eloi Aisle, the Glass Stainers' Company produced a companion window, showing the arms of notable Covenanters (1895). Daniel Cottier designed the east window of the north side of the north nave aisle, depicting the Christian virtues (1890). Cottier also designed the great west window, now-replaced, depicting the Prophets (1886). Edward Burne-Jones designed the window in the west wall of the north nave aisle (1886). This was produced by Morris & Co. and shows Joshua and the Israelites in the upper section with Jephthah's daughter, Miriam, and Ruth in the lower section. Other stained glass artists of the Victorian era represented in St Giles' are Burlison & Grylls, who executed the Patriarchs window in the west wall of the inner south nave aisle and Charles Eamer Kempe, who created the west window of the south side of the outer south nave aisle: this depicts biblical writers. 20th century windows Oscar Paterson is responsible for the west window of the north side of the north nave aisle (1906): this shows saints associated with St Giles'. Karl Parsons designed the west window of the south side of the south choir aisle (1913): this depicts saints associated with Scotland. Douglas Strachan is responsible for the windows of the choir clerestory that depict saints (1932–35) and for the north transept window (1922): this shows Christ walking on water and stilling the Sea of Galilee, alongside golden angels subduing demons that represent the four winds of the earth. Windows of the later 20th century include a window in the north transept clerestory by William Wilson, depicting Saint Andrew (1954), and the east window of the Albany Aisle, on the theme of John the Divine, designed by Francis Spear and painted by Arthur Pearce (1957). The most significant recent window is the great west window, a memorial to Robert Burns (1985). This was designed by Leifur Breiðfjörð to replace the Cottier window of 1886, the glass of which had failed. A scheme of coloured glass, designed by Christian Shaw, was installed in the south transept behind the organ in 1991. Memorials There are over a hundred memorials in St. Giles'; most date from the 19th century onwards. In the medieval period, the floor of St Giles' was paved with memorial stones and brasses; these were gradually cleared after the Reformation. At the Burn restoration of 1829–33, most post-Reformation memorials were destroyed; fragments were removed to Culter Mains and Swanston. The installation of memorials to notable Scots was an important component of William Chambers' plans to make St Giles' the "Westminster Abbey of Scotland". To this end, a management board was set up in 1880 to supervise the installation of new monuments; it continued in this function until 2000. All the memorials were conserved between 2008 and 2009. Ancient memorials Medieval tomb recesses survive in the Preston Aisle, Holy Blood Aisle, Albany Aisle, and north choir aisle; alongside these, fragments of memorial stones have been re-incorporated into the east wall of the Preston Aisle: these include a memorial to "Johannes Touris de Innerleith" and a carving of the coat of arms of Edinburgh. A memorial brass to the Regent Moray is situated on his monument in the Holy Blood Aisle. The plaque depicts female personifications of Justice and Religion flanking the Regent's arms and an inscription by George Buchanan. The plaque was inscribed by James Gray on the rear of a fragment of a late 15th century memorial brass: a fibreglass replica of this side of the brass is installed on the opposite wall. The plaque was originally set in a monument of 1570 by Murdoch Walker and John Ryotell: this was destroyed at the Burn restoration but the plaque was saved and reinstated in 1864, when John Stuart, 12th Earl of Moray commissioned David Cousin to design a replica of his ancestor's memorial. A memorial tablet in the basement vestry commemorates John Stewart, 4th Earl of Atholl, who was buried in the Chepman Aisle in 1579. A plaque commemorating the Napiers of Merchiston is located on the north exterior wall of the choir. This was likely installed on the south side of the church by Archibald Napier, 1st Lord Napier in 1637; it was moved to its present location during the Burn restoration. Victorian and Edwardian memorials Most memorials installed between the Burn restoration of 1829-33 and the Chambers restoration of 1872-83 are now located in the north transept: these include white marble tablets commemorating Major General Robert Henry Dick (died 1846); Patrick Robertson, Lord Robertson (died 1855); and Aglionby Ross Carson (1856). The largest of these memorials is a massive plaque surmounted by an urn designed by David Bryce to commemorate George Lorimer, Dean of Guild and hero of the 1865 Theatre Royal fire (1867). William Chambers, who funded the restoration of 1872–83, commissioned the memorial plaque to Walter Chepman in the Chepman Aisle (1879): this was designed by William Hay and produced by Francis Skidmore. Chambers himself is commemorated by a large plaque in a red marble frame (1894): located in the Chambers Aisle, this was designed by David MacGibbon with the bronze plaque produced by Hamilton and Inches. William Hay, the architect who oversaw the restoration (died 1888), is commemorated by a plaque in the north transept vestibule with a relief portrait by John Rhind. The first memorial installed after the Chambers restoration was a brass plaque dedicated to Dean James Hannay, the cleric whose reading of Charles I's Scottish Prayer Book in 1637 sparked rioting (1882). In response, and John Stuart Blackie and Robert Halliday Gunning supported a monument to Jenny Geddes, who, according to tradition, threw a stool at Hannay. An 1885 plaque on the floor between south nave aisles now marks the putative spot of Geddes' action. Other historical figures commemorated by plaques of this period include Agnes Keith, Countess of Moray (1893); Robert Leighton (1883); Gavin Douglas (1883); Alexander Henderson (1883); William Carstares (1884); and John Craig (1883), and James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair (1906). The largest memorials of this period are the Jacobean-style monuments to James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose in the Chepman Aisle (1888) and to his rival, Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, in the St Eloi Aisle (1895); both are executed in alabaster and marble and take the form of aedicules in which lie life-size effigies of their dedicatees. The Montrose monument was designed by Robert Rowand Anderson and carved by John and William Birnie Rhind. The Argyll monument, funded by Robert Halliday Gunning, was designed by Sydney Mitchell and carved by Charles McBride. Other prominent memorials of this period include the Jacobean-style plaque on the south wall of the south choir aisle, commemorating John Inglis, Lord Glencorse and designed by Robert Rowand Anderson (1892); the memorial to Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (died 1881) in the Preston Aisle, including a relief portrait by Mary Grant; and the large bronze relief of Robert Louis Stevenson by Augustus Saint-Gaudens on the west wall of the Moray Aisle (1904). A life-size bronze statue of John Knox by James Pittendrigh MacGillivray (1906) stands in the north nave aisle. This initially stood in a Gothic niche in the east wall of the Albany Aisle; the niche was removed in 1951 and between 1965 and 1983, the statue stood outside the church, in Parliament Square. 20th and 21st century memorials In the north choir aisle, the bronze plaque commemorating Sophia Jex-Blake (died 1912) and the stone plaque to James Nicoll Ogilvie (1928) were designed by Robert Lorimer. Lorimer himself is commemorated by a large stone plaque in the Preston Aisle (1932): this was designed by Alexander Paterson. A number of plaques in the "Writers' Corner" in the Moray Aisle incorporate relief portraits of their dedicatees: these include memorials to Robert Fergusson (1927) and Margaret Oliphant (1908), sculpted by James Pittendrigh Macgillivray; John Brown (1924), sculpted by Pilkington Jackson; and John Stuart Blackie (died 1895) and Thomas Chalmers (died 1847), designed by Robert Lorimer. Further relief portrait plaques commemorate Robert Inches (1922) in the former session house and William Smith (1929) in the Chambers Aisle; the former was sculpted by Henry Snell Gamley. Pilkington Jackson executed a pair of bronze relief portraits in pedimented Hopton Wood stone frames to commemorate Cameron Lees (1931) and Wallace Williamson (1936): these flank the entrance to the Thistle Chapel in the south choir aisle. Modern sculptures include the memorial to Wellesley Bailey in the south choir aisle, designed by James Simpson (1987) and Merilyn Smith's bronze sculpture of a stool in the south nave aisle, commemorating Jenny Geddes (1992). The most recent memorials are plaques by Kindersley Cardozo Workshop of Cambridge commemorating James Young Simpson (1997) and Ronald Colville, 2nd Baron Clydesmuir (2003) in the Moray Aisle and marking the 500th anniversary of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in the north choir aisle (2005). Military Memorials Victorian Victorian military memorials are concentrated at the west end of the church. The oldest military memorial is John Steell's memorial to members of the 78th (Highlanders) Regiment of Foot killed by disease in Sindh between 1844 and 1845 (1850): this white marble tablet contains a relief of a mourning woman and is located on the west wall of the nave. Nearby is the second-oldest military memorial, William Brodie's Indian Rebellion of 1857 memorial for the 93rd (Sutherland Highlanders) Regiment of Foot (1864): this depicts, in white marble, two Highland soldiers flanking a tomb. John Rhind sculpted the Royal Scots Greys' Sudan memorial (1886): a large brass Celtic cross on grey marble. John Rhind and William Birnie Rhind sculpted the Highland Light Infantry's Second Boer War memorial: a marble-framed brass plaque. William Birnie Rhind and Thomas Duncan Rhind sculpted the Royal Scots 1st Battalion's Second Boer War memorial: a bronze relief within a pedimented marble frame (1903); WS Black designed the Royal Scots 3rd Battalion's Second Boer War memorial: a portrait marble plaque surmounted by an angel flanked by obelisks. World Wars The Elsie Inglis memorial in the north choir aisle was designed by Frank Mears and sculpted in rose-tinted French stone and slate by Pilkington Jackson (1922): it depicts the angels of Faith, Hope, and Love. Jackson also executed the Royal Scots 5th Battalion's Gallipoli Campaign memorial - bronze with a marble tablet (1921) - and the 16th (McCrae's) Battalion's First World War memorial, showing Saint Michael and sculpted in Portland stone: this was designed by Robert Lorimer, who also designed the bronze memorial plaque to the Royal Army Medical Corps in the north choir aisle. Individual victims of the war commemorated in St Giles' include Neil Primrose (1918) and Sir Robert Arbuthnot, 4th Baronet (1917). Ministers and students of the Church of Scotland and United Free Church of Scotland are commemorated by a large oak panel at the east end of the north nave aisle by Messrs Begg and Lorne Campbell (1920). Henry Snell Gamley is responsible for the congregation's First World War memorial (1926): located in the Albany Aisle, this consists of a large bronze relief of an angel crowning the "spirit of a soldier", its green marble tablet names the 99 members of the congregation killed in the conflict. Gamley is also responsible for the nearby white marble and bronze tablet to Scottish soldiers killed in France (1920); the Royal Scots 9th Battalion's white marble memorial in the south nave aisle (1921); and the bronze relief portrait memorial to Edward Maxwell Salvesen in the north choir aisle (1918). The names of 38 members of the congregation killed in the Second World War are inscribed on tablets designed by Esmé Gordon within a medieval tomb recess in the Albany Aisle: these were unveiled at the dedication of the Albany Aisle as a war memorial chapel in 1951. As part of this memorial, a cross with panels by Elizabeth Dempster was mounted on the east wall of the Aisle. Other notable memorials of the Second World War include Basil Spence's large wooden plaque to the 94th (City of Edinburgh) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery (1954) in the north choir aisle and the nearby Church of Scotland chaplains memorial (1950): this depicts Saint Andrew in bronze relief and was manufactured by Charles Henshaw. Features Prior to the Reformation, St Giles' was furnished with as many as fifty stone subsidiary altars, each with their own furnishings and plate. The Dean of Guild's accounts from the 16th century also indicate the church possessed an Easter sepulchre, sacrament house, rood loft, lectern, pulpit, wooden chandeliers, and choir stalls. At the Reformation, the interior was stripped and a new pulpit at the east side of the crossing became the church's focal point. Seating was installed for children and the burgh's council and trade guilds and a stool of penitence was added. After the Reformation, St Giles' was gradually partitioned into smaller churches. At the church's restoration by William Hay in 1872–83, the last post-Reformation internal partitions were removed and the church was oriented to face the communion table at the east end; the nave was furnished with chairs and the choir with stalls; a low railing separated the nave from the choir. The Buildings of Scotland series described this arrangement as "High Presbyterian (Low Anglican)". Most of the church's furnishings date from this restoration onwards. From 1982, the church was reoriented with seats in the choir and nave facing a central communion table under the crossing. Furniture Pulpits, tables, and font The pulpit dates to 1883 and was carved in Caen stone and green marble by John Rhind to a design by William Hay. The pulpit is octagonal with relief panels depicting the acts of mercy. An octagonal oak pulpit of 1888 with a tall steepled canopy stands in the Moray Aisle: this was designed by Robert Rowand Anderson. St Giles' possessed a wooden pulpit prior to the Reformation. In April 1560, this was replaced with a wooden pulpit with two locking doors, likely located at the east side of the crossing; a lectern was also installed. A brass eagle lectern stands on the south side of the crossing: this was given by an anonymous couple for use in the Moray Aisle. The bronze lectern steps were sculpted by Jacqueline Gruber Steiger and donated in 1991 by the Normandy Veterans' Association. Until 1982, a Caen stone lectern, designed by William Hay stood opposite the pulpit at the west end of the choir. Situated in the crossing, the communion table is a Carrara marble block unveiled in 2011: it was donated by Roger Lindsay and designed by Luke Hughes. This replaced a wooden table in use since 1982. The plain communion table used after the Chambers restoration was donated to the West Parish Church of Stirling in 1910 and replaced by an oak communion table designed by Robert Lorimer and executed by Nathaniel Grieve. The table displays painted carvings of the Lamb of God, Saint Giles, and angels; it was lengthened in 1953 by Scott Morton & Co. and now stands in the Preston Aisle. The Albany Aisle contains a neo-Jacobean communion table by Whytock and Reid, which was installed at the time of the Aisle's dedication as a war memorial chapel in 1951. A small communion table with Celtic knot and floral designs was added to the Preston Aisle in 2019; this was designed by Sheanna Ashton and made by Grassmarket Furniture. The communion table and reredos of the Chambers Aisle were designed by Robert Lorimer and John Fraser Matthew in 1927–29. The reredos contains a relief of the adoration of the infant Christ by angels: this is the work of Morris and Alice Meredith Williams. In 1931, Matthew designed a reredos and communion table for the Moray Aisle; these were removed in 1981 and later sold to the National Museum of Scotland. A reredos in the form of a Gothic arcade stood at the east end of the church from the Chambers restoration; this was designed by William Hay and executed in Caen stone with green marble pillars. In 1953, this was replaced with a fabric reredos, designed by Esmé Gordon. The Gordon reredos was removed in 1971; the east wall is now bare. The Caen stone font by John Rhind is in the form of a kneeling angel holding a scallop; the font is an exact replica of Bertel Thorvaldsen's font for the Church of Our Lady, Copenhagen. Initially, it stood near the pulpit before being moved to the west end of the south nave aisle; between 1916 and 1951, it stood in the Albany Aisle; it was then moved to near the west door and has stood in the north choir aisle since 2015. Seating Since 2003, new chairs, many of which bear small brass plaques naming donors, have replaced chairs of the 1880s by West and Collier throughout the church. Two banks of choir stalls in a semi-circular arrangement occupy the south transept; these were installed by Whytock & Reid in 1984. Whytock & Reid also provided box pews for the nave in 1985; these have since been removed. In 1552, prior to the Reformation, Andrew Mansioun executed the south bank of choir stalls; the north bank were likely imported. In 1559, at the outset of the Scottish Reformation, these were removed to the Tolbooth for safe-keeping; they may have been re-used to furnish the church after the Reformation. There has been a royal loft or pew in St Giles' since the regency of Mary of Guise. Standing between the south choir aisle and Preston Aisle, the current monarch's seat possess a tall back and canopy, on which stand the royal arms of Scotland; this oak seat and desk were created in 1953 to designs of Esmé Gordon and incorporate elements of the former royal pew of 1885 by William Hay. Hay's royal pew stood in the Preston Aisle; it replaced an oak royal pew of 1873, also designed by Hay and executed by John Taylor & Son: this was re-purposed as an internal west porch and was removed in 2008. Metalwork, lighting, and plate The gates and railings of the Albany Aisle, the St Eloi Aisle, the Holy Blood Aisle, and the Chepman Aisle are the work of Francis Skidmore and date from the Chambers restoration. Skidmore also produced the chancel railing – now removed – and the iron screens at the east end of the north choir aisle: these originally surrounded the Moray Aisle. The gates and font bracket in the Chambers Aisle are by Thomas Hadden and date from the aisle's designation as the Chapel of Youth in 1927–29. The west door is surrounded by a metal and blue glass screen of 2008 by Leifur Breiðfjörð. The church is lit by stainless steel and aluminium chandeliers as well as by concealed strip lights below the windows. The chandeliers are designed to evoke lilies and were produced between 2007 and 2008 by Lighting Design Partnership near Edinburgh; they replaced a concealed lighting system of 1958. In 1882, during the Chambers restoration, Francis Skidmore provided a set of gas chandeliers based on a chandelier in St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol. Electric lighting was installed in 1911 and Robert Lorimer designed new electric chandeliers; at their removal in 1958, some of these were donated to St John's Kirk, Perth and Cleish Church. A red glass "Lamp of Remembrance" by Thomas Hadden hangs in the Albany Aisle: its steel frame imitates St Giles' crown steeple. A lamp with stained glass panels by Douglas Strachan hangs in the Chambers Aisle. Plate in possession of the church includes four communion cups dated 1643 and two flagons dated 1618 and given by George Montaigne, then Bishop of Lincoln. Among the church's silver are two plates dated 1643 and a ewer dated 1609. Clocks and bells The current clock was manufactured by James Ritchie & Son and installed in 1911; this replaced a clock of 1721 by Langley Bradley of London, which is now housed in the Museum of Edinburgh. A clock is recorded in 1491. Between 1585 and 1721, the former clock of Lindores Abbey was used in St Giles'. The hour bell of the cathedral was cast in 1846 by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, possibly from the metal of the medieval Great Bell, which had been taken down about 1774. The Great Bell was cast in Flanders in 1460 by John and William Hoerhen and bore the arms of Guelderland and an image of the Virgin and Child. Robert Maxwell cast the second bell in 1706 and the third in 1728: these chime the quarters, the latter bears the coat of arms of Edinburgh. Between 1700 and 1890, a carillon of 23 bells, manufactured in 1698 and 1699 by John Meikle, hung in the tower. Daniel Defoe, who visited Edinburgh in 1727, praised the bells but added "they are heard much better at a distance than near at hand". In 1955, an anonymous elder donated one of the carillon's bells: it hangs in a Gothic wooden frame next to the Chambers Aisle. Nearby hangs the bell of HMS Howe: this was presented in 1955 by the Admiralty to mark the ship's connection to Edinburgh. The bell hangs in a frame topped by a naval crown: this was made from Howe's deck timbers. The vesper bell of 1464 stands in the south nave aisle. Flags and heraldry From 1883, regimental colours were hung in the nave. In 1982, the Scottish Command of the British Army offered to catalogue and preserve the colours. The colours were removed from the nave and 29 were reinstated in the Moray Aisle. Since 1953, the banners of the current Knights of the Thistle have hung in the Preston Aisle, near the entrance to the Thistle Chapel. The banner of Douglas Haig hangs in the Chambers Aisle; this was donated in 1928 by Lady Haig after her husband's lying-in-state in St Giles'. A large wooden panel, showing the arms of George II hangs on the tower wall above at the west end of the choir: this is dated 1736 and was painted by Roderick Chalmers. The Fetternear Banner, the only surviving religious banner from pre-Reformation Scotland, was made around 1520 for the Confraternity of the Holy Blood, which had its altar in the Lauder Aisle. The banner, which depicts the wounded Christ and the instruments of His passion, is held by the National Museum of Scotland. National Covenant St Giles' possesses one of the original copies of Scotland's National Covenant of 1638. The copy in St Giles' was signed by leading Covenanters, including James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose; John Leslie, 6th Earl of Rothes; and John Kennedy, 6th Earl of Cassilis. The Covenant remained in the possession of the family of the Laird of Dundas until 1924, when it was purchased by Alexander Wallace and donated to St Giles' in 1926. It now stands in a plain oak frame in the Chepman Aisle. Thistle Chapel Located at the south-east corner of St Giles', the Thistle Chapel is the chapel of the Order of the Thistle; it is accessed externally by the east door of the church and from the church itself by the south choir aisle. At the foundation of the Order of the Thistle in 1687, James VII ordered Holyrood Abbey be fitted out as a chapel for the Knights. At James' deposition the following year, a mob destroyed the chapel's interior before the Knights ever met there. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, multiple proposals were made either to refurbish Holyrood Abbey for the Order of the Thistle or to create a chapel within St Giles' Cathedral. In 1906, after the sons Ronald Leslie-Melville, 11th Earl of Leven donated £24,000 from their late father's estate, Edward VII ordered a new Chapel to be constructed on the south side of St Giles'. The Trustees appointed by the King to oversee the chapel's construction appointed Robert Lorimer as architect. The Trustees insisted the choice of craftspeople should reflect the national character of the chapel. Lorimer assembled a team of leading figures in the Scottish Arts and Crafts movement, including Phoebe Anna Traquair for enamelwork, Douglas Strachan for stained glass, Joseph Hayes for stonework, and the brothers William and Alexander Clow for woodwork. Louis Davis – who supplied stained glass – and the Bromsgrove Guild – who supplied bronze fittings – were the only major contributors based outside Scotland. Construction began in November 1909 and the chapel was completed a little over a year later. After its official opening in July 1911, George V knighted Lorimer for his work. Through the continuing addition of stall plates, crests, and banners for new knights, the chapel's tradition of craftsmanship persists to the present day. The Knights of the Thistle meet in the Chapel at least once a year. Architectural critics have noted Lorimer's successful use of a limited site to create a soaring work of Gothic architecture, rich with architectural details. A number of critics have emphasised the chapel's importance as a product of the Arts and Crafts movement, in which the collaborative craftsmanship of individual artisans defines the overall effect. Some critics have also emphasised the chapel's political role as an expression of Scottish patriotism, British imperialism, and monarchism. Worship Services and liturgy St Giles' holds four services every Sunday: 8 am: Communion 10 am: Communion 11.30 am: Morning Service 8 pm: Evening Services At 6 pm on Sunday, St Giles' also hosts a programme of music. Every day apart from Sunday, a service is held at 12 noon; a communion service is also held on Fridays at 8 am. Prior to the Reformation, St Giles' used the Sarum Use, with High Mass being celebrated at the High Altar and Low Mass celebrated at the subsidiary altars. After the Reformation, services were conducted according to the Book of Common Order; unaccompanied congregation singing of the Psalms replaced choral and organ music and preaching replaced the Mass as the central focus of worship; public penance was also introduced. Communion services were initially held three times a year; the congregation sat around trestle tables: a practice that continued until the 1870s. The attempted replacement of the Book of Common Order by a Scottish version of the Book of Common Prayer on 23 July 1637 sparked rioting, which led to the signing of the National Covenant. From 1646, the Directory for Public Worship was used. During the Commonwealth, the Directory fell out of use; public penance, psalm-singing, and Bible readings were removed from the service and lay preaching was introduced. Between 1648 and 1655, the ministers withheld communion in protest. During the second imposition of episcopacy under Charles II and James VII the liturgy reverted to its post-Reformation form and there was no attempt to bring it into line with the practice of the Church of England. By the beginning of the 18th century, the services of the Book of Common Order had been replaced by extempore prayers. Cameron Lees, minister between 1877 and 1911, was a leading figure in the liturgical revival among Scottish Presbyterian churches in the latter half of the 19th century. Lees used the Church Service Society's Euchologion for communion services and compiled the St Giles' Book of Common Order: this directed daily and Sunday services between 1884 and 1926. Under Lees, Christmas, Easter, and Watchnight services were introduced. With financial support from John Ritchie Findlay, daily service was also introduced for the first time since the Commonwealth. Lees' successor, Andrew Wallace Williamson continued this revival and revised the St Giles' Book of Common Order. A weekly communion service was introduced by Williamson's successor, Charles Warr. The current pattern of four Sunday services, including two communions, was adopted in 1983 during the incumbency of Gilleasbuig Macmillan. Macmillan introduced a number of changes to communion services, including the practice of communicants' gathering round the central communion table and passing elements to each other. Notable services Since the medieval period, St Giles' has hosted regular and occasional services of civic and national significance. Important annual services held in St Giles include the Edinburgh's civic Remembrance Sunday service, the Kirking of the council for the city council, the Kirking of the Courts for the legal profession, the Thistle Service for the Knights of the Thistle; and a service during the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. The Kirking of the Parliament has been held in St Giles' at the opening of every new session of the Scottish Parliament since the Parliament's foundation in 1999; this revives an earlier service for the Parliament of Scotland. St Giles' has also long enjoyed a close connection with the Scottish then British royal families; the royal Knights of Thistle, including the Queen as Sovereign of the Order, attend the Thistle service in St Giles' every second year. Since the regency of Mary of Guise, there has been a royal pew or loft in St Giles'. Notable services for the royal family include the Requiem Mass for James I (1437); the service to welcome Anne of Denmark to Scotland (1590); divine service during the visit of George IV (1822); and Elizabeth II's receipt of the Honours of Scotland (1953). Significant occasional services in St Giles' include the memorial Mass for the dead of Flodden (1513); thanksgivings for the Scottish Reformation (1560), the Union (1707), and Victory in Europe Day (1945); and the service to mark the opening of the first Edinburgh International Festival (1947). Recent occasional services have marked the return to Scotland of the Stone of Scone (1996) and the opening of the National Museum of Scotland (1998); a service of reconciliation after the 2014 Scottish independence referendum was also held in St Giles'. St Giles' hosted the lyings-in-state of Elsie Inglis (1917) and Douglas Haig (1928). Notable recent funerals include those of Robin Cook (2005) and John Bellany (2013). Notable recent weddings include the marriage of Chris Hoy to Sarra Kemp (2010). Choir St Giles' Cathedral Choir is a mixed choir of 30 adults, directed by the Master of Music, Michael Harris. The Choir sings at the 10 am Communion and 11.30 am morning services on Sundays. The Choir first toured internationally, to the US, in 2004 and has since toured frequently in Europe and North America. The Choir has also appeared in television and radio broadcasts, including Choral Evensong, and has released recordings on its own label, Aegidius. The current Choir was founded in 1879. This revived a tradition of choral music at St Giles': until the Reformation, a song school was attached to St Giles' where four official choristers were educated alongside other boys. The song school fell into disrepair after the departure of its master, John Fethy, in 1551; however, Edward Henderson oversaw its restoration in the years immediately preceding the Reformation. After the Reformation, Henderson continued to teach music there as well as leading the unaccompanied congregational singing of psalms. Pipe organ The pipe organ was completed in 1992 and is located in the south transept: it was made by Rieger Orgelbau and donated by Alastair Salvesen. Douglas Laird designed the case: it imitates the prow of a ship and uses red-stained Austrian oak along with decorative bronze and glass features. The organ has 4,156 pipes, most of which are tin. The Glocken is a ring of 37 bells made by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry. The current organ replaced a Harrison & Harrison organ of 1878, the first organ in the church since the Reformation. This organ initially possessed 2 manuals and 26 stops. Between 1872 and this organ's installation, a harmonium was used in services. Harrison & Harrison rebuilt the organ in 1883 and 1887. Eustace Ingram rebuilt the organ as a 4 manual, 60 stop instrument in 1895. Ingram & Co rebuilt the organ in 1909 and overhauled it between 1936 and 1939. The organ was reconstructed in 1940 by Henry Willis & Sons as a 4 manual, 74 stop instrument with a new console and an extra console in the Moray Aisle; a new case was designed by Esmé Gordon: this incorporated statues of angels and Jubal by Elizabeth Dempster. The second console was removed in 1980 and Willis overhauled the organ in 1982. The organ was removed in 1990, some of the pipes were removed to the McEwan Hall, Peebles Old Parish Church, and the Scottish Theatre Organ Preservation Trust; two were incorporated in the replacement organ; the console was donated to a church in Perth. Since 1996, Michael Harris has served as organist and Master of Music; he is assisted by Jordan English. Since the insertion of the first post-Reformation organ in 1878, the following people have served as organist of St Giles': 1878–1923: John Hartley 1923–1944: Wilfrid Greenhouse Allt 1946–1996: Herrick Bunney 1996–present: Michael Harris Ministry Clergy The current minister of St Giles' is Calum MacLeod, who was translated from Fourth Presbyterian Church, Chicago in 2014; he replaced Gilleasbuig Macmillan, who was appointed minister in 1973 and retired in 2013. The assistant minister is Craig Meek. From Cameron Lees to Gilleasbuig Macmillan, every minister of St Giles' served as Dean of the Thistle; Lees and his two successors, Andrew Wallace Williamson and Charles Warr, also served as Dean of the Chapel Royal in Scotland. In 1980, Helen Alexander was appointed assistant minister, becoming the first woman to minister in St Giles'. Alongside the minister, St Giles' has a Kirk Session of around 50 elders. The first vicar of St Giles' recorded by name is John, who appended his name to a charter of Holyrood Abbey in 1241. Three successive vicars of St Giles' in the 15th century – John Methven, Nicholas Otterbourne, and Thomas Bully – were noted churchmen who also held senior positions in the Scottish royal court. In 1467, a bull of Pope Paul II made St Giles' a collegiate church and replaced the role of vicar with a provost accompanied by a curate and sixteen canons. William Forbes, the last vicar of St Giles' was promoted as its first provost. Forbes was succeeded by Gavin Douglas, who completed his Middle Scots translation of Virgil's Aeneid, Eneados, in 1513 while provost. In 1559, John Knox, leader of the Scottish Reformation became the first Protestant minister of St Giles', serving intermittently until his death in 1572. Knox's successors were influential in opposing the religious reforms of James VI. Though St Giles' had been partitioned into smaller churches, ministers were only allocated to specific churches after the division of Edinburgh into parishes in 1598. Between 1633 and 1638 and again between 1661 and 1689, St Giles' served as the seat of the Bishop of Edinburgh and was served by a Dean and prebendaries. Notable ministers in St Giles' during the 18th century include the influential Covenanter and Whig, William Carstares; the evangelical preacher, Alexander Webster; and Hugh Blair, a leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. Parish and historic congregations The current parish of St Giles' (or the High Kirk) covers a portion of Edinburgh's Old Town bounded by the railway, George IV Bridge, the Cowgate, and St Mary's Street. Between 1641 and 1929, the High Kirk's parish covered the north side of the High Street. From the medieval period until 1598, St Giles' parish covered the entire burgh of Edinburgh. Prior to the Reformation, St Giles' was within the Deanery of Linlithgow in the Archdiocese of St Andrews. Between 1561 and 1564, the west of the nave was partitioned: the upper floor served as a place of worship and the ground floor served as an extension to the Tolbooth. Around 1581, the choir was partitioned off to create the New or East Kirk, leaving the crossing, transepts, and the remainder of the nave to form Middle St Giles' or the Old or Great Kirk. Edinburgh's ministers alternated freely between these churches until 1598, when the Privy Council of Scotland ordered the following division of Edinburgh into four parishes, each with two ministers: North East: Trinity College Kirk South East: Old (or Great) St Giles' South West: Upper Tolbooth (St Giles') North West: New (or East or Little) St Giles' In 1620, the South West congregation moved to the newly built Greyfriars Kirk; the Upper Tolbooth partition remained unoccupied until 1634. In 1625, the Privy Council ordered the following rearrangement of these divisions; it is not, however, clear whether this was ever enforced: North East: Trinity College Kirk South East: East (or New) St Giles' South West: Greyfriars Kirk North West: Great (or Old) St Giles' In 1633, St Giles' became a cathedral and the partition between the Old and New Kirks was removed, the South East congregation moved to Upper Tolbooth, then occupied the Old Kirk between 1639 and 1647, when it moved to the Tron Kirk; during this period, the Old Kirk congregation occupied Parliament Hall. In 1641, a division of Edinburgh into six parishes was made; the following parishes were allocated to St Giles': North: New (or High or East) St Giles' North West: Tolbooth (or West) St Giles' South: Old (or Middle) St Giles' In 1699, the congregation of the New North Meeting House on the Lawnmarket occupied the northern half of the Tolbooth partition, after which it was named "Haddo's Hole Kirk". The Tolbooth Kirk vacated St Giles' in 1843; the Old Kirk was suppressed in 1860 and the Haddo's Hole congregation – by then known as West St Giles' – vacated St Giles' in 1881 to allow the removal of the internal partitions. Since 1883, the High Kirk congregation has occupied the entire church. Cultural depictions The real-life escape of condemned smuggler, George Robertson, from the Tolbooth Kirk during divine service in 1736 is fictionalised in The Heart of Midlothian by Walter Scott (1818). St Giles' is referenced twice in The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark (1961): first as a location the title character and her "set" of pupils pass by on a walk around Edinburgh and again as one of the "emblems of a dark and terrible salvation" contemplated by the protagonist, Sandy Stranger. In Disorderly Knights (1966), the fourth book of Dorothy Dunnett's Lymond Chronicles series, the protagonist, Sir Francis Crawford of Lymond, swears an oath in the Lauder Aisle of St Giles' and duels with Sir Graham Reid Malett on the steps of the church's High Altar. In Avengers: Infinity War (2018), St Giles' features as one of the locations of a fight between the heroes and Thanos' Black Order. The scenes were filmed around the cathedral in spring 2017. See also List of Category A listed buildings in the Old Town, Edinburgh List of Church of Scotland parishes Notes References Bibliography Blair, Robin et al. (2009). The Thistle Chapel: Within St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh. The Order of the Thistle. Burnett, Charles J. "Genesis of the Chapel" "Changes & Additions to the Chapel" Burleigh, John Henderson Seaforth (1960). A Church History of Scotland. Oxford University Press. Catford, E.F. (1975). Edinburgh: The Story of a City. Hutchinson. Coltart, J.S. (1936). Scottish Church Architecture. The Sheldon Press. Dunlop, A. Ian (1988). The Kirks of Edinburgh: 1560–1984. Scottish Record Society. Farmer, David Hugh (1978). Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Fifth ed. revised). Oxford University Press. Fawcett, Richard (1994). Scottish Architecture: From the Accession of the Stewarts to the Reformation. Edinburgh University Press. (2002). Scottish Medieval Churches: Architecture & Furnishings. Arcadia Publishing. Gifford, John; McWilliam, Colin; Walker, David (1984). The Buildings of Scotland: Edinburgh. Penguin Books. Gordon, Esmé (1959). St Giles' Cathedral and the Chapel of the Thistle, Edinburgh. Pillans & Wilson Ltd. Gray, William Forbes (1940). Historic Edinburgh Churches. The Moray Press. Hannah, Ian (1934). The Story of Scotland in Stone. Oliver & Boyd. Harris, Stuart (1996). The Place Names of Edinburgh: Their Origins and History. Gordon Wright Publishing. Hume, John (2005). Scotland's Best Churches. Edinburgh University Press. Kallus, Veronika (2009). St Giles' Cathedral: Guide Book. Jarrold Publishing. Lees, James Cameron (1889). St Giles', Edinburgh: Church, College, and Cathedral: from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. W. & R. Chambers. MacGibbon, David and Ross, Thomas (1896). The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland: From the Earliest Christian Times to the Seventeenth Century. David Douglas. McIlwain, John (1994) St Giles' Cathedral. Pitkin Guides. Marshall, Rosalind K. (2009). St Giles': The Dramatic Story of a Great Church and its People. Saint Andrew Press. (2011). A Guide to the Memorials in St. Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh. The Choir Press. Maxwell, William D. (1955). A History of Worship in the Church of Scotland. Oxford University Press. Steele, Alan (1993). The Kirk of the Greyfriars, Edinburgh. Society of Friends of the Kirk of the Greyfriars. Stevenson, Robert Louis (1879). Edinburgh: Picturesque Notes. Seeley, Jackson, and Halliday. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (1951). An Inventory of the Ancient and Historical Monuments of the City of Edinburgh with the Thirteenth Report of the Commission. His Majesty's Stationery Office. Spark, Muriel (1961). The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. Macmillan. External links St Giles' Cathedral website A Corpus of Scottish Medieval Parish Churches: Edinburgh St Giles Collegiate Church Canmore: Edinburgh, High Street, St Giles Cathedral Historic Environment Scotland: HIGH STREET AND PARLIAMENT SQUARE, ST GILES (HIGH) KIRK: LB27381 Scottish Stained Glass Trust: High Kirk of Edinburgh National Pipe Organ Registry Midlothian Edinburgh, Cathedral of St. Giles, Royal Mile [D02680] Midlothian Edinburgh, Cathedral of St. Giles, Royal Mile [N11928] Churches completed in 1124 Giles' Giles', St Giles', St Giles', St Giles', St Protestant churches converted from Roman Catholicism Royal Mile Listed cathedrals in Scotland Scottish parliamentary locations and buildings Giles 1124 establishments in Scotland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%20in%20aviation

1972 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1972. This particular year remains the deadliest year in commercial aviation history since 1942; 2,313 people were killed in aviation accidents. Events Early in the year, the United States introduces the Walleye II optically guided glide bomb into service, employing it in the Vietnam War. It becomes known as the "Fat Albert." January The last elements of the U.S. Armys 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile) are withdrawn from Vietnam. The Aeritalia company, formed in November 1969, becomes fully operational. January 4 Biman Bangladesh Airlines is founded. Having lost its last aircraft in a crash 11 days earlier, the Peruvian airline LANSA runs out of operating funds and goes out of business. It had been founded in 1963. January 5 – President Richard M. Nixon announces $US 5.5 billion in funding for the Space Shuttle program. January 7 – As Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 902, a Boeing 727-200 with 151 people on board, prepares to land at Los Angeles, California, after a flight from San Francisco, two individuals and their infant son hijack the airliner. They demand to be flown to Africa, but agree to be flown to Cuba instead when they are informed the plane lacks the range to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The captain negotiates the release of the passengers in Los Angeles, after which the plane carries its crew, the hijackers, and three off-duty flight attendants to Cuba via a refueling stop at Tampa, Florida. In Cuba, the hijackers return control of the aircraft to the captain. January 12 – Billy Gene Hurst, Jr., hijacks Braniff Flight 38, a Boeing 727 with 102 other people on board, during a flight from Houston to Dallas. After arrival at Love Field in Dallas, he releases the other 94 passengers but holds all seven crew members hostage, demanding to be flown to South America during a standoff with police. Eventually, the entire crew escapes, and police storm the airliner and arrest him. January 19 – Flying a United States Navy F-4J Phantom II fighter of Fighter Squadron 96 (VF-96) off of the attack aircraft carrier , Lieutenant Randy "Duke" Cunningham (pilot) and Lieutenant (Junior Grade) William "Irish" Driscoll (radar intercept officer) shoot down a North Vietnamese MiG 21 fighter. It is the first air-to-air victory by an American aircraft over Vietnam since March 1970. January 20 – Two months after the celebrated hijacking of Northwest Orient Flight 305 by an unidentified man who becomes popularly known as "D. B. Cooper", Hughes Airwest Flight 800 becomes the target of a copycat hijacker. After boarding at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas, Nevada, 23-year-old Richard Charles La Point claims he has a bomb while the plane is on the taxiway and demands US$50,000 in cash, two parachutes, and a helmet. When his demands are met, La Point releases 51 Reno, Nevada-bound passengers and two flight attendants, after which the DC-9 takes off and flies eastward toward Denver, Colorado, followed by two United States Air Force F-111 fighters. Without a coat and in cowboy boots, La Point bales out via the plane's lower aft door over the Eastern Plains in northeastern Colorado in mid-afternoon. The parachutes he had been given were high-visibility ones secretly equipped with emergency locater devices, and he sprainsis ankle on landing, making it impossible for him to move; he is apprehended a few hours later, with minor injuries and very cold. The plane, with two pilots and a flight attendant on board, lands safely at Denver's Stapleton International Airport at 2:55 pm MST. Facing potential death penalty charges for air piracy, La Point will be sentenced to 40 years in prison, but will serve less than eight and be released from a halfway house in 1979. January 23 – The United States suspects that SA-3 Goa surface-to-air missiles have become operational in North Vietnam. January 26 JAT Yugoslav Airlines Flight 367, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32, explodes in flight at 33,330 feet (10,160 m), breaks into two pieces, and crashes near Srbská Kamenice, Czechoslovakia, killing 27 of the 28 people on board. Flight attendant Vesna Vulović survives the crash, setting a record that still stands for surviving the longest fall without a parachute. A hijacker commandeers Mohawk Airlines Flight 452 – a Fairchild Hiller FH-227B with 47 people on board flying from Albany, New York, to New York City – and demands a ransom. He forces the airliner to land at Dutchess County Airport outside Poughkeepsie, New York, where he is shot and killed while trying to escape in a getaway car. January 27 – Civil aviation in Canada is halted by a strike by air traffic controllers. January 29 – Gary B. Trapnell hijacks a Trans World Airlines airliner during a flight from Los Angeles, to New York City and demands US$306,000, the release from prison of militant Angela Davis, and a conversation with President Richard Nixon. A Federal Bureau of Investigation agent shoots and disarms him, and he is imprisoned. In separate incidents in 1978, his wife Barbara Ann Oswald will die in an attempt to free him using a hijacked helicopter and his daughter Robin Oswald will hijack another airliner in a failed attempt to get him released. February Aeronaves de México changes its name to Aeroméxico. Off the coast of Maine, a U.S. Navy air mine countermeasures unit participates in an amphibious warfare exercise for the first time. February 4 – Biman Bangladesh Airlines began flight operations, using a single Douglas DC-3 to provide domestic services. February 5 Aeroflot and Lufthansa jointly open services between Moscow in the Soviet Union and Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and de Havilland Canada extensively modify a C-8 Buffalo for short takeoff and landing (STOL) experiments. February 10 – Biman Bangladesh Airlines' only plane, a Douglas DC-3, crashes during a test flight less than a week after it began flight operations. February 19 – A male passenger armed with a hand grenade attempts to hijack an Alia Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle with 37 people on board flying from Cairo, Egypt, to Amman, Jordan, and demands to be flown to Libya. Two security guards on board the airliner overpower him, and the plane lands safely at Amman. February 22 – Lufthansa Flight 649, a Boeing 747-200 flying from Tokyo, Japan, to Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany, is hijacked during the New Delhi, India-Athens, Greece, leg of the flight and forced to divert to Aden in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, where all 182 passengers and crew are released the next day in exchange for a $5 million ransom. March March 3 – Mohawk Airlines Flight 405, a Fairchild Hiller FH-227, crashes into a house while on final approach to Albany County Airport (later Albany International Airport) in Albany, New York, killing 16 of the 48 people on the plane and injuring all but one of the 32 survivors. The crash also kills one person and injures three others on the ground. March 4 – Biman Bangladesh Airlines inaugurates its first international route, using a single Boeing 707 to provide service between Bangladesh and London. March 7 At Tampa International Airport in Florida, Edmund McKee pulls a revolver on a National Airlines ticket agent helping passengers board National Airlines Flight 67 – a Boeing 727 with 24 people aboard – and takes the agent hostage, saying he wants to hijack the jetliner. He is escorted aboard and demands to fly to Sweden. The captain informs McKee that the airliner lacks the range to cross the Atlantic Ocean, then convinces him to release all of the passengers and to step outside to continue negotiations. Once McKee exits the aircraft, security personnel overpower and arrest him. As a Chalk's International Airlines Grumman G-73 Mallard refuels at Watson Island, Florida, during a flight from Miami to Bimini with five passengers and a crew of two, Joseph Terron Bennett and James William Brewton of the Black Liberation Army hijack it and demand to be flown to Cuba. A Chalk's mechanic gets a pistol out of his car, intending to shoot out the plane's tires, but the hijackers shoot and wound him. After the pilot refuses to start the engines, the hijackers shoot him also, and he jumps from the aircraft followed by one passenger. With four passengers still aboard, Bennett and Brewton force the copilot to fly them to Havana, which – after bumping into a Grumman Goose parked beside it at Watson Island – the Mallard barely reaches with its fuel tank almost empty. Cuban authorities arrest the two hijackers and allow the Mallard and its passengers and copilot to fly back to the United States the next day. Brewton will be killed during an armed robbery in Jamaica in 1975, while Bennett will return to the United States secretly in 1982 and will not be arrested there until 1983. March 9 – American aircraft record their 100th protective reaction strike of the Vietnam War against enemy surface-to-air missile and antiaircraft artillery sites. March 11 – A hijacker commanders an Alitalia Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle flying from Rome to Milan, Italy, with 36 people on board and forces it to fly to Munich, West Germany. March 12 – Tunisair takes delivery of its first Boeing aircraft, a Boeing 727-200. March 14 – Sterling Airways Flight 296, a Sud Aviation Caravelle, crashes into a mountain ridge near Kalba in the United Arab Emirates, killing all 112 people on board. It remains the deadliest aviation accident in the history of that nation. March 19 – EgyptAir Flight 763, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32, crashes into the highest peak of Aden Crater, an extinct volcano, while on approach to land at Aden International Airport, killing all 30 people on board. It remains the deadliest civil aviation accident in the history of Yemen. Late March – The commander-in-chief of the Soviet Air Force visits North Vietnam, apparently leading to improved North Vietnamese air defense tactics that will be observed between April and September. March 31 – In response to the North Vietnamese "Easter Offensive" against South Vietnam that began on March 30, the United States begins a series of deployments code-named "Constant Guard", in which a large number of U.S. Air Force and U.S. Marine Corps squadrons return to bases in South Vietnam and Thailand and the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier presence at Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin increases from two on March 30 to six by late spring. April April 1 BOAC and BEA merge to create British Airways. Tunisair inaugurates service on the Tunis–London route, using a leased Boeing 707. April 2 – United States Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Iceal "Gene" Hamilton is the only survivor of the six-man crew of his EB-66 Destroyer after a North Vietnamese Army S-75 Dvina (NATO reporting name "SA-2 Guideline") surface-to-air missile shoots it down near the Demilitarized Zone in Vietnam. His survival triggers the largest, longest, and most complicated combat search and rescue operation of the Vietnam War. General Creighton Abrams calls off air operations on 8 April without either Hamilton or First Lieutenant Mark Clark, a forward air controller shot down during the rescue attempt, being rescued; a South Vietnamese commando team led by a United States Navy SEAL officer finally rescues Hamilton and Clark a few days later in a land-water operation. The 11-day operation has involved A-1 Skyraiders, OV-10 Broncos, and UH-1H Iroquois and HH-53 Jolly Green Giant helicopters – with one of the latter shot down, killing its entire crew of six – and cost 11 men killed and two captured, and five aircraft destroyed and numerous others damaged. April 5 – A hijacker demanding money takes control of a Merpati Nusantara Airlines Vickers Viscount making a domestic flight in Indonesia from Surabaya to Jakarta. The airliner lands at Yogyakarta, Indonesia, where the hijacker is taken down. There is one fatality during the hijacking. April 7 American aircraft resume regular bombing of North Vietnam in response to the North Vietnamese "Easter Offensive" invasion of South Vietnam. Wearing a fake moustache and a black wig, 29-year-old Richard McCoy hijacks United Airlines Flight 885 – a Boeing 727 flying from Denver, Colorado, to Los Angeles, California, with 91 people on board – claiming to be armed with two pistols, a hand grenade, and plastic explosives and demanding a ransom of US$500,000 in exchange for the lives of the passengers and crew. The airliner diverts to San Francisco, California, where McCoy receives the ransom money. He then orders it to take off and fly eastward in a zigzag pattern and parachutes from the plane somewhere near Provo, Utah. The following day, the Utah National Guard unit for which he pilots helicopters, participates in the search for him, and police soon identify and apprehend him. Jailed for the crime, McCoy will escape from prison in August 1974 and die in a shootout with U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents in November 1974. April 8 – Two hijackers commandeer a Faucett Perú Boeing 727 making a domestic flight in Peru from Piura to Chiclayo. They are taken down. April 9 – Thirty-one-year-old Stanley Harlan Speck hijacks Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 942 – a Boeing 727 flying from Oakland to San Diego, California, with 92 people on board – demanding US$500,000, two parachutes, and a flight to Miami, Florida. After the airliner lands in San Diego, the captain tricks Speck into exiting the plane to collect navigation charts necessary for the flight. When Speck does, U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation agents disguised as mechanics overpower him. April 11 – Waving a bottle he says contains nitroglycerine and claiming to have a grievance against the United States Government, 56-year-old Major Burton Davenport hijacks Continental Airlines Flight 781 – a Boeing 707 – as it prepares to take off from Portland, Oregon, for a flight to Seattle, Washington. He orders the cabin temperature to be maintained at 70 degrees F (21.1 degrees C) and demands a small plastic bucket half-full of dry, clean sawdust, a dozen hand grenades, and a ransom of US$500,000, to be paid by the United States Treasury and not by Continental Airlines. A stewardess talks him into releasing all the passengers, and Davenport abruptly surrenders to an FBI negotiator about an hour after that. April 13 – Using an unloaded .22-caliber pistol, 36-year-old Ricardo Chavez Ortiz hijacks Frontier Airlines Flight 91, a Boeing 737-200 flying from Albuquerque, New Mexico, to Phoenix, Arizona, with 31 people on board, and orders it to fly past Phoenix and land at Los Angeles, California. where he plans to make a statement about injustices he had experienced in the United States since immigrating from Mexico. At Los Angeles International Airport, he releases the plane's passengers and, after journalists come aboard the airliner, makes a rambling 34-minute speech while wearing a pilot's hat, complaining about police brutality, racism, and education policy. Then he hands his gun to the plane's pilot, apologizes for the day's inconvenience, and surrenders quietly. April 16 President Richard Nixon's administration lifts most restrictions on bombing North Vietnam, and U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortresses bomb targets near Haiphong for the first time since 1968. A hijacker commandeers Prinair Flight 179, a de Havilland Heron making a flight in Puerto Rico from Ponce to San Juan; the hijacker is taken down and there are no fatalities or injuries. April 17 The Soviet Union claims that American airstrikes have damaged four of its merchant ships in Haiphong Harbor. Claiming to have a bomb that is actually only a box of cigars, 30-year-old Mario Maimone hijacks a Swissair Douglas DC-9-32 flying from Geneva, Switzerland, to Rome, Italy, telling the flight crew that he is the reincarnation of "Jesus Christ, Superstar" and demanding to be flown to Argentina. Ultimately, he agrees to go to Rome instead, where he demands to speak to the Pope and the United States Ambassador to Italy, holds a brief press conference at which he bets reporters one U.S. dollar that he will not go to jail, and then surrenders. Believing that he is personally responsible for expelling Satan from the Earth and that he must hijack an airliner and receive a ransom as part of that mission, 29-year-old William Herbert Green gives a note saying he has a gun and demanding $500,000 in cash and to fly to the Bahamas and hands it to a flight attendant aboard Delta Air Lines Flight 952 – a Convair CV-880-22-2 flying from Chicago, Illinois, to Miami, Florida, with 92 people on board – telling her to pass it to the captain. After 40 minutes of negotiations between the captain and Green, Green agrees to allow the plane to return to Chicago, where he releases all the passengers. The captain then tells Green that he can either fly to the Bahamas and be imprisoned there, where he knows no one, or surrender right there in Chicago. Green decides to surrender in Chicago. A hijacker commandeers Alaska Airlines Flight 1861, a Boeing 727 with 92 people on board flying from Seattle, Washington, to Annette Island, Alaska. The hijacker eventually surrenders. April 18 Two passengers hijack a Slov-Air Let L-410A Turbolet with 16 people on board during a domestic flight in Czechoslovakia from Mariánské Lázně to Prague, demanding to be taken to West Germany. After they shoot and wound the copilot, the airliner diverts to Nuremberg, West Germany, where the hijackers request political asylum. East African Airways Flight 720 aborts takeoff at Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, headed for Rome; it then overruns the runway, breaks up, and catches fire. 43 of the 107 passengers and crew aboard are killed. April 19 – North Vietnamese Air Force aircraft bomb U.S. Navy ships at sea, the only such attack during the Vietnam War. Two MiG-17s cause minor damage to the guided-missile light cruiser and heavy damage to the destroyer . April 24 – Two UH-1B attack helicopters arrive at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, becoming the first helicopters equipped with the TOW antitank missile to enter combat. April 25 – Hans-Werner Grosse sets a new sailplane distance record of in a Schleicher ASW 12. April 27 – Four United States Air Force F-4 Phantom IIs finally destroy the Thanh Hóa Railroad and Highway Bridge in North Vietnam with laser-guided bombs. The bridge had withstood 873 American sorties against it since April 1965. April 29 – A Strela 2 (NATO reporting name "SA-7 Grail") surface-to-air missile shoots down an aircraft for the first time in the Vietnam War. May President of Cuba Fidel Castro suspends the "Freedom Flights" program, which since December 1965 has carried Cubans wishing to leave Cuba to the United States, using flights by commercial aircraft that depart Cuba twice a day, five days a week. The flights will not resume until December 1972. Universal Airlines goes bankrupt. Saturn Airways receives its assets. LANICA begins four-engine jet service between Nicaragua and Miami, Florida, using four Convair CV-880s. May 3 – Four hijackers take control of a Turkish Airlines Douglas DC-9-32 with 66 people on board during a domestic flight in Turkey from Ankara to Istanbul, demanding the release of prisoners. The airliner diverts to Sofia, Bulgaria, where the hijackers surrender to authorities. May 5 Alitalia Flight 112, a Douglas DC-8-43, crashes into Mount Longa, about 5 km (3 mi) southwest of Palermo, Sicily, while on approach to Palermo, killing all 115 people on board. It remains the single deadliest aircraft accident in Italy's history. Recently drafted into the United States Army, desperate to avoid serving in the Vietnam War, and claiming to be a member of a paramilitary group fighting against U.S. imperialism, 21-year-old Michael Lynn Hansen pulls out a .38-caliber Smith & Wesson revolver aboard Western Airlines Flight 407 – a Boeing 737-200 with 81 people on board flying from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Los Angeles, California – and demands that it fly him to North Vietnam. After the plane lands in Los Angeles, where he releases 11 passengers, he changes his mind and orders it to fly him to Cuba. The plane stops for 50 minutes at Tampa, Florida, to refuel, then proceeds to Havana, Cuba, where Hansen asks Cuban soldiers who come aboard the airliner to get his luggage for him. Instead, they arrest him. He will be imprisoned in Cuba until 1975, when he will return to the United States. Forty-nine-year-old Frederick Hahneman hijacks Eastern Airlines Flight 175 – a Boeing 727 with 55 people on board flying from Allentown, Pennsylvania, to Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia – and demands a ransom of US$303,000 and six parachutes. After the airliner lands at Washington Dulles, he receives the ransom, then orders the plane to take off again. It stops at New Orleans, Louisiana, then continues south to Central America. Over Honduras, Hahneman parachutes from the plane into the jungle below. He will turn himself in at the United States Embassy in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, a month later, refusing to divulge what he did with the money. May 8 U.S. Navy attack aircraft from the attack aircraft carrier begin to lay naval mines in major North Vietnamese ports. Covering U.S. Navy A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair II aircraft laying mines in Haiphong Harbor, the U.S. Navy guided-missile cruiser shoots down a North Vietnamese MiG-21 (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") at a range of 48 nautical miles (55 statute miles; 89 km) with a RIM-8 Talos surface-to-air missile. It is the last of three aircraft destroyed by Talos missiles during the Vietnam War, and the first since 1968. Four members of Black September hijack Sabena Flight 571, a Boeing 707 with 86 other people on board flying from Vienna, Austria, to Tel Aviv, Israel. After the plane arrives as scheduled at Lod Airport in Lod, Israel, the hijackers threaten to blow up the plane if Israel does not release 315 Palestinians from prison. The next day, 16 Israeli Sayeret Matkal commandos led by Ehud Barak and including Benjamin Netanyahu, storm the plane in Operation Isotope, killing two hijackers and capturing the other two; Netanyahu and three passengers are wounded and one of the wounded passengers later dies of her wounds. May 9 – In Operation Pocket Money, U.S. Navy A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair II bombers from three aircraft carriers lay naval mines in the harbors at Haiphong and six other North Vietnamese ports. May 10 – The single biggest day of aerial combat of the Vietnam War takes place. U.S. Air Force aircraft shoot down three North Vietnamese fighters and U.S. Navy F-4 Phantom II fighters shoot down eight more. Flying a U.S. Navy F-4J Phantom II of Fighter Squadron 96 (VF-96) off of , Lieutenants Randy "Duke" Cunningham (pilot) and William "Irish" Driscoll (radar intercept officer) shoot down three MiG-17 fighters, becoming first American aces, and the U.S. Navys only aces, of the Vietnam War. They receive the Navy Cross for heroism during the flight. May 10–11 – F-4 Phantom IIs of the U.S. Air Forces 8th Tactical Fighter Wing hit the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi, North Vietnam, with precision-guided munitions, closing it to traffic. May 12 – SA-7 Grail surface-to-air missiles shoot down five American AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters in five minutes near An Lộc, South Vietnam. May 14 – Two American UH-1B attack helicopters using TOW missiles blunt a major North Vietnamese attack near Kon Tum, South Vietnam. May 16 – Returning to their base from a weather research flight over the Baltic Sea, the crew of a Soviet Navy Antonov An-26 (NATO reporting name "Curl") fails to set the plane's barometric altimeter for the altitude of the airfield. Flying dangerously low in thick fog without realizing that they are using inaccurate altimeter readings, they crash into a kindergarten at Svetlogorsk in the Soviet Union's Kaliningrad Oblast. All eight people on the plane die, as do two adults and 23 children on the ground. May 18 As Aeroflot Flight 1491, an Antonov An-10A (registration CCCP-11215), descends from its cruising altitude to 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) prior to landing at Kharkov in the Soviet Union's Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, both of its wings separate due to metal fatigue in the wing center section. The airliner crashes in a wooded area 24 kilometers (15 miles) from Kharkov Airport, but does not catch fire. All 122 people on board die. The accident is the worst ever involving an An-10 and at the time is the deadliest aviation accident in the history of Ukraine, and Aeroflot withdraws the An-10 from service because of it. Eastern Air Lines Flight 346, a Douglas DC-9, crashes on landing at Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International Airport in Broward County, Florida, and catches fire. No one is killed, but all 10 people on board are injured. May 19 – U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy aircraft begin Operation Linebacker, a campaign of airstrikes on North Vietnam targeting the transportation of supplies in support of the North Vietnamese "Easter Offensive" invasion of South Vietnam. May 21 – A DTA Fokker F27 Friendship on a domestic flight in Angola from Luanda to Lobito crashes into the Atlantic Ocean 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) northwest of Lobito Airport while on approach in poor visibility, killing 22 of the 25 people on board. May 23 – About 10 minutes after an Ecuatoriana de Aviacion Lockheed L-188 Electra takes off from Quito, Ecuador, for a domestic flight to Guayaquil, a passenger identified from the passenger manifest only by his surname, Lomas, hijacks the airliner, claiming he has a bomb. The plane lands at Quito, where Lomas demands US$40,000 and a parachute in exchange for the lives of the other passengers and crew. During the sixth hour of negotiations, a squad of commandos sneaks into the plane through its baggage compartment, ambushes Lomas, and kills him with machine gun fire. May 24 – Two hijackers seize control of a South African Airways Boeing 727 with 55 people aboard flying from Salisbury, Rhodesia, to Johannesburg, South Africa. The airliner diverts to Blantyre, Malawi, where security forces storm the airliner and arrest the hijackers the following day. May 26 The United States and Soviet Union sign the SALT-1 strategic arms limitation treaty. Cessna builds its 100,000th aircraft, the first company in the world to achieve this figure. Two American UH-1B attack helicopters use TOW antitank missiles to destroy 12 North Vietnamese tanks outside Kon Tum, South Vietnam, allowing South Vietnamese forces to counterattack and secure the city. May 28 – A hijacker commandeers an Olympic Airways Boeing 707 with 135 people aboard making a domestic flight in Greece from Heraklion to Athens, demanding medical treatment and an airline ticket to London. After the airliner arrives at Athens, security forces storm it and arrest the hijacker. May 30 Acting on behalf of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, three members of the Japanese Red Army attack passengers at Lod Airport in Tel Aviv, Israel, with assault rifles and hand grenades, killing 26 people and injuring 80. Among the dead is Professor Aharon Katzir, an internationally renowned protein biophysicist and the brother of future President of Israel Ephraim Katzir. Two of the attackers are killed and the third, Kōzō Okamoto, is wounded and arrested. Delta Air Lines Flight 9570, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-14 on a training flight with no passengers on board, crashes during a landing approach at Greater Southwest International Airport in Fort Worth, Texas, killing all four people – three pilots and a Federal Aviation Administration inspector – aboard. The crash is blamed on wake turbulence from a Douglas DC-10 airliner that had preceded the DC-9, resulting in increased minimum distances being required for aircraft following heavy aircraft. A hijacker demanding money seizes control of a Varig Lockheed L-188 Electra (registration PP-VJL) with 92 people aboard making a domestic flight in Brazil from São Paulo to Porto Alegre. At São Paulo–Congonhas Airport in São Paulo, security forces storm the airliner and kill the hijacker. June Aircraft carrier trials of the U.S. Navys Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighter begin aboard the attack aircraft carrier . North Vietnam begins to use balloons with explosive charges. June 1 – Continental Airlines inaugurates Douglas DC-10 service. June 2 U.S. Air Force F-4E Phantom II pilot Phil "Hands" Handley scores the first and thus far only supersonic gun kill in history while engaging a pair of MiG-19 (NATO reporting name "Farmer") fighters over North Vietnam in support of a rescue operation to save F-4 Phantom II crewman Roger Locher, downed northeast of Hanoi 23 days earlier. To protest American involvement in the Vietnam War and hoping to free Angela Davis from prison and transport her to political asylum in North Vietnam, Willie Roger Holder and his girlfriend, Catherine Marie Kerkow, hijack Western Airlines Flight 701, a Boeing 720B, as it approaches Seattle near the end of a flight from Los Angeles, claiming to have a bomb in an attaché case. They demand a ransom of US$500,000. After allowing all 97 passengers to get off in San Francisco, they fly to Algiers in Algeria, where they are granted political asylum. Later, $488,000 of the ransom money is returned to American officials. Armed with a .357 Magnum revolver and carrying a parachute, 22-year-old Robb Heady barges onto United Airlines Flight 239 – a Boeing 727 with six people aboard at Reno, Nevada, preparing for a flight to San Francisco – and demands a $200,000 ransom. United Airlines borrows the money from two casinos, and Heady takes delivery of it on the tarmac while holding two flight attendants at gunpoint with their heads under a blanket, frustrating a U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) sniper who cannot distinguish their heads from Heady's. He then orders the plane to take off, but engine trouble prevents it from doing so. He boards another United Boeing 727, which does take off. As it flies over Nevada's Washoe Lake, Heady parachutes from the rear door, taking $155,000 of the ransom money with him. He drops the money during his descent and suffers injuries on landing. FBI agents arrest him early the next morning when he returns to his car, parked near the lake, which the FBI had staked out because it had a United States Parachute Association bumper sticker on it. June 3 – A United States Navy P-3A-60-LO Orion crashes into the side of a 2,700-foot (823-meter) mountain near Jebel Musa in Morocco, killing all 14 people on board. June 5 – On approach to land at Pleiku Airport in Pleiku, South Vietnam, an Air America C-46A-45-CU Commando crashes into a mountain 50 feet (15.2 meters) below its peak, killing all 32 people on board. June 8 – Two passengers, one armed with a gun, enter the cockpit of a Slov-Air Let L-410A Turbolet with 16 people on board during a domestic flight in Czechoslovakia from Mariánské Lázně to Prague, demanding to be taken to West Germany. They shoot and kill the pilot and threaten to shoot the copilot if he does not change course toward Munich, and the copilot tells them that the airliner lacks the range to reach Munich, but that he would fly into West Germany and land at the nearest large city in West Germany the plane can reach. Meanwhile, eight other passengers involved in the hijacking attack the four uninvolved passengers with bottles, to avoid any resistance from them in case one of them is a plainclothes security officer. After the hijackers see factory signs in German and Western cars on the roads below and are satisfied that the plane has reached West Germany, the copilot lands on a 600-meter (1,968-foot) airstrip at Weiding, West Germany. The hijackers – seven men and three women, one of them with an infant, escape, but they later are apprehended. June 11 – U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortresses destroy a major hydroelectric plant near Hanoi, North Vietnam, using laser-guided bombs. June 12 – The "Windsor Incident" occurs when American Airlines Flight 96, a Douglas DC-10-10, suffers an in-flight door failure at 11,750 feet (3,581 m) over Windsor, Ontario, Canada, resulting in cabin depressurization and several minor injuries to passengers. Despite corrective measures to improve the door-locking mechanism, a similar failure aboard another DC-10 will cause the disastrous crash of Turkish Airlines Flight 981. June 14 – Japan Airlines Flight 471, a Douglas DC-8-53, crashes on approach to Palam International Airport, in New Delhi, India, killing 82 of the 87 people on board, including Brazilian actress Leila Diniz. Three people on the ground also die. June 15 – A bomb explodes aboard Cathay Pacific Flight 700Z, a Convair CV-880-22M-21 flying at 29.000 feet (8,839 m) over Pleiku, South Vietnam. The aircraft disintegrates and crashes, killing all 81 people on board. No one ever is convicted of the bombing. June 16 – The International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations begins a 24-hour work stoppage at 2:00 a.m. EDT to protest the ongoing epidemic of airline hijackings. Aerlingus, Arkia, Air Canada, Air France, Air New Zealand, Alitalia, CP Air, Eastern Airlines, El Al, Lufthansa, Northeast Airlines, Norwegian Airlines, Sabena, Scandinavian Airlines System, and Swissair shut down, while pilots at Southern Airways return to work at 10:00 a.m. EDT after only an eight-hour stoppage. Czechoslovakia halts all commercial air traffic for one hour in support of the protest, and South African Airways cancels all international fights, although it continues domestic service in South Africa. In Vienna, Austria, airport ground crews walk off the job in sympathy with the protest, and at Panama City, Panama, cars block entrances to the airport. Lod International Airport outside Tel Aviv, Israel, closes, and most flights at airports in Canada are cancelled. Other airlines and airports around the world operate normally during the stoppage. June 18 – In the Staines Disaster, British European Airways Flight 548, a Hawker Siddeley Trident 1C, crashes at Staines-upon-Thames, England, less than three minutes after takeoff from London Heathrow Airport, killing all 118 people on board. It will be the deadliest aviation incident in the United Kingdom until December 1988. June 20 – Airline pilots hold a worldwide strike, calling for tighter security June 21 – French pilot Jean Boulet pilots an Aérospatiale SA-315 Lama to a world-record altitude for helicopters of 40,820 feet (12,415 meters); the record still stands. As he begins to descend, his engine flames out; unable to restart it, he safely autorotates all the way to the ground, thus also setting the record for the longest autorotation in history. June 23 – Traveling under the name "Robert Wilson" and armed with a submachine gun he smuggled aboard in a trombone case, 28-year-old Martin J. McNally commandeers American Airlines Flight 119 – a Boeing 727 with 101 people on board flying from St. Louis, Missouri, to Tulsa, Oklahoma – as it approaches Tulsa. He orders the airliner to return to St. Louis, demanding US$502,500 and five parachutes. He receives the money after the plane lands at Lambert–St. Louis International Airport in St. Louis. While the plane is on the ground, 30-year-old David J. Hanley becomes enraged by the hijacking while watching events unfold on television in the lounge of a Marriott hotel near the airport, drives his 1971 Cadillac through the airport's fence, and smashes it into the landing gear strut under the airliner's left wing at 80 mph (129 km/hr) at 12:30 a.m. on June 24. McNally demands another Boeing 727, and after it arrives, he walks to it hiding behind hostages to avoid being shot by police snipers. He orders the new plane to take off and fly northeast. At 2:50 a.m. on June 24, he parachutes from the plane at an altitude of 8,000 feet (2,438 meters) near Peru, Indiana, with what ransom money he has left after giving the flight attendants generous tips, but loses the money and his gun during his descent. He later is apprehended by police. June 24 – Prinair Flight 191, a de Havilland DH.114 Heron 2B, crashes while attempting to land at Mercedita Airport in Ponce, Puerto Rico, killing five of the 20 people on board and injuring all 15 survivors. June 25 – Trans World Airlines inaugurates Lockheed L-1011 service with a flight from St. Louis, Missouri, to Los Angeles, California. The entire flight from takeoff to landing is made on autopilot. June 29 After a North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile cripples his OV-10 Bronco and renders his observers parachute unusable, U.S. Air Force Captain Steven L. Bennett remains aboard the OV-10 and ditches it the Gulf of Tonkin in order to save his observer. Bennett dies, but the observer survives. Bennett will receive the Medal of Honor posthumously for his actions. North Central Airlines Flight 290, a Convair CV-580 with five people on board, and Air Wisconsin Flight 671, a de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter carrying eight people, collide over Wisconsins Lake Winnebago. Both aircraft crash into the lake, killing all 13 people aboard. June 30 The American 1972 bombing campaign against North Vietnam has destroyed 106 bridges, all of the countrys oil depots, and the pipeline running south to the Demilitarized Zone. Due to his strange behavior while checking in for Hughes Airwest Flight 775, a Douglas DC-9, at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport outside Seattle, Washington, 25-year-old Daniel Bernard Carre is flagged as a possible aircraft hijacker and subjected to a thorough search, but found to be unarmed. He boards the plane, which takes off for a flight to Salt Lake City, Utah, with an intermediate stop at Portland, Oregon, with 42 people aboard. About halfway through the flight, he tells a stewardess that he wants $50,000 and a parachute, claiming he plans to jump out of the plane near Pocatello, Idaho. He does not mention having a weapon, so the captain continues the flight to Portland, where the captain orders the passengers to evacuate the airliner. Carre then surrenders quietly and is committed to a mental institution. July The U.S. Navy EA-6B Prowler electronic warfare aircraft makes its combat debut, going into action over Vietnam from aircraft carriers. Yemen Arab Airlines (the future Yemenia) is nationalized and rebrands itself as Yemen Airways. July 2 – Over the South China Sea, as an act of revenge against the United States for revoking his travel visa and expelling him after he was arrested for occupying the South Vietnamese consulate in New York City in an anti-Vietnam War protest, a 24-year old South Vietnamese man, Nguyen Thai Binh, hijacks Pan American World Airways Flight 841, a Boeing 747 with 152 people on board flying from Manila in the Philippines to Saigon, South Vietnam, claiming he has a bomb. He demands to be flown to Hanoi, North Vietnam, after which he says he will destroy the airliner. The captain, Eugene Vaughn, refuses to comply, judges the "bomb" to be a fake, and quietly arranges for a retired San Francisco Police Department detective aboard as a passenger and armed with a .357 Magnum to shoot Binh. After the airliner lands at Tan Son Nhat International Airport under the pretext of refueling, Vaughn grabs Binh and throws him to the floor, and the detective shoots Binh five times, killing him. Vaughn then throws Binh's body out of the aircraft onto the tarmac. Binh's "bomb" turns out to be a package of lemons. July 5 After stabbing a woman and a man, a 23-year-old man takes a young girl hostage and flees to Greater Buffalo International Airport in Cheektowaga, New York, where he boards an empty Boeing 707 with his hostage. He demands to flown out of the Buffalo, New York, area, but surrenders after negotiations. Armed with pistols, Michael Azmanoff and Dmitr Alexiev hijack Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 710 – a Boeing 737-200 flying from San Francisco to Los Angeles, California, with 86 people on board – just after takeoff and demand US$800,000 in cash, two parachutes, navigational charts that will allow them to reach Siberia, and to be flown to the Soviet Union. The airliner returns to San Francisco International Airport, where the hijackers agree to allow a new pilot with international flight experience to board. As a U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent posing as the new pilot approaches the plane, the suspicious hijackers force him to strip down to his underwear while he still is on the tarmac. Meanwhile, a team of FBI agents armed with shotguns approaches by boat in a neighboring bay and sneak up on the plane, follow the agent posing as a pilot on board, and open fire, killing Alexiev instantly. A gun battle ensures in which Azmanoff and a passenger are killed. Two other passengers, one of them actor Victor Sen Yung, are wounded. July 6 An Aviaco Douglas DC-8-52 (registration EC-ARA) on a repositioning flight with no passengers aboard crashes into the Atlantic Ocean 21 kilometers (13.1 miles) east of Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, killing its entire crew of 10. Absent without leave and armed with a pistol, United States Army helicopter crewman Francis Goodell hijacks Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 389, a Boeing 727 flying from Oakland to Sacramento, California, with 58 people on board. He demands a parachute and US$450,000, which he claims he will give to "two organizations involved in the MIdeast crisis." The plane flies to San Diego, California, where Goodell picks up the ransom and releases all the passengers except for a California Highway Patrol officer who volunteers to remain aboard as a hostage. As the plane returns to Oakland, where Goodell has demanded that a helicopter pick him up, his hostage warns him that when he disembarks from the airliner, FBI snipers will shoot him to death. Frightened, Goodell surrenders. July 10 – A hijacker demanding money commandeers a Lufthansa Boeing 737 making a domestic flight in West Germany from Cologne to Munich. July 11 – With a fatigued and intoxicated pilot at its controls, a Royal Norwegian Air Force de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter drifts off course in bad weather and crashes 15 kilometers (9.4 miles) north-northwest of Harstad, Norway, into 800-meter (2,625-foot) Lille Tussin Mountain on the island of Grytøya about 20 meters (66 feet) below its summit, killing all 17 people on board. At the time, it is the deadliest accident in history involving a Twin Otter. July 12 A hijacker seizes control of a UTA airliner flying from Abidjan, Ivory Coast, to Paris, France. Two people are killed during the hijacking. Claiming to have a bomb and brandishing an empty .38-caliber revolver, Marvin Fisher hijacks American Airlines Flight 669 – a Boeing 727 carrying 57 people on a flight from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to Dallas, Texas – while it is flying over North Texas and forces it to return to Oklahoma City. After it lands at Will Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City, he demands a ransom of $550,000 and parachutes. He receives $200,000, and releases the 50 passengers, then orders the plane to take off again with its seven crew members aboard as hostages. The airliner circles Oklahoma City for three hours before he gives his revolver to a stewardess and surrenders. Armed with a sawed-off shotgun, a pistol, and a typewriter case they claim contains a bomb, Michael Stanley Green and Lulseged Tesfa hijack National Airlines Flight 496 – a Boeing 727 – as it flies from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to New York City with 113 people on board, demanding a ransom of US$600,000 and forcing the plane to return to Philadelphia, where they express a desire to flee to Mexico. During eight hours on the ground there, National Airlines gives them all the money it can raise – $500,000 plus $1,600 in Mexican pesos – and the pilot escapes, after which Green and Tesfa release the passengers and transfer to another Boeing 727 with sufficient range to take them to the United States Gulf Coast. The 727 takes off from Philadelphia and flies southwest with only the copilot, flight engineer, four female flight attendants, and the two hijackers aboard. It reaches Texas, passing over Dallas and then flying toward Houston. The hijackers decide that they want to go to Jamaica instead of Mexico, and by the time the plane is over the Gulf of Mexico it is desperately short of fuel, and it makes an emergency landing at Lake Jackson Dow Airport in Lake Jackson, Texas, blowing out two tires as the airliner brakes hard to avoid going off the end of the short runway. The copilot and flight engineer jump out of the plane, and, after four hours of negotiations during which the hijackers release one flight attendant and demand another plane while threatening to kill the three women still on board, the hijackers release them and surrender to the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation on July 13, 22 hours after the hijacking began. July 22 – American aircraft operating over Vietnam first note the slow-moving, black "Fat Black" surface-to-air missile. July 24 – British-born American entrepreneur, racing driver, and heir to the Woolworth fortune Lance Reventlow is killed along with the other three people aboard a Cessna U206 when it crashes in the Rocky Mountains near Aspen, Colorado, after its pilot flies into a blind canyon during a storm. July 26 – The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) announces Rockwell International as prime contractor for the Space Shuttle Orbiter. July 29 – Two Avianca Douglas DC-3A airliners – HK-1341, bound for Yopal, Colombia, with 17 people on board, and HK-107, bound for Paz de Ariporo, Colombia, with 21 people on board – depart Villavicencio Airport in Villavicencio, Colombia, two minutes apart. Flying in the same direction, they collide in mid-air over the Las Palomas mountains about 30 minutes after departure and crash, killing all 38 people on board the two aircraft. July 31 – George Wright and four other members of the Black Liberation Army accompanied by three children hijack Delta Air Lines Flight 841, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8 with 93 other people on board, during a flight from Detroit to Miami. After releasing the other 86 passengers at Miami International Airport and receiving a US$1,000,000 ransom, they force the plane to fly to Boston, and then on to Houari Boumediene Airport, in Algiers, Algeria, where Algerian authorities seize them on August 2. The unharmed seven-person crew then flies the plane back to the United States. August The last element of the U.S. Armys 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile), the 3rd Brigade (Reinforced), is withdrawn from Vietnam. August 1 – Delta Air Lines absorbs Northeast Airlines. August 11 – The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signs a development contract for the MRCA (Multi-Role Combat Aircraft) programme, which will eventually result in the Panavia Tornado. August 12 Hit by small arms fire during its initial climb after takeoff from Sóc Trăng Airfield in South Vietnam, a United States Air Force C-130E Hercules crashes, killing 30 of the 44 people on board. After coming in too low on his second attempt to make an instrument landing at Palam Airport in Delhi, India, the pilot of an Indian Airlines Fokker F27 Friendship 100 (registration VT-DME) attempts a go-around with the wrong flap settings and with the landing gear down. The airliner crashes 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mile) south of the airport, killing all 18 people on board. August 14 – An Interflug Ilyushin Il-62 on a charter flight crashes near Königs Wusterhausen in Brandenburg, East Germany, shortly after takeoff from Berlin-Schönefeld Airport in Schönefeld, East Germany, after a fire in the after portion of the plane causes the tail section to break off in flight. All 156 people on board die in the deadliest aviation accident of 1972 as well as the deadliest in the history of East Germany. It also remains the deadliest air disaster in the history of Germany as a whole. August 15 The U.S. Air Force completes Operation Saklolo, an airlift to Luzon for the relief of flood victims in the Philippines. Since the operation began on July 21, the Air Force has delivered 2,000 short tons (1,814 metric tons) of supplies and transported 1,500 passengers. Four members of guerrilla groups supporting Peronist and leftist political groups in Argentina commandeer an Austral Líneas Aéreas BAC One-Eleven (registration LV-JNS) with 103 people on board at Trelew Airport in Trelew, Argentina, before it can take off for a domestic flight to Buenos Aires and force it to await the arrival of prisoners who have staged a mass escape from the penitentiary at Rawson, Argentina. Of the 110 who escape, six arrive and board the airliner, which then takes off for Santiago, Chile, leaving behind 19 more escapees who arrive at the airport just in time to see it take off. After a stop at Puerto Montt, Chile, the airliner flies on to Santiago, where the four hijackers and six escaped prisoners surrender and request political asylum in Chile. August 16 A Burma Airways Douglas C-47B-20-DK crashes into the Bay of Bengal during its initial climb out of Thandwe Airport in Thandwe, Burma, killing 28 of the 31 people on board and injuring all three survivors. It is the first fatal accident involving Burma Airways. Two Royal Moroccan Air Force fighters attempt to shoot down the plane of King Hassan II of Morocco in a coup attempt by Minister of the Interior General Mohammed Oufkir. They miss, and the coup fails. A bomb hidden in a record player given to two unsuspecting British passengers partially explodes in the luggage compartment of an El Al flight. The plane lands in Rome, Italy. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command will be linked to the attack. August 18 – A hijacker demanding money commandeers United Airlines Flight 877, a Boeing 727 with 33 people on board flying from Reno, Nevada, to San Francisco, California. The airliner diverts to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in Washington. August 22 – Three passengers claiming to be members of a group called the "Eagles of National Unity in South Yemen" hijack an Alyemda Douglas DC-6 during a flight from Cairo, Egypt, to Beirut, Lebanon. They force it to divert to Nicosia International Airport in Nicosia, Cyprus, where it makes a three-hour refueling stop. The airliner then proceeds to Benghazi, Libya, where the hijackers surrender to Libyan authorities. August 25 – Four hijackers commandeer an Aerolíneas TAO Vickers745D Viscount (registration HK-1058) during a domestic flight in Colombia from Neiva to Bogotá with 31 people on board, demanding to be flown to Cuba. After a refueling stop at Barrancabermeja, Colombia, the airliner proceeds to Camagüey, Cuba. August 27 – On approach to Canaima Airport in Canaima, Venezuela, while attempting to return to the airport after the failure of its No. 1 engine, a Linea Aeropostal Venezolana (LAV) Douglas C-47-DL Skytrain (registration YV-C-AKE) crashes, killing all 34 people on board. August 28 A Royal Australian Air Force de Havilland DHC-4A Caribou on a flight in the Territory of Papua New Guinea carrying army cadets from Lae Airfield to Port Moresby crashes in the Kudjero Gap, killing 25 of the 29 people on board. Piloting an F-4 Phantom II with Captain Charles B. DeBellevue as his weapon systems officer, Captain Richard S. "Steve" Richie becomes the second American ace, and first U.S. Air Force ace, of the Vietnam War by shooting down his fifth MiG-21 (NATO reporting name "Fishbed"). Prince William of Gloucester is one of two people killed when the Piper Cherokee Arrow he is piloting during the Goodyear Trophy race crashes and explodes near Wolverhampton, England. August 31 – A fire breaks out in the baggage compartment of an Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-18V (registration CCCP-74298) at an altitude of 7,200 meters (23,622 feet) during a domestic flight in the Soviet Union from Alma-Ata to Moscow. Planning to make an emergency landing at Magnitogorsk, the crew begins an emergency descent, but is incapacitated at an altitude of 2,400 meters (7,874 feet). The airliner enters a spin and crashes in a field near Smelovskiy, killing all 101 people on board. September North Vietnamese overland supply routes from the People's Republic of China come under American air attack in Operation Prime Choke. September 9 – A U.S. Air Force F-4D Phantom II crewed by Captain John A. Madden, Jr., pilot, and Captain Charles B. DeBellevue, weapon systems officer, shoots down two MiG-19s (NATO reporting name "Farmer") over North Vietnam. They are Maddens first two kills and DeBelleuves fifth and sixth. DeBellevues six kills will make him the highest-scoring American ace of the Vietnam War. September 10 – The right wing of an Ethiopian Airlines Douglas C-47-DL Skytrain separates from the aircraft during a domestic flight in Ethiopia from Axum to Gondar. The airliner crashes near Gondar, killing all 11 people on board. September 11 The new North Vietnamese "Fat Black" surface-to-air missile makes its first kill, shooting down a U.S. Marine Corps F-4J Phantom II fighter. Flying a U.S. Marine Corps F-4 Phantom II fighter, Major Lee T Lasseter, USMC (pilot) and Captain John D. Cummings (radar intercept officer) of Marine Fighter Squadron 333 (VMF-333) operating from the aircraft carrier shoot down a North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighter near Haiphong. It is the only U.S. Marine Corps air-to-air victory of the Vietnam War. American aircraft use precision-guided munitions to destroy the Long Bien Bridge over the Red River in downtown Hanoi. September 13 – A Royal Nepalese Army Air Service Douglas C-47A-DL-45 Skytrain carrying paratroopers on a training flight strikes high-tension lines near a highway and crashes at Panchkha, Nepal, killing all 31 people on board. September 15 – Just after a Scandinavian Airlines System Douglas DC-9-32 (registration LN-RLO) with 90 people on board takes off from Goteborg, Sweden, for a domestic flight to Stockholm, three men belonging to the Croatian Ustasja Movement hijack it and force it to divert to Bulltofta Airport outside Malmö, Sweden. They demand 500,000 Swedish krona in cash and the release of seven Croatians imprisoned in Sweden since 1971 for committing terrorist acts. During the evening of September 15, the hijackers permit six passengers to leave the plane for medical reasons. During the predawn hours of September 16, authorities bring the seven Croatian prisoners to the airport; one of them refuses to join the hijackers, but the other six board the airliner and the hijackers release 30 passengers in exchange. A few hours later, a police car delivers the ransom money to the hijackers, and they release the rest of the passengers and force the plane to fly to Madrid, Spain, carrying its crew of four and the nine Croatians. The Croatians request political asylum in Spain, but Spanish authorities arrest them. September 22 – The 1,000th Boeing 727 is sold, a sales record for airliners. September 24 An Air Vietnam Douglas C-54D-1-DC Skymaster flying from Vientiane, Laos, to Saigon, South Vietnam, crashes into a marsh near Bến Cát, South Vietnam, killing 10 of the 13 people on board. Thinking they are landing at Santacruz Airport near Bombay, India, the pilots of a Douglas DC-8-53 operating as Japan Airlines Flight 472 mistakenly land at nearby Juhu Aerodrome on a runway that is too short for a DC-8. The plane overruns the runway and is written off; there are no fatalities, but 11 of the 122 people on board suffer injuries. At the Golden West Sport Aviation Show in Sacramento California, a privately owned F-86 Sabre malfunctions while on taking off to leave the show, failing to become airborne. It goes through a chain link fence at the end of the runway, crushes a parked car, and crashes into a Farrell's Ice Cream Parlor. The crash kills 10 adults and 12 children, including two people in the parked car. September 28 – Air Florida begins flight operations, employing a fleet of two Boeing 707s and offering thrice-daily service in Florida from Miami to Orlando to St. Petersburg. October October 1 – Aeroflot Flight 1036, an Ilyushin Il-18V (registration CCCP-75507) bound for Moscow, crashes into the Black Sea 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) off shore during its initial climb from Sochi Airport in Sochi in the Soviet Union's Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and sinks to a depth of 600 meters (1,968 feet) in an underwater canyon. The crash kills all 109 people on board. At the time, it is the second-worst accident involving an Il-18 and the deadliest aviation accident in the history of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, although it will hold the latter record for only 12 days. October 6 – A hijacker demands money aboard Aero Trasporti Italiani Flight 373, a Fokker F27 Friendship bound from Trieste to Bari, Italy. A policeman shoots and kills the hijacker at Trieste. October 10 – A competitive fly-off between the Northrop YA-9 and Fairchild YA-10 begins, continuing until December 9. October 11 – A hijacker demanding money commandeers a Lufthansa Boeing 727 flying from Lisbon, Portugal, to Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany. The hijacker is shot and captured while trying to move from the airliner to a car at Frankfurt-am-Main. October 13 A United States Air Force F-4D Phantom II crewed by Lieutenant Colonel Curtis D. Westphal, pilot, and Captain Jeffrey S. Feinstein, weapon systems officer, shoots down a MiG-21 (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") over North Vietnam. The kill gives Feinstein his fifth aerial victory; he is the last of five American aviators – three Air Force and two Navy – to achieve ace status during the Vietnam War. Aeroflot Flight 217, an Ilyushin Il-62 (registration CCCP-86671), crashes in a forest 11 kilometers (6.9 miles) north of Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport while on approach for a landing there. The crash kills all 174 people on board. It is the second-worst accident involving an Il-62 and it replaces an Ilyushin Il-18V crash 12 days earlier as the deadliest aviation accident in the history of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic at the time. Carrying the Old Christians Club rugby union team from Montevideo, Uruguay, to play a match in Santiago, Chile, a Uruguayan Air Force Fairchild FH-227 operating as Flight 571 with 45 people on board, crashes in the Andes in Argentina at an altitude of 3,600 m (11,800 ft). Twelve of those aboard die in the crash, five the next morning, and one more after eight days. An avalanche sweeps over the wreckage on October 29, killing eight more people, and another three die in November and December; survivors resort to eating dead passengers to stay alive. On December 12, passengers Nando Parrado and Roberto Canessa make a 10-day hike to find help, reaching safety on December 22 and finally informing authorities of the survivors. The other 14 survivors finally are rescued on December 22 and 23. October 16 – A Cessna 310C carrying U.S. House Majority Leader Hale Boggs and U.S. Congressman Nick Begich of Alaska disappears while approaching Alaska's Chugach Mountains during a flight from Anchorage to Juneau with the loss of all four people on board. An intensive 39-day search and rescue effort by aircraft of the United States Coast Guard, United States Navy, and U.S. Air Force is called off on November 24, and no wreckage or bodies are ever found. October 21 – Olympic Airways Flight 506, a NAMC YS-11A-500 (registration SX-BBQ) crashes into the Aegean Sea 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) short of the airport while on approach to land at Ellinikon International Airport in Athens, Greece, in reduced visibility. The crash kills 37 of the 53 people on board. October 22 – Four hijackers take control of Turkish Airlines Flight 102 – Boeing 707-321 with 76 people on board making a domestic flight in Turkey from Istanbul to Ankara – and demand the release of prisoners. They force the airliner to fly to Sofia, Bulgaria, where they surrender. October 23 In Vietnam, Operation Linebacker concludes. A Soviet Air Force Antonov An-12BP (NATO reporting name "Cub") transporting military personnel with 20 people on board collides in poor visibility while on approach to Tula in the Soviet Union's Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with another Soviet Air Force An-12BP on a training flight with seven people on board. Both aircraft crash, killing everyone on board both planes. The air surveillance radar at Tula is out of service at the time of the collision. October 24 – As a peace gesture, the United States begins a seven-day halt on the bombing of North Vietnamese targets north of the 20th Parallel, but continues airstrikes at near-record levels against North Vietnamese supply lines south of the line. October 26 – The Russian American aviation pioneer Igor Sikorsky dies at the age of 83. October 27 – The crew of Air Inter Flight 696, a Vickers 724 Viscount (registration F-BMCH), begins their descent to Clermont-Ferrand Auvergne Airport in Clermont-Ferrand, France, too early. The airliner crashes into the mountain Pic du Picon near Noirétable, France, at an altitude of 1,000 feet (305 meters), killing 60 of the 68 people on board. October 29 Two Palestinians hijack Lufthansa Flight 615 and demand the release of the three Black September members jailed in West Germany for the September 1972 attack on the Israeli Olympic team. After circling Zagreb, Yugoslavia before landing to pick up the three Black September members, they order the airliner to fly to Tripoli, Libya, where they are welcomed as heroes and the hostages are released 16 hours after the hijacking began. Four days after killing an Arlington County, Virginia, police officer and a bank manager during a bank robbery, Charles A. Tuller, his teenage sons Bryce and Jonathan, and teenager William White Graham kill an Eastern Airlines ticket agent in Houston, hijack Eastern Airlines Flight 486 – a Boeing 727 with 13 passengers and a crew of seven aboard – there, and order it to be flown to Havana, Cuba. During the four-hour flight, which includes a refueling stop at New Orleans, Charles Tuller repeatedly harangues the 13 passengers aboard during the flight, saying he is a "white middle-class revolutionary" and that Cuba is "the only place that a person could enjoy the benefits of freedom", and threatening some of them with guns. The three Tullers will return to the United States in June 1975, calling life in Cuba "a living hell", and be arrested. Graham will return in the late 1970s and be arrested in 1993. October 30 – Aero Trasporti Italiani Flight 327, a Fokker F27 Friendship 200 (registration I-ATIR), strikes a hillside near Poggiorsini, Italy, at an altitude of 442 meters (1,450 feet) while descending to land at Bari and crashes, killing all 27 people on board. October 31 – Two pilots are killed in the crash of a Dassault Falcon 10 prototype. November November 4 – During a domestic flight in Bulgaria from Bourgas to Sofia, a Balkan Bulgarian Airlines Ilyushin Il-14P's (registration LZ-ILA) pilot decides to divert to Plovdiv due to poor visibility at Sofia. An air traffic controller at Plovdiv gives the Il-14P descent instructions without knowing its exact position; following the instructions in poor visibility, the airliner crashes into the side of a hill near Cruncha, killing all 35 people on board. November 6 – Armed with a .38-caliber revolver and claiming to have two bombs, 47-year-old Tatsuji Nakaoka, wearing a mask and traveling under the pseudonym "Kozo Hotta," hijacks a Japan Air Lines Boeing 727 with 126 people on board shortly after it takes off from Tokyo's Haneda Airport for a domestic flight to Fukuoka, Japan. He forces the airliner to return to Haneda Airport, and demands $2 million in U.S. currency and that a Douglas DC-8 be provided to fly him to Cuba, stipulating that the DC-8 stop at Vancouver and in Mexico along the way. After receiving the ransom money, Nakaoka takes eight hostages and boards the DC-8, where several police officers hiding in the main cabin immediately overpower and arrest him. November 8 – Four hijackers commandeer a Mexicana de Aviación Boeing 727-200 with 111 people on board making a domestic flight in Mexico from Monterrey to Mexico City and demand a ransom and the release of political prisoners. After six prisoners board the airliner and the ransom is delivered, the hijackers force the plane to fly to Havana, Cuba. November 10–12 – Seeking revenge against the City of Detroit, Michigan, for alleged police brutality and an arrest for sexual assault, Louis Moore and Henry Jackson join with Melvin Cale in hijacking Southern Airways Flight 49, a Douglas DC-9 with 33 people aboard, during a flight from Birmingham to Montgomery, Alabama. Armed with guns and hand grenades, they demand 10 parachutes, 10 bulletproof vests, and a US$10 million ransom, and order the airliner to fly to Detroit to pick it up. Fog prevents a landing there, and the plane diverts to Cleveland, Ohio, while the hijackers consume the plane's liquor supply. They then order the plane to fly on to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where Southern Airways offers them US$500,000. Moore rejects this and orders the plane to take off again and fly to Knoxville, Tennessee, but before arrival there orders the plane to circle the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, threatening to crash the plane into the nuclear reactor there unless his demands are not met. Southern Airways collects 150 pounds (68 kg) of cash totaling $2 million, and gives it to the hijackers when the airliner lands at Chattanooga, Tennessee, hoping the hijackers will be too impressed by the physical amount of cash to realize it is less than they demanded. The ruse works, and the jubilant hijackers hand out cash to the passengers and crew, but then order the plane to fly to Havana, Cuba, where authorities refuse to allow the hijackers to disembark. The airliner takes off again, stops at Key West, Florida, and then lands at a United States Air Force base near Orlando, Florida, where Federal Bureau of Investigation agents damage its landing gear with gunfire. It again flies to Havana, arriving there on November 12, and Cuban authorities arrest and jail the hijackers and impound the ransom for return to Southern Airways. The hijacking prompts a change of heart among airlines and transportation authorities in the United States, who previously had viewed hijacking as a relatively benign interference in their business that rarely resulted in harm to anyone and not worth the inconvenience and expense of preventing it, and leads to the requirement to screen all passengers boarding airliners in the United States beginning in January 1973. November 15 – The first attempted aircraft hijacking in Australia takes place when Miloslav Hrabinec attempts to hijack Ansett Airlines Flight 232, a Fokker F27 Friendship with 31 other people on board, as it is descending to land at Alice Springs. He demands a parachute and to be flown 1,000 miles (1,610 km) into the desert. After landing at Alice Springs, he releases 22 passengers, then threatens to begin shooting the rest of the people on board if not given a light plane, a pilot, and a parachute. After he leaves the Fokker to approach the light plane with a flight attendant as a hostage, he wounds a policeman, is brought under fire by police, and then shoots himself to death. November 22 – While U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortresses fly their heaviest raids of the Vietnam War at the time during the day, a North Vietnamese surface-to-air missile hits a B-52 over North Vietnam near Vinh; its crew manages to fly it to Thailand before ejecting. It is the first time in history that a B-52 has been lost to enemy action. November 24 – A hijacker seizes control of an Air Canada Douglas DC-8 bound from Frankfurt-am-Main, West Germany, to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and demands the release of political prisoners. Police storm the airliner at Frankfurt Airport and arrest the hijacker. One person is killed during the hijacking. November 28 Philippine Airlines Flight 463, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748-232 Series 2, veers off the runway and suffers severe wing and propeller damage and a nose wheel collapse on landing at Bislig Airport in Bislig City, the Philippines. All 28 people on board survive. Japan Airlines Flight 446, a Douglas DC-8-62, stalls and crashes during climbout from Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow, killing 62 of the 76 people on board and injuring all 14 survivors. December Union of Burma Airways is renamed Burma Airways. It eventually will become Myanmar National Airlines. President of Cuba Fidel Castro allows the "Freedom Flights" program – which since December 1965 has carried Cubans wishing to leave Cuba to the United States, using flights by commercial aircraft that depart Cuba twice a day, five days a week – to resume. He had suspended the flights in May. December 3 – Spantax Flight 275, a chartered Convair 990 Coronado (registration EC-BZR) bound for Munich, West Germany, crashes in near-zero visibility on takeoff from Tenerife-Norte Los Rodeos Airport on Tenerife in Spain's Canary islands, killing all 155 people on board. It is the deadliest accident involving a Convair 990 and at the time is the deadliest aviation accident on Spanish soil in history. December 5 – The United States Department of Transportation announces that mandatory security screening of all airline passengers will begin at all airports in the United States on January 5, 1973. Since the epidemic of U.S. aircraft hijackings began in 1961, 159 hijackings have taken place in the United States, most of them with Cuba as the destination. December 8 Seven members of the Eritrean Liberation Front attempt to hijack Ethiopian Airlines Flight 708, a Boeing 720-060B with 87 other people on board, minutes after it departs Haile Selassie I International Airport in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Security guards on board open fire, killing six of them and mortally wounding the seventh. There are no other fatalities. United Airlines Flight 553, a Boeing 737-222, crashes on approach to Chicago Midway International Airport in Chicago. Forty-three people on the plane die, as do two people on the ground; 16 aboard the plane survive. Among the dead are Illinois Congressman George W. Collins; Dorothy Hunt, the wife of Watergate conspirator E. Howard Hunt; Michele Clark, a correspondent for CBS News and one of the first African American network correspondents; and Dr. Alex E. Krill, a noted ophthalmologist from the University of Chicago. It is the first fatal accident involving a Boeing 737. December 14 – Twenty-one-year-old Larry Stanford pulls a .22-caliber rifle out of his coat while boarding Quebecair Flight 321 – a BAC One-Eleven scheduled to make a domestic flight in Canada from Wabush, Newfoundland, to Montreal, Quebec, with a scheduled stop at Quebec City, Quebec – and brandishes it at passengers. After 20 minutes, he orders the pilot to take off and fly directly to Montreal without stopping at Quebec City. At Montreal, he releases all 52 passengers and a stewardess, then demands that the plane fly to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. After 15 minutes on the ground at Ottawa, he orders it to fly back to Montreal, where he meets with his father and a psychiatrist aboard the plane, then surrenders peacefully. December 18–25 – Frustrated with a lack of progress in peace talks with North Vietnamese negotiators, the United States conducts Operation Linebacker II. Sometimes called "The December Raids" and "The Christmas Bombing", it involves intense American bombing of North Vietnam, including heavy operations by U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortresses and the laying of naval mines in North Vietnamese harbors including Haiphong. On the first day, 86 B-52s based at Guam strike Hanoi. December 20 – North Central Airlines Flight 575, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31, collides with Delta Air Lines Flight 954, a Convair CV-880, on a runway at O'Hare International Airport in Chicago, killing 10 and injuring 15 of the 45 people on board the DC-9 and injuring two of the 93 people aboard the CV-880. December 21 – An Air Guadeloupe de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300 (registration F-OGFE) flying a flight for Air France from Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, to Sint Maarten in the Netherlands Antilles, crashes into the Caribbean Sea off Sint Maarten during a night approach to Princess Juliana International Airport, killing all 13 people on board. December 23 Soviet aircraft designer Andrei Tupolev dies, aged 86. Braathens SAFE Flight 239, a Fokker F28 Fellowship, crashes at Asker, Norway, while on approach to land at Oslo Airport in Fornebu, killing 40 of the 45 people on board and injuring all five survivors. It is the deadliest air accident in Norwegian history at the time and the first involving a Fokker Fellowship. December 25 – The United States begins a 36-hour pause in the bombing of North Vietnam. December 26–29 – Operation Linebacker II continues. On December 26, 117 B-52 Stratofortresses attack Hanoi in the largest air assault in the Vietnam War to this time. December 27 – The U.S. Marine Corps loses a fixed-wing aircraft over Vietnam for the last time. December 29 – Eastern Air Lines Flight 401, a Lockheed L-1011 Tristar, crashes into the Florida Everglades after the pilots are distracted by a faulty lightbulb; 101 people die and the other 75 on board are injured. December 30 – President Richard Nixon orders a halt to the bombing of North Vietnam as the North Vietnamese show a renewed interest in peace negotiations. December 31 – 1972 Puerto Rico DC-7 crash—Puerto Rican Major League Baseball star Roberto Clemente and all four other people aboard a Douglas DC-7CF die when the plane crashes into the Atlantic Ocean off Isla Verde just after takeoff from San Juan, Puerto Rico. He had chartered the plane to carry aid to Nicaragua after a major earthquake there. First flights January January 21 - Lockheed S-3A Viking 157992 February February 21 - AESL Airtrainer ZK-DGY May May 10 - Fairchild YA-10 71-1369 May 27 - Partenavia P.70 Alpha I-GIOY May 30 - Northrop YA-9 71-1367 June June 2 - Aérospatiale SA 360 Dauphin F-WSQL July July 6 – SAAB-MFI 17 July 27 – McDonnell Douglas YF-15A 71-280, first pre-production F-15 Eagle September September 18 – Dornier Aerodyne October October 27 – Beechcraft Super King Air Model 200 October 28 – Airbus A300 F-WUAB December December 23 - Aero Boero AB-260 Entered service Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner with Societe Miniere de Bakwanga Summer 1972 – Beechcraft King Air Model E90 April April 15 – Lockheed L-1011 TriStar with Eastern Air Lines October October 8 – Grumman F-14A Tomcat, the United States Navys first carrier-based variable-geometry wing aircraft, with U.S. Navy Fighter Squadron 124 (VF-124) Retirements August August 27 – Antonov An-10 by Aeroflot (25 An-10A aircraft transferred to the Soviet Air Force and Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Production elements remain in service until 1974) November November 30 – Dornier Aerodyne References Aviation by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwater%20%28company%29

Blackwater (company)

Academi was an American private military company founded on December 26, 1996 by former Navy SEAL officer Erik Prince as Blackwater, renamed Xe Services in 2009 and known as Academi since 2011 after the company was acquired by a group of private investors. In 2007, the company received widespread notoriety for the Nisour Square massacre in Baghdad, when a group of its employees killed 17 Iraqi civilians and injured 20, for which four guards were convicted in the U.S., but later pardoned on December 22, 2020 by President Donald Trump. Academi provides security services to the United States federal government on a contractual basis. Since 2003, the group has provided services to the Central Intelligence Agency. In 2013, Academi subsidiary International Development Solutions received an approximately $92 million contract for State Department security guards. In 2014, Academi merged with Triple Canopy, a subsidiary of Constellis Group. History 1997: Blackwater USA Blackwater USA was formed on December 26, 1996, by Al Clark and Erik Prince in North Carolina, to provide training support to military and law enforcement organizations. In explaining Blackwater's purpose, Prince stated: "We are trying to do for the national security apparatus what FedEx did for the Postal Service". After working with SEAL and SWAT teams, Blackwater USA received its first government contract following the bombing of USS Cole off of the coast of Yemen in October 2000. 1998: Training center opens Prince purchased approximately of the Great Dismal Swamp, a vast swamp on the North Carolina–Virginia border that is now mostly a national wildlife refuge. "We needed 3,000 acres to make it safe," Prince told reporter Robert Young Pelton. There, he created his private training facility and his contracting company, Blackwater, which he named for the peat-colored water of the swamp. The Blackwater Lodge and Training Center officially opened on May 15, 1998 with a 6,000-acre, $6.5 million facility headed up by Jamie Milam . The training facility comprises several ranges: indoor, outdoor, urban reproductions; an artificial lake; and a driving track in Camden and Currituck counties. The company says it is the largest training facility in the country. The concept was not a financial success and was kept financially solvent by sales from sister company Blackwater Target Systems. 2002–2007: Blackwater Security Company Jeremy Scahill has claimed that Blackwater Security Company (BSC) was the brainchild of Jamie Smith, a former CIA officer who became Vice President of Blackwater USA and the Founding Director of Blackwater Security Company, holding both positions simultaneously. However, this claim is denied by Prince and Blackwater executive Gary Jackson who describe firing Smith from his position as a low-level administrator for "non-performance" after a 30-day contract. Additionally, Smith has been accused of further embellishing his military and contracting record to defraud investors at SCG International Risk. 2003–2006: First contracts BSC's first assignment was to provide 20 men with top secret clearance to protect the CIA headquarters and another base that was responsible for hunting Osama bin Laden. Blackwater was one of several private security firms employed following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. BSC was originally formed as a Delaware LLC and was one of over 60 private security firms employed during the Iraq War to guard officials and installations, train Iraq's new army and police, and provide other support for coalition forces. Smith left Blackwater to start his own firm, SCG International Risk, in 2003. Blackwater was also hired during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina by the United States Department of Homeland Security to protect government facilities, as well as by private clients, including communications, petrochemical, and insurance companies. Overall, the company received over US$1 billion in U.S. government contracts. The company consisted of nine divisions and a subsidiary, Blackwater Vehicles. In August 2003, Blackwater received its first Iraq contract, a $21 million contract for a Personal Security Detachment and two helicopters for Paul Bremer, head of the U.S. occupation in Iraq. In July 2004, Blackwater was hired by the U.S. State Department under the Bureau of Diplomatic Security's Worldwide Personal Protective Services (WPPS) umbrella contract, along with DynCorp International and Triple Canopy, Inc. for the purpose of providing protective services in Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia, and Israel. The contract applied for two years and expired on June 6, 2006. It authorized 482 personnel, and Blackwater received $488m for its work. On September 1, 2005, following Hurricane Katrina, Blackwater dispatched a rescue team and helicopter to support relief operations. Blackwater moved about 200 personnel into the area impacted by Hurricane Katrina, most of whom (164 employees) were working under a contract with the Federal Protective Service to protect government facilities, but the company held contracts with private clients as well. Blackwater's presence after Katrina cost the federal government $240,000 per day. In May 2006, the U.S. State Department awarded WPPS II, the successor to its previous diplomatic security contract. Under this contract, the State Department awarded Blackwater, along with Triple Canopy and DynCorp, a contract for diplomatic security in Iraq. Under this contract, Blackwater was authorized to have 1,020 staff in Iraq. Blackwater's responsibilities included the United States embassy in Iraq. At the time it was a privately held company and published limited information about internal affairs. Leadership Cofer Black, the company's vice-chairman from 2006 through 2008, was director of the CIA's Counterterrorist Center (CTC) at the time of the September 11 attacks in 2001. He was the United States Department of State coordinator for counterterrorism with the rank of Ambassador-at-Large from December 2002 to November 2004. After leaving public service, Black became chairman of the privately owned intelligence-gathering company Total Intelligence Solutions, Inc., as well as vice-chairman of Blackwater. Robert Richer was vice president of intelligence until January 2007, when he formed Total Intelligence Solutions. He was formerly the head of the CIA's Near East Division. 2006–2007: New training centers In November 2006, Blackwater USA announced that it had acquired an facility west of Chicago in Mount Carroll, Illinois, called Impact Training Center. This facility has been operational since April 2007 and serves law enforcement agencies throughout the Midwest. Blackwater tried to open an training facility three miles north of Potrero, a small town in rural east San Diego County, California, located east of San Diego, for military and law enforcement training. The opening had faced heavy opposition from local residents, residents of nearby San Diego, local Congressmember Bob Filner, and environmentalist and anti-war organizations. Opposition focused on a potential for wildfire increases, the proposed facility's proximity to the Cleveland National Forest, noise pollution, and opposition to the actions of Blackwater in Iraq. In response, Brian Bonfiglio, project manager for Blackwater West, said: "There will be no explosives training and no tracer ammunition. Lead bullets don't start fires." In October 2007, when wildfires swept through the area, Blackwater made at least three deliveries of food, water, personal hygiene products and generator fuel to 300 residents near the proposed training site, many of whom had been trapped for days without supplies. They also set up a "tent city" for evacuees. On March 7, 2008, Blackwater withdrew its application to set up a facility in San Diego County. 2007–2009: Blackwater Worldwide In October 2007, Blackwater USA began the process of changing its name to Blackwater Worldwide and unveiled a new logo. The change deemphasized the "cross hair" reticle theme, simplifying it slightly. On July 21, 2008, Blackwater Worldwide stated that it would shift resources away from security contracting because of the extensive risks in that sector. Said company founder and CEO Erik Prince, "The experience we've had would certainly be a disincentive to any other companies that want to step in and put their entire business at risk." 2009–2010: Xe Services LLC In February 2009, Blackwater announced that it would be once again renamed, this time to "Xe Services LLC", as part of a company-wide restructuring plan. Subsequently, it reorganized its business units, added a corporate governance and ethics program, and established an independent committee of outside experts to supervise compliance structures. Prince announced his resignation as CEO on March 2, 2009. He remained as chairman of the board but was no longer involved in day-to-day operations. Joseph Yorio was named as the new president and CEO, replacing Gary Jackson as president and Prince as CEO. Danielle Esposito was named the new chief operating officer and executive vice president. In 2009, Prince announced that he would relinquish involvement in the company's day-to-day business in December, along with some of his ownership rights. 2010–2014: Academi In 2010, a group of private investors purchased Xe's North Carolina training facility and built Academi, a new company, around it. Academi's Board of Directors included former Attorney General John Ashcroft, former White House Counsel and Vice Presidential Chief of Staff Jack Quinn, retired Admiral and former NSA Director Bobby Ray Inman, and Texas businessman Red McCombs, who served as Chairman of the Board. Quinn and Ashcroft were independent directors, without other affiliations to Academi. In May 2011, Academi named Ted Wright as CEO. Wright hired Suzanne Rich Folsom as Academi's chief regulatory and compliance officer and deputy general counsel. The Academi Regulatory and Compliance team won National Law Journal'''s 2012 Corporate Compliance Office of the Year Award. In 2012, retired Brigadier General Craig Nixon was named the new CEO of Academi. 2014–present: Constellis Holdings A merger between Triple Canopy and Academi, along with other companies that were part of the Constellis Group package, are now all gathered under the Constellis Holdings, Inc. umbrella. The transaction brings together an array of security companies including Triple Canopy, Constellis Ltd., Strategic Social, Tidewater Global Services, National Strategic Protective Services, ACADEMI Training Center and International Development Solutions. In 2015 six Colombian mercenaries reported by local media to be employed by Academi were killed in Yemen. The mercenaries were being led by an Australian commander believed to have been hired by the United Arab Emirates to fight the Houthi insurgency. In 2016, Ali al-Houthi, former President of the Revolutionary Committee, a body formed by Houthi militants, reported that a Tochka missile hit on a Saudi-led command center in Ma'rib resulting in the death of over 120 mercenaries, including 55 Saudi (9 officers), 11 UAE and 11 foreign commanders of Blackwater on January 17 as well as other material losses. Also in 2016, two hundred Sudanese mercenaries from Blackwater and their commander US Colonel Nicolas Petras were killed in Yemen in an attack by Yemeni forces on January 31 with another Tochka missile that impacted a gathering of the Saudi forces at al-Anad military base in Lahij province according to Houthi and Iranian sources. Board of directors Red McCombs (chairman) John Ashcroft Dean Bosacki Jason DeYonker Bobby Ray Inman Jack Quinn Russ Robinson Services and products Academi has a variety of services and product offerings. United States Training Center United States Training Center (USTC, formerly Blackwater Training Center) offers tactics and weapons training to military, government, and law enforcement agencies. USTC also offers several open-enrollment courses periodically throughout the year, from hand to hand combat (executive course) to precision rifle marksmanship. They also offer courses in tactical and off-road driving. USTC's primary training facility, located on in northeastern North Carolina, comprises several ranges, indoor, outdoor, urban reproductions, a man-made lake, and a driving track in Camden and Currituck counties. Company literature says that it is the largest training facility in the country. In November 2006 Blackwater USA announced it acquired an facility 150 miles (240 km) west of Chicago, in Mount Carroll, Illinois, to be called Blackwater North. That facility has been operational since April 2007 and serves law enforcement agencies throughout the Midwest. The training facility has since been renamed Impact Training Center and once again has been renamed Hollow Training Center. In 2011, the Pentagon contracted USTC to provide "intelligence analyst support and material procurement" for NATO in the ongoing Afghan drug war. Maritime security service Academi offers tactical training for maritime force protection units. In the past, it has trained Greek security forces for the 2004 Olympics, Azerbaijan Naval Sea Commandos, and Afghanistan's Ministry of Interior. Academi's facilities include a man-made lake, with stacked containers simulating the hull and deck of a ship for maritime assaults. Blackwater received a contract to train United States Navy sailors, which was managed by Jamie Smith, following the attack on the . It also purchased a vessel, McArthur, which has been outfitted for disaster response and training. According to Blackwater USA, it features "state of the art navigation systems, full GMDSS communications, SEATEL Broadband, dedicated command and control bays, helicopter decks, hospital and multiple support vessel capabilities." McArthur was built in 1966 by the Norfolk Shipbuilding and Drydock Company and served as the survey ship USC&GS McArthur (MSS 22) for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey from 1966 to 1970 and as NOAAS McArthur (S 330) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration from 1970 until her decommissioning in 2003. The ship is home-ported in Norfolk, Virginia. Canine training The company trains canines to work in patrol capacities as war dogs, explosives and drug detection, and various other roles for military and law enforcement duties. Security consulting Blackwater Security Consulting (BSC) was formed as a Delaware LLC in December 2001 and was the brainchild of Jamie Smith, a former CIA officer who was the Founding Director as well as acting Vice President of Blackwater USA. The company, based in Moyock, North Carolina, is one of the private security firms employed during the Iraq War to guard officials and installations, train Iraq's new army and police, and provide other support for coalition forces. The company was started to help train SEALS for combat. However, in the aftermath of 9/11, civilian security teams were needed by the United States Military. Before 2001, tier-one contractors, or former members of elite, special forces units, were hired from a small pool of applicants. After the September 11 attacks, Cofer Black, the former head of counter terrorism at the CIA, requested that the federal government hire more contractors to operate overseas. Eventually, the CIA realized that a large number of civilian contractors would be needed overseas to accomplish its broad goals. The federal government turned to Blackwater for assistance. Jamie Smith and his deputy David Phillips recruited, vetted and hired a 21-man team. This team was then trained and deployed on a Top Secret project to provide protection for CIA personnel and facilities in Afghanistan. Jamie Smith and Erik Prince deployed with the team to Afghanistan. The two then deployed to the Pakistani border as a two-man element providing security assistance in one of the most dangerous places in the country at the time. Prince stayed there for one week and was in Afghanistan for a total of two weeks, leaving Smith and the remainder of the team to continue to carry out the mission. By 2003, the ground war in Iraq changed into a diplomatic mission, demanding hundreds of diplomats and State Department employees. The government traditionally handles its own security, but it lacked the staff for high-risk protection details. Therefore, a different type of protection was needed, and Blackwater would provide the solution. Blackwater's founder, Erik Prince, says that "not one State Department employee was killed while we were protecting them." Academi's primary public contract is from the U.S. State Department under the Bureau of Diplomatic Security's Worldwide Personal Protective Services (WPPS) and WPPS II umbrella contracts, along with DynCorp International and Triple Canopy, Inc., for protective services in Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia, and Israel. Products Target systems Academi provides and maintains a "shoot house" system and patented the BEAR multi-target training system that was designed and developed by the company. Blackwater Target Systems company was managed by Jim Dehart and the company was largely responsible for keeping Blackwater Training Center financially solvent until the creation of Blackwater Security Company by Smith. Cougar (MRAP) Force Protection Inc in early 2005 provided the first Cougar Security Vehicle (SV) to Blackwater USA for use as a transport vehicle for U.S. Provisional Coalition Authority officials in Baghdad. Grizzly armored vehicle Academi operates and markets its own armored personnel carrier, the Grizzly APC. Former corporate units Aviation Worldwide Services Aviation Worldwide Services (AWS) was founded by Richard Pere and Tim Childrey, and was based at Melbourne, Florida, US. It owned and operated three subsidiaries: STI Aviation, Inc. Air Quest, Inc. and Presidential Airways, Inc. In April 2003 it was acquired by Blackwater USA. Presidential Airways (PAW) is a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Regulations Part 135 charter cargo and passenger airline based at Orlando Melbourne International Airport. It operates aircraft owned by AWS. Presidential Airways holds a Secret Facility Clearance from the U.S. Department of Defense. It operates several CASA 212 aircraft in addition to a Boeing 767. Several of the MD-530 helicopters used by Blackwater Security Consulting in Iraq are also operated through AWS.Name Results . A CASA 212 aircraft, tail number N960BW, operated by Presidential Airways crashed on November 27, 2004, in Afghanistan; it had been a contract flight for the United States Air Force en route from Bagram to Farah. All aboard, three soldiers and three civilian crew members, were killed. Several of their surviving kin filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Presidential in October 2005. In late September 2007, Presidential Airways received a $92m contract from the Department of Defense for air transportation in Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan and Uzbekistan. STI Aviation focuses on aircraft maintenance, and is a FAA/Joint Aviation Authorities 145 repair station. They specialize in Short 360, EMB 120, Saab 340, and CASA 212 maintenance. As of January 2008, STI Aviation appears to have been folded into AWS, along with Air Quest. Many of Blackwater's tactical and training aircraft are registered to Blackwater affiliate EP Aviation LLC, named for Blackwater's owner, Erik Prince. These aircraft include fourteen Bell 412 helicopters, three Hughes/MD 369 "Little Bird" helicopters, four Bell 214ST medium-lift helicopters, three Fairchild Swearingen Merlin IIIC turboprop airliners, nine Aérospatiale Puma utility helicopters, a Maule Air MT-7-235 STOL aircraft, an Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano counterinsurgency aircraft, and a Mooney M20E fixed wing aircraft. Aviation Worldwide Services was purchased for $200 million in 2010 by AAR Corp., an Illinois company. In a letter released on February 8, 2011, the new owners informed state officials that they are shutting down the Moyock, North Carolina, operation and moving some employees to a new business location in Melbourne, Florida. Some 260 staff are affected with about 50 losing their jobs, beginning at the end of February. The company views the aviation division as a growth opportunity. Greystone Limited In 2010, Greystone was acquired by current management. Greystone now operates as a standalone, management owned provider of protective support services and training. A private security service, Greystone is registered in Barbados, and employs soldiers for off-shore security work through its affiliate Satelles Solutions, Inc. Their web site advertises their ability to provide "personnel from the best militaries throughout the world" for worldwide deployment. Tasks can be from very small scale up major operations to "facilitate large scale stability operations requiring large numbers of people to assist in securing a region". Erik Prince intended Greystone to be used for peacekeeping missions in areas like Darfur where military operations would need to take place to establish peace. Greystone had planned to open a training facility on the former grounds of the Subic Bay U.S. Naval Base, but those plans were later abandoned. Former international services According to a company press release, Blackwater provided airlift, security, logistics, and transportation services, as well as humanitarian support. Blackwater moved about 200 personnel into the area hit by Hurricane Katrina, most of whom (164 employees) were working under a contract with the Department of Homeland Security to protect government facilities, but the company held contracts with private clients as well. Overall, Blackwater had a "visible, and financially lucrative, presence in the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as the use of the company contractors cost U.S. taxpayers $240,000 a day." Academi (then Blackwater USA) was one of five companies picked in September 2007 by the Department of Defense Counter-Narcotics Technology Program Office in a five-year contract for equipment, material and services in support of counter-narcotics activities. The contract is worth up to $15 billion. The other companies picked are Raytheon, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, OHI, and Arinc Inc. Blackwater USA has also been contracted by various foreign governments. The DEA and DoD counternarcotics program is supported by Blackwater Worldwide in Afghanistan as well. "Blackwater is involved on DoD side" of the counter-narcotics program in Afghanistan says Jeff Gibson, vice president for international training at Blackwater. "We interdict. The NIU surgically goes after shipments going to Iran or Pakistan. We provide training to set up roadblocks, identify where drug lords are, and act so as not to impact the community." In 2008, about 16 Blackwater personnel were in Afghanistan at any given time to support DoD and DEA efforts at training facilities around the country. Blackwater is also involved in mentoring Afghan officials in drug interdiction and counter narcotics. As Richard Douglas, a deputy assistant secretary of defense, explained, "The fact is, we use Blackwater to do a lot of our training of counternarcotics police in Afghanistan. I have to say that Blackwater has done a very good job." The Obama administration awarded Academi a $250 million contract to work for the U.S. State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency in Afghanistan. In 2005, Blackwater worked to train the Naval Sea Commando regiment of Azerbaijan, enhancing their interdiction capabilities on the Caspian Sea. In Asia, Blackwater had contracts in Japan guarding AN/TPY-2 radar systems. In March 2006, Cofer Black, vice chairman of Blackwater USA, allegedly suggested at an international conference in Amman, Jordan, that the company was ready to move towards providing security professionals up to brigade size (3,000–5,000) for humanitarian efforts and low-intensity conflicts. The company denies making this claim. Mark Manzetti, writing in The New York Times on August 19, 2009, reported that the CIA had hired Blackwater "as part of a secret program to locate and assassinate top operatives of Al Qaeda." Newly appointed CIA director Leon Panetta had recently acknowledged a planned secret targeted killing program, one withheld from Congressional oversight. Manzetti's sources, which tied the program to Blackwater, declined to have their names made public. The CIA was acting on a 2001 presidential legal pronouncement, known as a finding, which authorized the CIA to pursue such efforts. Several million dollars were spent on planning and training, but it was never put into operation and no militants were caught or captured. Manzetti notes that it was unknown "whether the C.I.A. had planned to use the contractors to actually capture or kill Al Qaeda operatives, or just to help with training and surveillance in the program." Jeremy Scahill reported in The Nation in November 2009 that Blackwater operated alongside the CIA in Pakistan in "snatch and grab" operations targeting senior members of the Taliban and Al Qaeda. The report cited an unnamed source who has worked on covert US military programs, who revealed that senior members of the Obama administration may not be aware that Blackwater is operating under a US contract in Pakistan. A spokesman for Blackwater denied the claims, stating that they have "only one employee in Pakistan." Role in the Iraq War Contracts Blackwater Worldwide played a substantial role during the Iraq War as a contractor for the United States government. In 2003, Blackwater attained its first high-profile contract when it received a $21 million no-bid contract for guarding the head of the Coalition Provisional Authority, L. Paul Bremer. Since June 2004, Blackwater has been paid more than $320 million out of a $1 billion, five-year State Department budget for the Worldwide Personal Protective Service, which protects U.S. officials and some foreign officials in conflict zones. In 2006, Blackwater was awarded a contract to protect diplomats for the U.S. embassy in Iraq, the largest American embassy in the world. It is estimated by the Pentagon and company representatives that there are 20,000 to 30,000 armed security contractors working in Iraq, and some estimates are as high as 100,000, though no official figures exist. Of the State Department's dependence on private contractors like Blackwater for security purposes, U.S. ambassador to Iraq Ryan Crocker told the U.S. Senate: "There is simply no way at all that the State Department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security could ever have enough full-time personnel to staff the security function in Iraq. There is no alternative except through contracts." For work in Iraq, the company has drawn contractors from their international pool of professionals, a database containing "21,000 former Special Forces operatives, soldiers, and retired law enforcement agents," overall. For instance, Gary Jackson, the firm's president, has confirmed that Bosnians, Filipinos, and Chileans "have been hired for tasks ranging from airport security to protecting Paul Bremer, the head of the Coalition Provisional Authority." Between 2005 and September 2007, Blackwater security staff were involved in 195 shooting incidents; in 163 of those cases, Blackwater personnel fired first. Erik Prince points out that the company followed the orders of United States government officials, who frequently put his men in harm's way. Many of the shootings occurred after drivers in vehicles failed to stop when ordered by Blackwater guards. According to former CIA directory Michael Hayden contracted third parties like Blackwater to perform waterboarding on suspects. Leaks in 2009 suggest CIA - Blackwater contracts to assassinate al-Qaida leaders. Incidents The Iraqi Government revoked Blackwater's license to operate in Iraq on September 17, 2007, after a massacre in Nisour Square, Baghdad in which Blackwater contractors were later convicted of killing 17 Iraqi civilians.U.S. suspends diplomatic convoys throughout Iraq – CNN.com . The deaths occurred while a Blackwater Private Security Detail (PSD) was escorting a convoy of U.S. State Department vehicles en route to a meeting in western Baghdad with United States Agency for International Development officials. The license was reinstated by the American government in April 2008, but in early 2009 the Iraqis announced that they had refused to extend that license. In 2009, FBI investigators were unable to match the bullets from the shooting to those guns carried by Blackwater contractors, leaving open the possibility that insurgents also fired at the victims. In a 2010 interview, Erik Prince, the company's founder, said the government is looking for dirt to support what he dismissed as "baseless" accusations that run the gamut from negligence, racial discrimination, prostitution, wrongful death, murder, and the smuggling of weapons into Iraq in dog-food containers. He pointed out that current and former executives have been regularly deposed by federal agencies. Prince argued in September 2007 that there was a "rush to judgment" about Blackwater, due to "inaccurate information.” Fallujah and Najaf On March 31, 2004, Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed two SUVs, killing the four armed Blackwater contractors inside. Local residents hung the charred bodies above a bridge across the Euphrates. In response, U.S. Marines attacked the city in Operation Vigilant Resolve, which became the first Battle of Fallujah. In the fall of 2007, a congressional report by the House Oversight Committee found that Blackwater intentionally "delayed and impeded" investigations into the contractors' deaths. The report also acknowledges that members of the now-defunct Iraqi Civil Defense Corps "led the team into the ambush, facilitated blocking positions to prevent the team's escape, and then disappeared." Intelligence reports concluded that Ahmad Hashim Abd al-Isawi was the mastermind behind the attack, and he was captured after a Navy SEAL special operation in 2009. al-Isawi was ultimately handed over to Iraqi authorities for trial and executed by hanging some time before November 2013. In April 2004, at the U.S. government's headquarters in Najaf, hundreds of Shiite militia forces barraged Blackwater contractors, four MPs and a Marine gunner with rocket-propelled grenades and AK-47 fire for hours before U.S. Special Forces troops arrived. As supplies and ammunition ran low, a team of Blackwater contractors away flew to the compound to resupply and bring an injured U.S. Marine back to safety outside of the city. Baghdad On February 16, 2005, four Blackwater guards escorting a U.S. State Department convoy in Iraq fired 70 rounds into a car. The guards stated that they felt threatened when the driver ignored orders to stop as he approached the convoy. The fate of the car's driver was unknown because the convoy did not stop after the shooting. An investigation by the State Department's Diplomatic Security Service concluded that the shooting was not justified and that the Blackwater employees provided false statements to investigators. The statements claimed that one of the Blackwater vehicles had been hit by insurgent gunfire, but the investigation concluded that one of the Blackwater guards had actually fired into his own vehicle by accident. John Frese, the U.S. embassy in Iraq's top security official, declined to punish Blackwater or the security guards because he believed any disciplinary actions would lower the morale of the Blackwater contractors. On February 6, 2006, a sniper employed by Blackwater Worldwide opened fire from the roof of the Iraqi Justice Ministry, killing three guards working for the state-funded Iraqi Media Network. Many Iraqis at the scene said that the guards had not fired on the Justice Ministry. The U.S. State Department said, however, that their actions "fell within approved rules governing the use of force" based on information obtained from Blackwater guards. In 2006, a car accident occurred in the Baghdad Green Zone when an SUV driven by Blackwater USA contractors crashed into a U.S. Army Humvee. "The colonel ... said the Blackwater guards disarmed the soldiers and forced them to lie on the ground at gunpoint until they could disentangle their vehicles." On December 24, 2006, a security guard of the Iraqi vice president, Adel Abdul Mahdi, was shot and killed while on duty outside the Iraqi prime minister's compound. The Iraqi government has accused Andrew J. Moonen, a Blackwater employee at the time, of killing him while drunk. Moonen was subsequently fired by Blackwater for "violating alcohol and firearm policy", and travelled from Iraq to the United States days after the incident. The DOJ investigated and announced in 2010 that they were declining to prosecute Moonen, citing a likely affirmative defense of self-defense and high standards for initiating such a prosecution. The United States State Department and Blackwater USA had attempted to keep his identity secret for security reasons. Five Blackwater contractors were killed on January 23, 2007, in Iraq when their Hughes H-6 helicopter was shot down on Baghdad's Haifa Street. The crash site was secured by a personal security detail, callsign "Jester" from 1/26 Infantry, 1st Infantry Division. Three insurgents claimed to be responsible for shooting down the helicopter, although this has not been confirmed by the United States. A U.S. defense official has confirmed that four of the five killed were shot execution style in the back of the head, but did not know whether the four had survived the crash.Pelton, Robert Young: "Licensed to kill, hired guns in the war on terror," Crown, August 29, 2006. In late May 2007, Blackwater contractors opened fire on the streets of Baghdad twice in two days, one of the incidents provoking a standoff between the security contractors and Iraqi Interior Ministry commandos, according to U.S. and Iraqi officials. The first incident occurred when a Blackwater-protected convoy was ambushed in downtown Baghdad. The following incident occurred when an Iraqi vehicle drove too close to a convoy. However, according to incident testimony, the Blackwater guards tried to wave off the driver, shouted, fired a warning shot into the car's radiator, finally shooting into the car's windshield. On May 30, 2007, Blackwater employees shot an Iraqi civilian said to have been "driving too close" to a State Department convoy that was being escorted by Blackwater contractors. Following the incident, the Iraqi government allowed Blackwater to provide security by operating within the streets of Iraq. Documents obtained from the Iraq War documents leak of 2010 argue that Blackwater employees committed serious abuses in Iraq, including killing civilians. Other incidents On April 21, 2005, six Blackwater USA independent contractors were killed in Iraq when their Mil Mi-8 Hip helicopter was shot down. Also killed were three Bulgarian crewmembers and two Fijian gunners. Initial reports indicated that the helicopter was shot down by rocket propelled grenades. In 2007, the U.S. government investigated whether Blackwater employees smuggled weapons into Iraq. No charges were filed. On August 21, 2007, Blackwater Manager Daniel Carroll threatened to kill Jean Richter, a U.S. State Department Investigator, in Iraq. In June 2014, a New York Times investigation reported that it had secured an internal State Department memo stating this. Richter later returned from Iraq to the US and wrote a scathing review of the lax standards to which Blackwater was held accountable, only two weeks before a serious Blackwater incident in which 17 Iraqi civilians were shot and killed by Blackwater employees under questionable circumstances. The death threat incident was confirmed by a second investigator, a Mr. Thomas, who was also present at the meeting. The shooting incident that followed has been described by some as a "watershed" moment, and a factor which contributed to Iraq's later decision to refuse to allow US troops to stay beyond 2011. Prosecution U.S. Congress On October 2, 2007, Erik Prince attended a congressional hearing conducted by the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform following the controversy related to Blackwater's conduct in Iraq and Afghanistan.Testimony of Erik D. Prince, Chairman and CEO, Blackwater For The House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, October 2, 2007 Blackwater hired the public relations firm BKSH & Associates Worldwide, a subsidiary of Burson-Marsteller, to help Prince prepare for his testimony at the hearing. Robert Tappan, a former U.S. State Department official who worked for the Coalition Provisional Authority in Baghdad, was one of the executives handling the account."Blackwater Aided by PR Giant" by Richard Lardner, the Associated Press, October 5, 2007 7:37 PDT in San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved February 16, 2009. Burson-Marsteller was brought aboard by McDermott Will & Emery and Crowell & Moring, the Washington law firms representing Blackwater. BKSH, a self-described "bipartisan" firm (Hillary Clinton, when pursuing the Democratic presidential nomination, was also a client), is headed by Charlie Black, a prominent Republican political strategist and former chief spokesman for the Republican National Committee, and Scott Pastrick, former treasurer of the Democratic National Committee. In his testimony before Congress, Prince said his company has a lack of remedies to deal with employee misdeeds. When asked why Andrew Moonen had been "whisked out of the country" after the shooting death of the vice-presidential guard, he replied, "We can't flog him, we can't incarcerate him." When asked by a member of Congress for financial information about his company, Prince declined to provide documentation, saying "we're a private company, and there's a key word there – private." Later he stated that the company could provide it at a future date if questions were submitted in writing. When the term "mercenaries" was used to describe Blackwater employees, Prince objected, characterizing them as "loyal Americans." A staff report compiled by the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform on behalf of Representative Henry Waxman questioned the cost-effectiveness of using Blackwater forces instead of U.S. troops. Blackwater charges the government $1,222 per day per guard, "equivalent to $445,000 per year, or six times more than the cost of an equivalent U.S. soldier," the report alleged. During his testimony on Capitol Hill, Erik Prince disputed this figure, saying that it costs money for the government to train a soldier, to house and feed them, they don't just come prepared to fight. "That sergeant doesn't show up naked and untrained," Prince stated. Moreover, he pointed out that Blackwater's employees are trained in special operations and exceed the capabilities of the average soldier.The Washington Post, October 4, 2007 By: DeYoung, Karen. "Former Seal Calls Allegations Against Employees 'Baseless'". In the wake of Prince's testimony before Congress, the US House passed the Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Act in October 2007 that subsequently led to the prosecution by U.S. courts of some US military contractors, but only for incidents involving attacks on US nationals. The legal status of Blackwater and other security firms in Iraq was a subject of contention. Two days before he left Iraq, L. Paul Bremer signed "Order 17" giving all Americans associated with the CPA and the American government immunity from Iraqi law. A July 2007 report from the American Congressional Research Service indicates that the Iraqi government still has no authority over private security firms contracted by the U.S. government. On October 5, 2007, the State Department announced new rules for Blackwater's armed guards operating in Iraq. Under the new guidelines, State Department security agents will accompany all Blackwater units operating in and around Baghdad. The State Department will also install video surveillance equipment in all Blackwater armored vehicles, and will keep recordings of all radio communications between Blackwater convoys in Iraq and the military and civilian agencies that supervise their activities. In December 2008, a US State Department panel recommended that Xe should be dropped as the main private security contractor for U.S. diplomats in Iraq. On January 30, 2009, the State Department told Blackwater Worldwide that it will not renew its contract in Iraq. However, in 2010 it was awarded a $100 million contract from the CIA. Regardless of these developments, Xe defended its work in Iraq. A company spokeswoman stated: "When the US government initially asked for our help to assist with an immediate need to protect Americans in Iraq, we answered the call and performed well. We are proud of our success – no-one under our protection has been killed or even seriously wounded." In August 2010, the company agreed to pay a $42 million fine to settle allegations that it unlawfully provided armaments and military equipment overseas. However, the company is still allowed to accept government contracts. The settlement and fine conclude a U.S. State Department investigation that began in 2007. Iraqi courts On September 23, 2007, the Iraqi government said that it expects to refer criminal charges to its courts in connection with the Blackwater shootings. However, on October 29, 2007, immunity from prosecution was granted by the U.S. State Department, delaying a criminal inquiry into the September 16 shootings of 17 Iraqi civilians. Immediately afterwards, the Iraqi government approved a draft law to end any and all immunity for foreign military contractors in Iraq, to overturn Order 17. The U.S. Department of Justice also said any immunity deals offered to Blackwater employees were invalid, as the department that issued them had no authority to do so. It is unclear what legal status Blackwater Worldwide operates under in the U.S. and other countries, or what protection the U.S. extends to Blackwater Worldwide's operations globally. A number of Iraqi families took Blackwater to court over alleged "random killings committed by private Blackwater guards". Legal specialists say that the U.S. government is unlikely to allow a trial in the Iraqi courts, because there is little confidence that trials would be fair. Contractors accused of crimes abroad could be tried in the United States under either military or civilian law; however, the applicable military law, the Uniform Code of Military Justice, was changed in 2006, and appears to now exempt State Department contractors that provide security escorts for a civilian agency. Prosecution under civilian law would be through the Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Act, which allows the extension of federal law to civilians supporting military operations; however, according to the deputy assistant attorney general in the Justice Department's criminal division, Robert Litt, trying a criminal case in federal court would require a secure chain of evidence, with police securing the crime scene immediately, while evidence gathered by Iraqi investigators would be regarded as suspect. The Iraqi government announced that Blackwater must leave Iraq as soon as a joint Iraqi–US committee finishes drafting the new guidelines on private contractors under the current Iraqi–US security agreement. On January 31, 2009, the U.S. State Department notified Blackwater that the agency would not renew its security contract with the company. The Washington Times reported on March 17, 2009, that the U.S. State Department had extended its Iraq security contract with Blackwater's air operations arm, Presidential Airways, to September 3, 2009, for a cost of $22.2 million. On January 31, 2010, three current and former U.S. government officials confirmed the Justice Department is investigating whether officials of Blackwater Worldwide tried to bribe Iraqi government officials in hopes of retaining the firm's security work in Iraq after the shooting in Nisour Square in Baghdad, which left 17 Iraqis dead and stoked bitter resentment against the United States. The officials said that the Justice Department's fraud section opened the inquiry late in 2009 to determine whether Blackwater employees violated a federal law banning American corporations from paying bribes to foreign officials. In 2012 the Department of Justice closed the investigation without filing any charges. Lawsuits In the March 2004 court case Helvenston et al. v. Blackwater Security, Blackwater was sued by the families of four contractors killed in Fallujah. The families said they were suing not for financial damages, but for the details of their sons' and husbands' deaths, saying that Blackwater had refused to supply these details, and that in its "zeal to exploit this unexpected market for private security men," the company "showed a callous disregard for the safety of its employees." On February 7, 2007, four family members testified in front of the House Government Reform Committee. They asked that Blackwater be held accountable for future negligence of employees' lives, and that federal legislation be drawn up to govern contracts between the Department of Defense and defense contractors. Blackwater then countersued the lawyer representing the empty estates of the deceased for $10 million on the grounds the lawsuit was contractually prohibited from ever being filed. In January 2011, U.S. district judge James C. Fox dismissed the suit. On November 27, 2004, an aircraft operated by Presidential Airways and owned by its sister company, Blackwater AWS, crashed in Afghanistan; it had been a contract flight for the United States Air Force en route from Bagram to Farah. Three soldiers and three civilian crew members aboard the plane were killed. Several relatives of the victims filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Presidential in October 2005.The Flight and Crash of "Blackwater 61" CBS News 60 Minutes On October 11, 2007, the Center for Constitutional Rights filed suit against Blackwater under the Alien Tort Claims Act on behalf of an injured Iraqi and the families of three of the 17 Iraqis killed by Blackwater employees during the September 16, 2007, Blackwater Baghdad shootings. The suit, Abtan v. Blackwater, alleged that Blackwater had engaged in war crimes, created a "culture of lawlessness", and routinely deployed employees who used steroids and other psychoactive drugs. In June 2009, an amended lawsuit was filed in US District Court in Alexandria, Virginia, alleging that Blackwater employees shot and killed three members of an Iraqi family, including a nine-year-old boy, who were traveling from the Baghdad airport to Baghdad on July 1, 2007. The suit further accused Blackwater employees of murder, weapons smuggling, money laundering, tax evasion, and child prostitution. Two affidavits filed as part of the suit by former employees accuse Blackwater of encouraging the murder of Iraqi civilians, and of murdering or having murdered employees who intended to testify against the company. The lawsuit was ultimately settled confidentially in 2010, with plaintiffs accepting cash payments from the company. Federal prosecution In August 2012, the company agreed to pay $7.5 million in fines, without admitting guilt, to the US government to settle various charges involving pre-Academi personnel. February 2013, the majority of the remaining charges were dropped when it was shown that, in many cases, the Blackwater employees had been acting under the orders of the US government. Once the court decision had been finalized, Academi pointed out that "[t]he court decision involves former Blackwater executives, none of whom have ever worked for ACADEMI or the current ownership." After the Nisour Square killings of 17 Iraqi civilians and the injury of 20 more by Blackwater convoy guards in a Baghdad traffic circle in September 2007, charges were brought against five guards. One pleaded guilty to a lesser offense in exchange for his testimony for the prosecution. Three were eventually convicted in October 2014 of 14 manslaughter charges and in April 2015 sentenced to 30 years plus one day in prison. These sentences were deemed unfair upon appeal and these three await resentencing. Another was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison; however, this verdict was overturned in August 2017. On December 22, 2020, US President Donald Trump pardoned four former Blackwater contractors serving long prison terms: Nicholas Slatten, Paul Slough, Evan Liberty and Dustin Heard. The pardons do not establish innocence; however, they were criticised, both in the USA and in Iraq, as condoning killing of innocent civilians. See also Arms industry Executive Outcomes International Stability Operations Association Prince Foundation Shadow Company Wagner Group - Russian private military company Halo Group References Further reading Books Singer, P. W. (2003). Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, . Pelton, Robert Young (2006). Licensed to Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror. Crown Books, New York, . Extensive material on Blackwater in Prologue and Chapter 2, "The New Breed", Chapter 5, "The Blackwater Bridge", Chapter 6, "Under Siege", which discusses Blackwater at An Najaf, Chapter 7, "The Dog Track and the Swamp", which chronicles Pelton's visits to Blackwater training facilities, one of which is a dog track, Chapter 8, "Running the Gauntlet", and Chapter 11, "The Lord and the Prince", partly about Erik Prince. Scahill, Jeremy (2007). Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army. Simons, Suzanne (2009) Master of War: Blackwater USA's Erik Prince and the Business of War. New York: Collins. . . Umar, Asim (2009). Dajjal Ka Lashkar: Black Water (). Articles John M. Broder, "Report Says Firm Sought To Cover Iraq Shootings," New York Times, October 2, 2007. John M. Broder, "Chief Of Blackwater Defends His Employees," New York Times, October 3, 2007. John M. Broder, "Ex-Paratrooper Is Suspect In Killing Of Iraqi," New York Times, October 4, 2007. Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, United States House of Representatives, "Additional Information about Blackwater USA," Committee memorandum, October 1, 2007. Karen DeYoung, "Other Killings by Blackwater Staff Detailed," Washington Post, Oct 2, 20007. James Glanz and Alissa J. Rubin, "From Errand to Fatal Shot to Hail of Fire to 17 Deaths," New York Times, October 3, 2007. Marybeth Laguna, "My Husband was a Blackwater Hero," Washington Post, November 30, 2008. Robert Young Pelton, "Erik Prince, an American Commando in Exile," Men's Journal, November 1, 2010. Ralph Peters, "Trouble For Hire: The Mercenaries Who Murder In Your Name," New York Post, September 30, 2007. Sudarsan Raghavan, "Tracing The Paths Of 5 Who Died In A Storm Of Gunfire," Washington Post, October 4, 2007. James Risen, "Before Shooting in Iraq, a Warning on Blackwater," New York Times, June 29, 2014. Eric Schmitt, "Report Details Shooting By Drunken Blackwater Worker," New York Times, October 2, 2007. External links Media Shadow Company: documentary film directed and written by Nick Bicanic. The only film with footage of Blackwater employees training and operating in Iraq "Private Warriors" episode of Frontline'' (June 21, 2005), includes piece on Blackwater USA 1997 establishments in the United States 2011 mergers and acquisitions 2014 mergers and acquisitions American mercenaries Companies based in McLean, Virginia Consulting firms established in 1997 Defense companies of the United States George W. Bush administration controversies Iraq War Private military contractors Security companies of the United States Security consulting firms

571875

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Mallin

Michael Mallin

Michael Thomas Christopher Mallin (; 1 December 1874 – 8 May 1916) was an Irish republican, Socialist and devout Catholic who took an active role in the Easter Rising of 1916. He was a silk weaver, the co-founder with Francis Sheehy-Skeffington of the Socialist Party of Ireland, and was second-in-command of the Irish Citizen Army under James Connolly in the Easter Rising, in which he commanded the garrison at St. Stephen's Green in Dublin. Background Mallin was born in Dublin, the eldest of nine children of John Mallin, a carpenter, and his wife Sarah (née Dowling). The family lived in a tenement in the Liberties neighbourhood. He received his early education at the National School at Denmark Street. When he was 15 he visited his uncle James Dowling, who was a member of the British Army as a pay sergeant, and was persuaded to enlist in the army as a drummer. Mallin's mother witnessed the public execution of the Manchester Martyrs. According to his brother Thomas, their father was a "strong nationalist and he and Michael had many a political argument". British Army career Mallin enrolled as a soldier with the British Army's 21st Royal Scots Fusiliers on 21 October 1889. During the early years of his service he was stationed in Great Britain and Ireland. His Regiment was sent to India in 1896, where he served out the remainder of his almost fourteen-year career, taking part in the Tirah Campaign. It was during his time in India that he became radicalised. In 1897, when asked to donate to the memorial fund for Queen Victoria's jubilee year he refused because 'he could not subscribe as the English monarch had taken an oath to uphold the Protestant faith'. Mallin's brother, Thomas, later suggested that incidents such as this kept him from being promoted any higher than a drummer. He was awarded the India Medal of 1895 with the Punjab Frontier and Tirah clasps 1897–98. Post army life On Mallin's return to Ireland he became a silk weaver's apprentice under his uncle James, who was also a former soldier in the British Army. He became active in politics, and was the Secretary of the Socialist Party of Ireland. He progressed to become a leading official in the silk weavers' union. During the 1913 Lockout, he led a strike of silk workers at the Hanbury Lane factory. The strike lasted for thirteen weeks, with Mallin an effective negotiator on behalf of the strikers. He was appointed second-in-command and chief training officer of the Irish Citizen Army (ICA), which was formed to protect workers from the Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP) and from employer-funded gangs of strike-breakers. Under the tutelage of Mallin and James Connolly, the ICA became an effective military force. He was also appointed chief of staff of the ICA in October 1914. Easter Rising When Connolly was inducted into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) in January 1916, Mallin began preparing ICA members for the imminent armed revolution. In the week before the operation he communicated orders to the ICA members throughout the city. On Easter Monday, Mallin departed from Liberty Hall at 11:30 am to take up a position at St Stephen's Green with a small force of ICA men and women. Upon arriving at the park they ordered civilians out of it, dug trenches, erected kitchen and first aid stations, and built barricades in the surrounding streets. Constance Markievicz arrived and was originally thought to have been appointed Mallin's second-in-command, but later evidence pointed to this role belonging to Captain Christopher Poole, with Markievicz being third-in-command. Mallin planned to occupy the Shelbourne Hotel, located on the north-east side of the park, but insufficient manpower prevented him from doing so. This would prove disastrous for the revolutionaries as the British Army during the subsequent fighting was able to occupy the upper floors of the hotel on Monday night. Early Tuesday morning the British Army forces in the Shelbourne began firing down on the encamped rebels. Under intense fire, Mallin ordered his troops to retreat to the Royal College of Surgeons on the west side of the park. The garrison remained in the barricaded building for the remainder of the week. By Thursday it was cut off from the rebel headquarters at the General Post Office (GPO), and running out of food and ammunition. On Sunday 30 April 1916, just one week after the commencement of the Easter Rising and the declaration of the Irish Republic, Commandant Michael Mallin, Chief of Staff of the Irish Citizen Army was ordered to surrender his garrison at the College of Surgeons, St. Stephen's Green. The order to surrender was signed by James Connolly and P.H Pearse, delivered to Mallin by Nurse Elizabeth O'Farrell. After an intense week of fighting, exhausted and hungry Mallin wrote a note to his wife Agnes. The note was written on the inside of a used envelope that has been torn open at the sides. It read – "My darling wife all is lost. My love to all my children, no matter what my fate I am satisfied I have done my duty to my beloved Ireland, and you, and to my darling children. I charge you as their sole guardian now to bring them up in the national faith of your father, and of my faith, of our unborn child [may] God and his blessed Mother help you and it. I said all was lost, I meant all but honour and courage. God and his blessed Mother again guard and keep you my own darling wife". Mallin obeyed the order and surrendered his position to Captain H.E. De Courcy-Wheeler, Staff Captain to General Lowe, acting Commander of British troops in Ireland. Mallin and the men and women under his command were arrested and taken prisoner. They were escorted first to Ship Street Barracks at Dublin Castle then on to Richmond Barracks, at Inchicore where Mallin was separated for court-martial. Mallin was court-martialled on 5 May, found guilty of the charge of treason and he was executed by firing squad in the stonebreaker's yard at Kilmainham Gaol at sunrise on 8 May 1916. The summary trial by field general court-martial, an all-military court, was held in-camera. There was no jury in the court, and no independent observers or members of the public were permitted to attend. The trial was hardly impartial, and there was certainly a significant conflict of interest in the selection of the president of the court. The trial lasted less than 15 minutes. The court president was Brigadier Ernest Maconchy and the other members of the court-martial were, Lieutenant Colonel A.M. Bent, and Major F.W Woodward. The prosecuting officer was Ernest Longworth, a commissioned officer in the Training Corps at Trinity College, and a member of the Irish Bar. Mallin had no legal representation during the proceedings. The principal witness for the prosecution was Captain De Courcy-Wheeler. His eye-witness account of the surrender is presented in his evidence to the court-martial, and his first-hand account of the surrender and court-martial was presented in his memoir. He stated to the court-martial that "the prisoner [Mallin] came forward…. saluted and said he wished to surrender ….and stated he was the Commandant of the garrison". Mallin didn't challenge Captain De Courcy-Wheeler's statements. According to Wheeler, when Mallin was asked if he wished to question him, Mallin replied…No. Furthermore, according to Capt. De Courcy-Wheeler, when Mallin was given leave to speak he used the opportunity to thank Capt. Wheeler for his courtesy during the surrender…. "[Mallin] I wish it placed on record how grateful my comrades and myself are for the kindness and consideration which Captain Wheeler has shown to us during this time". The court president acknowledged the request and agreed that Mallin's expression of gratitude would be recorded in the court record. However, despite the promise made by the court president, Brigadier Maconchy, none of this was recorded in the court-martial record. Mallin knew he was a condemned man [1] [2] and that nothing he could say to the court martial would alter that fact. It is a fallacy to suggest that Commandant Mallin denied his command and responsibility for his garrison. The words in this court-martial record [3] are the uncorroborated hand-written words of one man, the president of the court-martial and his words by his own admission "they are, in many cases, my own words". [8]. Captain De Courcy-Wheeler's first-hand account of the court-martial identifies and confirms these significant and important omissions from the court-martial record. The motives behind what would seem to be deliberate omissions from the trial record, and the statements ascribed to Mallin, would indicate that there were some old scores to settle with Mallin; not least from Mallin's former career in the British Army; and this was an opportunity to settle that score. This court-martial record [4] in itself was a double edged sword designed to discredit Mallin and at the same time indict Countess Markievicz by providing evidence that would confirm her execution. General Maxwell, newly appointed Commander-in-Chief of British Army in Ireland, had already expressed his own motives for wanting to execute Markievicz. He considered her "bloody guilty and dangerous …a woman who forfeited the privileges of her sex …we can't allow our soldiers to be shot down by such like….Lord French agreed with Maxwell…personally I agree with you she ought to be shot". Maxwell needed a weight of evidence against Markievicz if he was to convince Prime Minister Asquith to accept his decision to confirm her death sentence. The court-martial of Mallin presented Maxwell with the opportunity to place Markievicz in a commanding role and thereby strengthen his hand to execute her as a "ringleader of the rebellion" those guilty of cold blooded murder….a phrase frequently repeated by the Prime Minister Asquith and General Maxwell. However, Asquith insisted that no woman should be executed. Consequently, the sentence of death on Countess Markievicz was commuted to penal servitude for life by a reluctant Maxwell. Execution and commemoration Mallin was executed by firing squad on 8 May 1916. The presiding officer at his court martial was Colonel EWSK Maconchy. The night before his execution he was visited in his cell by his mother, three of his siblings, his pregnant wife and their four children. In his last letter to his wife, who was pregnant with their fifth child, Mallin stated that "I find no fault with the soldiers or the police" and asked her "to pray for all the souls who fell in this fight, Irish and English." He commented "so must Irishmen pay for trying to make Ireland a free nation." He wrote to his children 'Una my little one be a Nun, Joseph my little man be a Priest if you can, James & John to you the care of your mother make yourselves good strong men for her sake and remember Ireland' Both Una and Joseph followed his wishes. His funeral mass took place at the Dominican Church in Tallaght on 13 May 1916. People from the procession clashed with police outside the church with two policemen injured. Dún Laoghaire Mallin DART station is named after Mallin. Family Mallin married Agnes Hickey (born in 1870), whom he had met during his early home service in the Army, in 1903. They had three sons and two daughters, the youngest born 4 months after Mallin's execution. His youngest son, Fr. Joseph Mallin SJ, born on 13 September 1913, was a Jesuit priest and teacher in Hong Kong. Despite having no memory of the visit to his father when he was 3 years old, he fulfilled one of Michael Mallin's last requests as written in his pre-execution letter to his family by joining the priesthood. He was the last surviving child of those executed in the Rising until his death in Hong Kong on 1 April 2018 at the age of 104. References Hughes, Brian, Michael Mallin, Dublin: O'Brien Press, 2012. External links http://www.opw.ie/en/pressreleases/articleheading,38032,en.html http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/son-103-seeks-to-vindicate http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/a-fate-worse-than-death-an-irishman-s-diary-about-the-court-martial-of-michael-mallin-1.3144489 http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/1916-courts-martial-and-executions-sound-reasons-to-be-wary-of-official-records-1.2631094 https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/son-103-seeks-to-vindicate-father-executed-in-easter-rising-1.3124576?mode=amp 1874 births 1916 deaths Executed participants in the Easter Rising Irish Citizen Army members Irish socialists Irish revolutionaries Irish soldiers in the British Army Trade unionists from County Dublin People from The Liberties, Dublin

581256

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es%27kia%20Mphahlele

Es'kia Mphahlele

Es'kia Mphahlele (17 December 1919 – 27 October 2008) was a South African writer, educationist, artist and activist celebrated as the Father of African Humanism and one of the founding figures of modern African literature. He was given the name Ezekiel Mphahlele at birth but changed his name to Es'kia in 1977. His journey from a childhood in the slums of Pretoria to a literary icon was an odyssey both intellectually and politically. As a writer, he brought his own experiences in and outside South Africa to bear on his short stories, fiction, autobiography and history, developing the concept of African humanism. He skilfully evoked the black experience under apartheid in Down Second Avenue (1959). It recounted his struggle to get an education and the setbacks he experienced in his teaching career. Mphahlele wrote two autobiographies, more than 30 short stories, two verse plays and a number of poems. He is deemed as the "Dean of African Letters". He was the recipient of numerous international awards. In 1984, he was awarded the Order of the Palm by the French government for his contribution to French Language and Culture. He was the recipient of the 1998 World Economic Forum Crystal Award for Outstanding Service to the Arts and Education. In 1998, former President Nelson Mandela awarded Mphahlele the Order of the Southern Cross, then the highest recognition granted by the South African Government (equivalent today to the Order of Mapungubwe). Biography Family life Es'kia Mphahlele was born in Pretoria, in the Union of South Africa, in 1919. From the age of five, he lived with his paternal grandmother in Maupaneng Village, in GaMphahlele (Now in Lepelle-Nkumpi Municipality) Limpopo Province, where he herded cattle and goats. His mother, Eva, took him and his two siblings to go live with her in Marabastad (2nd Avenue) when he was 12 years old. He married Rebecca Nnana Mochedibane, whose family was a victim of forced removals in Vrededorp, in 1945 (the same year his mother died). A qualified social worker with a diploma from Jan Hofmeyer School, in Johannesburg, she and Mphahlele would have five children. When he went into exile from South Africa, he left behind his entire extended family, except for his wife and children, going for years without seeing them. While in Nigeria, he once tried taking advantage of a British passport before Nigerian independence. He applied for a visa through the consulate in Nairobi, in order to visit his younger brother Bassie (Solomon) who was ill with throat cancer, but his application was turned down. Rebecca Nnana Mochedibane (Mphahlele) Rebecca was born in Sophiatown. She first qualified as a teacher before pursuing a social work diploma. She remembered meeting Zeke, and being very impressed by him: "The other young men were not readers and I could not relate to them. They could not relate to the outside world through literature." The couple met when Mphahlele was working at the Blind Institute, in Roodepoort. A group of teacher students had come to visit the institute where they read books to the elderly. Es'kia was impressed and requested to visit Rebecca in her hometown during the holidays. It was Rebecca's final year at the training college. The couple decided on 29 August 1945 as their wedding date. Mphahlele's mother had fallen sick, and died at the age of 45, just before the couple got married. " For her part, Rebecca, always busy with the kids, survived by her own ingenuity and native practical sense, by her outgoing temperament. She has always been able to bulldoze into a new community, let people know what her intentions are, openly tell them what she likes and what she doesn't, without being either rude or patronising" Es'kia Mphahlele. In Kenya, she worked as a social worker in the U.N. Freedom From Hunger Campaign, in charge of their educational programme. She read for her MA in Social Work at the University of Denver. As a student At the age of 15, Mphahlele began attending school regularly and enrolled at St Peters Secondary School, in Rosettenville (Johannesburg). He finished high school by private study. That became his learning method until his PhD qualification. He obtained a First Class Pass (Junior Certificate). He received his Joint Matriculation Board Certificate from the University of South Africa in 1943. While teaching at Orlando High School, Mphahlele obtained his B.A. in 1949 from the University of South Africa, majoring in English, Psychology and African Administration. In 1955, he received his Honours degree in English from the same institution. While working at Drum magazine, Mphahlele made history by becoming the first person to graduate M.A. with distinction at UNISA, in 1957. His thesis was entitled "The Non-European Character in South African English Fiction". From 1966 to 1968, under the sponsorship of the Farfield Foundation, Mphahlele became a Teaching Fellow in the Department of English at the University of Denver, Colorado, where he earned his PhD in Creative Writing. In lieu of a thesis, he wrote a novel entitled The Wanderers. He was subsequently awarded First Prize for the best African novel (1968–69) by African Arts magazine at the University of California, Los Angeles. As an educator Mphahlele obtained his Teacher's Certificate at Adams College in 1940. He served at Ezenzeleni Blind Institute as a teacher and a shorthand-typist from 1941 to 1945. He and his wife moved their family to Orlando East, near the historic Orlando High School, in Soweto as he joined the school in 1945 as an English and Afrikaans teacher. There, in the company of many freshly-minted from Fort Hare young teachers, he became active in the Transvaal African Teachers' Association (TATA). The 1949 Eislen Commission on Native Education, inspired by Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd, the recently elected National Party's Minister of Native Affairs, had recommended a radically new system of Education for Africans. TATA, together with other teachers' organisations in the Cape, the Free State and Natal, took up the cudgels to oppose it. For his participation in that agitation, in December 1952 Eskia Mphahlele, Isaac Matlare and Zephania Mothopeng were dismissed from their posts. His protest against the introduction of Bantu Education resulted in his teaching career being cut short. He was banned from teaching anywhere in South Africa by the apartheid government. He left South Africa and went into exile. His first stop was Nigeria, where he taught in a high school for 15 months, then at the University of Ibadan, in their extension programme. He also worked at the C.M.S. Grammar School, in Lagos. He worked in the Department of Extra-Mural Studies at the University of Ibadan, travelling to various outlying districts to teach adults. While based in Paris, he became a visiting lecturer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also lectured in Sweden, France, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Senegal and Nigeria. Mphahlele believed that alternative education can pave the way for a transformative and humane educational system for all. Life in exile Nigeria (1957–61) Mphahlele spent 20 years in exile. He spent four years in Nigeria with his family. He wrote: "It was a fruitful experience. The people of Nigeria were generous. The condition of being an outsider was not burdensome. I had time to write and engage in the arts." He was working with the best in Nigerian; playwright, poet and novelist Wole Soyinka; poets Gabriel Okara and Mabel Segun; novelist Amos Tutuola; sculptor Ben Enwonwu; and painters Demas Nwoko and Uche Okeke, and so on. His visits to Ghana became frequent as each trip added more literary giants to his list of networks and colleagues. The University of Ghana would invite him to conduct extramural writers' workshops. That is where he met Kofi Awoonor (then George Awoonor Williams), playwright Efua Sutherland, poet Frank Kobina Parkes, musicologist Professor Kwabena Nketia, historian Dr J. B. Danquah, poet G. Adali-Mortty and sculptor Vincent Kofi. Mphahlele attended the first All-African Peoples' Conference organised by Kwame Nkrumah in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958. "Ghana was the only African country that had been freed from the European colonialism that had swept over the continent in the 19th century. Most of the countries represented at Accra were still colonies." Mphahlele recalls meeting with the late Patrick Duncan and Jordan Ngubane, who were representing the South African liberal view. It was at this conference that Mphahlele met Kenneth Kaunda, and listened to Frantz Fanon deliver a fiery speech against colonialism. Rebecca, his wife, returned to South Africa towards the end of 1959, to give birth to their last born, Chabi. They returned in February 1960. They were in Nigeria when they heard about the Sharpeville Massacre. Mphahlele said: "Yes, Nigeria and Ghana gave Afrika back to me. We had just celebrated Ghana’s independence, and were three years ways from Nigeria’s." France (1961–63) Mphahlele moved his family to France in August 1961, their second major move. He was appointed as the Director of the African Program of The Congress for Cultural Freedom and went to Paris. They lived on Boulevard du Montparnasse, just off St. Michel, a few blocks from the Le Select and La Coupole restaurants. Their apartment was soon to become a kind of crossroads for writers and artists: Ethiopian artist Skunder Boghossian; Wole Soyinka; Gambian poet Lenrie Peters; South African poet in exile Mazisi Kunene; Ghanaian poet and his beloved friend J. P. Clark; and Gerard Sekoto. It was during his stay in France when Mphahlele was invited by Ulli Beier and other Nigerian writers to help form the Mbari Writers and Artists Club in Ibadan. They raised money from Merrill Foundation in New York to finance Mbari Publications, a venture the club had undertaken. Work by Wole Soyinka, Lenrie Peters and others was first published by Mbari Publishers before finding its way to commercial houses. He edited and contributed to Black Orpheus, the Ibadan-based literary journal. He toured and worked in major African cities including Kampala, Brazzaville, Yaoundé, Accra, Abidjan, Freetown and Dakar. He also attended seminars connected with work in Sweden, Denmark, Finland, West Germany, Italy, and the US. Mphahlele went on to set up a Mbari Centre in Enugu, Nigeria, under the directorship of John Enekwe. In 1962, at Makerere University, in Kampala, Uganda, they organised the first African Writers Conference, attended also by fellow South Africans Bob Leshoai, who was on tour, and Neville Rubin, who was editing a journal of political comment in South Africa. Two conferences, one in Dakar and another in Freetown were organised in 1963. Their aim was to throw into open debate the place of African literature in the university curriculum. They wanted to drum support up for the inclusion of African literature as a substantive area of study at university, where traditionally it was being pushed into extramural departments and institutes of African Studies. Mphahlele had only planned to stay in Paris for two years, after which he would return to teaching. Those experiences had made him yearn for the classroom again. Kenya (1963–66) John Hunt, the executive director of the Congress for Cultural Freedom suggested that Mphahlele establish a centre like the Nigerian Mbari in Nairobi. Mphahlele arrived in Nairobi in August 1963, and December had been set for Kenya's independence. By the time Rebecca and the children arrived, he had already bought a house. Prior to that, he had been housed by Elimo Njau, a Tanzanian painter. Njau suggested a name everyone liked - Chemchemi, Kiswahili for "fountain". Within a few months, they had converted a warehouse into offices, a small auditorium for experimental theatre and intimate music performances, and an art gallery. Njau ran the art gallery on a voluntary basis. He mounted successful exhibitions of Ugandan artists Kyeyune and Msango, and of his own work. "My soul was in the job. I was in charge of writing and theatre" (Mphahlele, Africa My Music). Their participants were from the townships and locations that were a colonial heritage. Mphahlele would travel to districts to outside districts to run writers' workshops in schools that invited him, accompanied by the centre's drama group. Their travelling was well captured in Busara, edited by Ngugi wa Thiong’o and Zuka, edited by Kariara. When the Alliance High School for Girls (just outside Nairobi) asked him to write a play for its annual drama festival, in the place of the routine Shakespeare Mphahlele adapted Grace Ogot's The Rain Came, a short story, and called it Oganda’s Journey. "The most enchanting element in the play was the use of traditional musical idioms from a variety of ethnic groups on Kenya. A most refreshing performance, which exploited the girl’s natural and untutored acting," he said. After serving for two years, he felt he done what he had come for, as he had indicated before taking the job that he would not stay for more than two years. He turned down a lecturing post at the University College of Nairobi. They could only offer him a one-year contract, which he could not take. Colorado, US (1966–74) In May 1966 Mphahlele moved his family to Colorado, where he was joining the University of Denver's English Department. Mphahlele was granted a tuition waiver by the university for the course work he had to do before he could be admitted for the PhD dissertation. He paid for the Afrikan Literature and Freshman Composition himself. Philadelphia (1974–77) The Mphahlele family arrived in Philadelphia in May 1974. Mphahlele was about to begin a lecturing career at the University of Pennsylvania in September of that year. They had bought a house in Wayne, some 24 kilometres from Philadelphia, on the Western Mainline. Mphahlele spent his time in Philadelphia teaching, writing and never stopped thinking about going back home to South Africa. He recalled how since their days in Denver, he and Rebecca had longed to be in Africa again, and it had to be South Africa. They felt anything else would just be an adventure. They longed for community, a cultural milieu in which their work could be relevant. They were considered to have become British nationals, and had to approach the South African government through a single person in authority, Dr. C. N. Phatudi, the then Chief Minister of Lebowa, who had agreed to make representations on their behalf. As their application was being processed, which took more than five years, his books were still being banned in South Africa. As a novelist and short-story writer It was during his primary school days when he started rooting everywhere for newsprint to read. He recalled always looking for any old scrap of paper to read. He further recalled a small one-room tin shack the then municipality called a "reading room", on the western edge of Marbastad. He remembered it being stacked with dilapidated books and journals, junked by some bored ladies in the suburbs. He dug out of the pile Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote, and went through the whole lot like a termite, elated by the sense of discovery, recognition of the printed word and by the mere practice of the skill of reading. Cervantes stood out in his mind, although his imagination was also fired by the silent movies of the 1930s. He enjoyed a combination of Cervantes' Don Quixote and Sancho Panza together with Laurel and Hardy and Buster Keaton. Mphahlele would read the subtitles aloud to his friends who could not read well, amid the yells and foot stamping and bouncing on chairs to the rhythm of the action. The 1959 publication of his autobiographical novel Down Second Avenue drew worldwide interest in Mphahlele as a writer, and focused a powerful spotlight on the internal dynamics of South Africa as it steadily drifted toward greater racial oppression and greater world isolation. Now a classic of African literature, Down Second Avenue had successful printings in English, French, German, Russian, Dutch and Japanese, reflecting the impact and international popularity of the book. Mphahlele's second novel, The Wanderers, a story chronicling the experience of exiles in Africa, earned him a nomination for the Nobel Prize in literature in 1969. While in Paris, he published The Living and the Dead, in 1961. Six years later, in East Africa, he published In Corner B. The contents of both collections of short stories are included in The Unbroken Song (1986), which also contains some of Mphahlele's poems. As part of his Master's thesis, in 1962 he published The African Image, which provides a historical perspective of South African literature. In 1967, he edited the anthology African Writing Today, which was published by Penguin. During his PhD, he produced The Wanderers, a novel of exile originally submitted as a dissertation for his PhD in creative writing. Down Second Avenue was doing so well such that it was translated into French and German in 1964. In December 1978, the Minister of Justice took Mphahlele's name off the list of writers who may be quoted, and whose works may not be circulated in the country. Only Down Second Avenue, Voices in the Whirlwind and Modern African Stories, which he had co-edited, could then be read in the country. Other publications remained banned. The first comprehensive collection of his critical writing was published under the title ES'KIA in 2002, the same year that the Es'kia Institute was founded. Mphahlele's life and work is currently found in the efforts of a non-governmental, non-profit organisation based in Johannesburg. Return to South Africa Mphahlele set foot on South African soil on 3 July 1976, at the Jan Smuts Airport (now O. R. Tambo International Airport). He had been invited by the Black Studies Institute in Johannesburg to read a paper at its inaugural conference. He recalled: "I was emerging on to the concourse when I was startled by a tremendous shout. And they were on top of me - some one hundred Africans, screaming and jostling to embrace me, kiss me. Relatives, friends and pressmen from my two home cities - Johannesburg and Pretoria. I was bounced hither and thither and would most probably not have noticed if an arm or legs were torn off of me, or my neck was being wrung. Such an overwhelming ecstasy of that reunion. The police had to come and disperse the crowd as it had now taken over the concourse." Mphahlele returned to Philadelphia on 27 July 1976, after three stimulating weeks in South Africa. He and Rebecca wrote letter after letter, yearning to return home. Mphahlele believed there were armed with what was necessary to contribute towards building South Africa. He was certain that the social work and education knowledge and experience through their qualifications could be rewarding if they were part of a cultural matrix, and promoted the extension of culture, the growth of the people. The Mphahleles officially returned to South Africa in 1977, on Rebecca's birthday (17 August). "When I came back, things were much worse. People were resisting what had become a more and more oppressive government. We came back at a dangerous time. It was a time when we knew we would not be alone, and that we would be among our people" (Mphahlele, 2002). Mphahlele waited for six months for the then University of the North to inform him whether he would get the post of English professor which was still vacant. The answer was "no". The government service of Lebowa offered him a job as an inspector of schools for English teaching. Rebecca had found a job as a social worker. In his autobiography Afrika My Music, he describes how the ten months of being an inspector were like. "I had the opportunity to of travelling the length and breadth of the territory visiting schools and demonstrating aspects of English teaching. I saw for myself the damage of Bantu Education had wrought in our schooling system over the last twenty-five years. Some teachers could not even express themselves fluently or correctly in front of a class, and others spelled words wrongly on the blackboard". In 1979, he joined the University of the Witwatersrand as a senior research fellow at the African Studies Institute. He founded the Council for Black Education and Research, an independent project for alternative education involving young adults. He founded the department of African literature at Wits University in 1983, a significant event in the evolution of literature teaching in South Africa at the time. He became the institution's first black professor. He was permitted to honour an invitation from the then Institute for Study of English in Africa at Rhodes University. It was a two-month research fellowship where his proposal of finishing his memoir Afrika My Music'', which he had begun in Philadelphia, was accepted. After his retirement from Wits University in 1987, Mphahlele was appointed as the executive chairman of the board of directors at Funda Centre for Community Education. He continued visiting other universities as a visiting professor teaching mostly African Literature. He spent two months at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education teaching a module on secondary-school education in South Africa. With the end of apartheid, he emerged as an eloquent proponent of the need to nurture the arts to feed a culture traumatized by colonization and oppression. The Es'kia Institute is named after him, honouring his life, teachings and philosophies. His return home and contribution towards the development of the country and continent's literary development is still being celebrated in many forms, with some towns choosing to name significant streets after him. Bibliography Publications Selected papers References 1919 births 2008 deaths People from Pretoria Northern Sotho people South African writers South African autobiographers South African schoolteachers South African expatriates in Nigeria South African expatriates in France South African expatriates in the United States South African expatriates in Kenya University of South Africa alumni University of Denver alumni University of Ibadan faculty Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty University of the Witwatersrand academics

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Force%20Crater

Joseph Force Crater

Joseph Force Crater (January 5, 1889 – disappeared August 6, 1930; declared legally dead June 6, 1939) was a New York State Supreme Court Justice who went missing amid a political scandal. He was last seen leaving a restaurant on West 45th Street in Manhattan and entered popular culture as one of the most mysterious missing persons cases of the 20th century. Despite massive publicity, the case was never solved and was officially closed forty years after he disappeared. Crater's disappearance fueled public disquiet about New York City corruption and was a factor in the downfall of the Tammany Hall political machine. Early life and legal career Joseph Crater was born in Easton, Pennsylvania, the eldest of four children of Frank Ellsworth Crater and the former Leila Virginia Montague. Crater was educated at Lafayette College (class of 1910) and Columbia University. He was a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. During his time at Columbia, Crater met Stella Wheeler, who was at the time married, and he helped her get a divorce. The pair married shortly thereafter in spring 1917. Crater's official title was Justice of the New York Supreme Court for New York County, which is a trial court despite the designation "supreme" (New York State's highest court is the Court of Appeals). He issued two published opinions: Rotkowitz v. Sohn, involving fraudulent conveyances and mortgage foreclosure fraud; and Henderson v. Park Central Motors Service, dealing with a garage company's liability for an expensive car stolen and wrecked by an ex-convict. Disappearance In the summer of 1930, after the start of the first investigations of what would become the Seabury Commission, Crater and his wife Stella Mance Wheeler were vacationing at their summer cabin in Belgrade, Maine. In late July, Crater received a telephone call. He offered no information to his wife about the content of the call other than to say that he had to return to New York "to straighten those fellows out". The next day, he arrived at his 40 Fifth Avenue apartment, but instead of dealing with business, he proceeded onward to Atlantic City, New Jersey, with his mistress, showgirl Sally Lou Ritzi (who used the stage name Ritz). Crater returned to Maine on August 1 and traveled back to New York on August 3. Before making this final trip, he promised his wife that he would return by her birthday on August 9. Crater's wife stated that he was in good spirits and behaving normally when he departed for the city. On the morning of Wednesday, August 6, Crater spent two hours going through his files in his chambers, reportedly destroying several documents. He then had his law clerk Joseph Mara cash two checks for him that amounted to US$5,150 (equivalent to about $ in dollars). At noon, he and Mara carried two locked briefcases to his apartment and he let Mara take the rest of the day off. Later that evening, Crater went to a Broadway ticket agency, Supreme Tickets, and bought one seat from William Deutsch, the proprietor of Supreme, for a comedy called Dancing Partner at the Belasco Theatre. He then went to Billy Haas's Chophouse at 332 West 45th Street, where he ate dinner with Ritzi and William Klein, a lawyer friend. Klein later told investigators that Crater was in a good mood that evening and gave no indication that anything was bothering him. Last known sighting Crater's dinner companions gave differing accounts of his departure from the restaurant. Klein initially testified that "the judge got into a taxicab outside the restaurant about 9:30 p.m. and drove west on Forty-fifth Street." This account was initially confirmed by Ritzi: "At the sidewalk Judge Crater took a taxicab." Klein and Ritzi later changed their story and said that they had entered a taxi outside the restaurant, but that Crater had walked down the street. Delayed responses to disappearance Crater's disappearance did not elicit any immediate reaction. When he did not return to Maine after ten days, his wife began making calls to their friends in New York, asking whether anyone had seen him. Only when Crater failed to appear for the opening of the courts on August 25 did his fellow justices become alarmed. They started a private search but failed to find any trace of him. The police were finally notified on September 3, and after that the missing judge was front-page news. Investigation Once an official investigation was launched, the case received widespread publicity. Detectives discovered that the judge's safe deposit box had been emptied and the two briefcases that Crater and Mara had taken to his apartment were missing. These promising leads were quickly lost amid the thousands of false reports from people claiming to have seen the missing man. Sally Lou Ritzi, June Brice, and Vivian Gordon Crater enjoyed the city's nightlife and had been involved with several women. In the aftermath of the case, two of the women he had been involved with left town abruptly and a third was murdered. Ritzi, the showgirl who had dined with him the evening that he vanished, left New York in August or September 1930. She was found in late September 1930, living in Youngstown, Ohio, with her parents. Ritzi said that she had left New York suddenly because she had received word that her father was ill. Ritzi was still being subjected to interviews by police investigating the Crater case in 1937, by which time she was living in Beverly Hills, California. Showgirl June Brice had been seen talking to Crater the day before he disappeared. A lawyer acting for Crater's wife believed that Brice had been at the center of a scheme to blackmail Crater (thus explaining why Crater had taken cash out of the bank) and that a gangster boyfriend of Brice had killed the judge. Brice disappeared the day that a grand jury was to convene on the case. In 1948, she was discovered in a mental hospital. Vivian Gordon, a third woman, was involved in high-end prostitution and linked to madam Polly Adler. Gordon had liaisons with a large number of influential businesspeople, and was the owner, on paper at least, of a number of properties believed to be fronts for illegal activity. She was also seen around town with gangster Jack "Legs" Diamond, with whom Crater was rumored to socialize. Crater had known Diamond's former boss, organized crime figure Arnold Rothstein, and had been extremely upset at Rothstein's murder. On February 20, 1931, Gordon was angry about a conviction that had resulted in her losing custody of her 16-year-old daughter. She met the head of an official inquiry into city government corruption (launched in the wake of Crater's disappearance) and offered to testify about police graft. She was murdered five days later. The publicity surrounding Gordon's killing led to the resignation of a policeman whom she had accused of framing her, and the suicide of her daughter. Tammany Hall's hold on the city was largely eliminated in the ensuing scandal, as it was already weakened by Rothstein and the conflict over his former empire. This also led to the resignation of Mayor Jimmy Walker. Open verdict In October, a grand jury began examining the Crater case, calling 95 witnesses and amassing 975 pages of testimony. Mrs. Crater refused to appear. The conclusion was that "the evidence is insufficient to warrant any expression of opinion as to whether Crater is alive or dead, or as to whether he has absented himself voluntarily, or is the sufferer from disease in the nature of amnesia, or is the victim of crime". At the time, some theorized that Crater had left town with another woman or fled to avoid revelations of corruption, but the case's extensive publicity would have made it virtually impossible for him to begin a new life somewhere else. On January 20, 1931, six months after his disappearance, Crater's wife found envelopes containing checks, stocks, bonds, and a note from the judge in a dresser drawer which had been empty when searched earlier by police. The discovery led to new but ultimately inconclusive leads, and no further trace of Crater was ever found. The case was officially closed in 1979. Mrs. Crater Crater met Stella Mance Wheeler in 1917 when he served as her divorce lawyer, and they married seven days after her divorce was finalized. Mrs. Crater remained at their vacation home in Maine during the search for her husband, until her discovery of the hidden envelopes. Without Crater's income, Mrs. Crater was unable to maintain the couple's Fifth Avenue apartment and was evicted. She petitioned to have the judge declared officially dead in July 1937; she was reportedly living on the $12 per week (approximately $ in 2013 funds) that she earned as a telephone operator in Maine. Mrs. Crater married Carl Kunz, a New York electrical contractor, in Elkton, Maryland, on April 23, 1938. Kunz's first wife had hanged herself only eight days before the wedding. Crater was finally declared legally dead in 1939 thanks to Mrs. Crater's lawyer, noted New York attorney Emil K. Ellis. She received $20,561 in life insurance (approximately $ in 2013 dollars). Mrs. Crater separated from Kunz in 1950 and died in 1969 at age 70. Mrs. Crater expressed her belief that her husband had been murdered in her own account of the case, The Empty Robe, which was written with freelance writer and journalist Oscar Fraley and published by Doubleday in 1961. Recent information On August 19, 2005, authorities revealed that, after her death at age 91, they had received notes that had been written by Queens resident Stella Ferrucci-Good, in which she claimed that her husband, NYPD detective Robert Good, had learned that Crater was killed by Charles Burns an NYPD officer who also worked as a bodyguard of Murder, Inc. enforcer Abe Reles and Burns' brother, Frank. According to the letter, Crater was buried near West Eighth Street in Coney Island, Brooklyn, at the current site of the New York Aquarium. Police reported that no records had been found to indicate that skeletal remains had been discovered at that site when it was excavated in the 1950s. Richard J. Tofel, the author of Vanishing Point: The Disappearance of Judge Crater and the New York He Left Behind, expressed skepticism of Ferrucci-Good's account. Popular culture The phrase "to pull a Judge Crater", or simply "to pull a Crater", means to disappear. It is no longer widely used. For many years following Crater's disappearance, "Judge Crater, call your office" was a standard gag of nightclub comedians. Crater has been referenced in several TV shows: In the M*A*S*H episode "Bless You, Hawkeye," Colonel Potter says the keys to the lab have been "pulling a Judge Crater." In the Green Acres episode "Not Guilty," Mr. Haney, speaking to his bloodhound, says "Come on, Clarence. Let's see if we can pick up on Judge Crater's trail again." Eb responds, "Who's Judge, uh-" followed by Oliver's, "Never mind." Crater is portrayed on the television series Night Gallery in the season 3 episode "Rare Objects", being among several other presumed dead people in a living zoo-like collection. In the Dick Van Dyke Show episode "Very Old Shoes, Very Old Rice," the judge performing Rob and Laura Petrie's wedding ceremony is named Judge Krata. Rob misunderstands him to say he was Judge Crater and questions the judge, who makes a joke about the similarities of their names. In the Golden Girls episode "Job Hunting," when Rose asks the girls to guess what she finds in the refrigerator, Dorothy answers, "Judge Crater." In the Designing Women episode "Getting Married and Eating Dirt," Julia Sugarbaker jokes that Elvis Presley "is probably on a houseboat in Brazil with Judge Crater and Laika the Russian space dog." In the Archer episode "Skytanic," ISIS head Malory Archer complains about the missing bartender, "Guy sees an empty glass and all of a sudden he's Judge Crater." In Season 5, Episode 5 of CSI: NY, ""The Cost of Living", a fictional archeologist, the victim in the episode, is purported to be searching for Judge Crater's remains, near where President Roosevelt stayed when in NYC, based on finding Judge Crater's watch. Stephen King's story "The Reaper's Image" blames Judge Crater's disappearance on a cursed mirror. As a publicity stunt for their 1933 film Bureau of Missing Persons, First National Pictures promised in advertisements to pay Crater $10,000 () if he claimed it in person at the box office. Crater's last letter, possibly written on the day of his disappearance, was sold at auction on June 22, 1981, for $700. The letter was marked "confidential" and began: "The following money is due me from the persons named. Get in touch with them for they will surely pay their debts." It was incorrectly reported that this letter was Crater's will. See also List of people who disappeared References Further reading External links Judge Crater Disappearance Possibly Solved; Aug. 19, 2005; Fox News Judge Crater, is that you?; Aug. 19, 2005; MSNBC (includes video) JUDGE CRATER FOUND? Dead gal's secret letter may solve 1930 mystery; Aug. 19, 2005; New York Post 1889 births 1930 deaths Columbia University alumni New York (state) lawyers New York Supreme Court Justices Lafayette College alumni Missing person cases in New York City People declared dead in absentia Politicians from Easton, Pennsylvania New York (state) Democrats 1930s missing person cases 20th-century American judges 20th-century American lawyers